Lecture 2

1.1. Environmental Principles

An appreciation of the importance of the

environment provides conceptual awareness of ecological
principles. Natural laws and prevailing principles operate
within the ecosystem. The different underlying
Environmental Principles are as follows:
1. Interdependence and Interconnectedness.
Living things are interdependent with one another
and with their environment. Humans and other
organisms co-exist in a state of precarious
interdependence. Humans depend on the earth
and its ecosystems for a wide array of goods and
services that that are essential to their day-to-day
living. Everything on earth is connected to
everything else. People and nature are intimately
integrated.

2. Diversity and Stability. All life forms are

important and ecosystems are essential. Diversity
increases the resilience and stability of systems.
When changes occur in the biotic and abiotic
conditions of an ecosystem, species diversity is
affected. Tampering with biotic and abiotic factors
reduce species diversity which makes them more
vulnerable to natural forces.

3. Change. Everything changes. Some changes

improve the quality of the environment, others
degrade it. Development is a process that seeks
to promote conditions essential for an enduring
human presence. It promotes changes in our
lives, however, changes that reduce
 environmental quality have to be controlled or
avoided.

4. Balance of Nature. Nature knows best. It has its

own laws and processes to maintain it.
Ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and
self-regulation through homeostatic mechanism
that either resist change or help them recover
from change. This helps to keep natural systems
in a state of relative constancy. The presence of
predators, for example, and disease-causing
organisms such as bacteria and parasites, help
maintain the population of some organisms within
the carrying capacity of the environment.

5. Fitness of Resources. Most resources are

nonrenewable so they have to be used prudently
and wisely. Renewable resources such as soil
and forest are capable of regeneration; however,
nonrenewable resources such as iron ores
cannot be replenished. Deposits of oil and
minerals have limits.

6. Minerals Cycle. Matter changes from one to

another. Materials in the environment are
recycled over and over in order for life to be
sustained. The cycles alternate between
organisms and the environment. When there is so
much of anything in one place, the usefulness of
that place is reduced. Humans can disrupt
nutrient cycles in many ways with profound
impacts on ecosystem.

7. Population Growth and Carrying Capacity. An

ecosystem can support only a given number of
 individuals at a given time. When the carrying
capacity level is exceeded, an imbalance in the
system occurs. Carrying capacity is determined
by two elements, resource supplies and the
capacity of the environment to absorb, assimilate,
and/or detoxify waste. Although there are limits to
resources and the waste assimilation capacity of
the earth, we can live and prosper. To do so,
rapid population growth must be addressed that
systems must operate within limits.

8. Stewardship. Humans are part of nature. They

are not masters but stewards of the earth and its
resources. Nature has its own value regardless of
its value to humans. Human’s actions should not
endanger other species which can also have an
inherent right to the resources. They need to
survive. Environmental protection and sustainable
development require cooperation of all
participants such as government, business, and
individuals. Humans should be the custodian of
the entire planet.

9. Sustainable Development. Economic

development may be pursued but not at the
expense of a degraded environment. Sustainable
development requires strategies that satisfy
social, economic, and environmental goals
simultaneously. Living sustainably in the
environment requires species to thrive within the
limits of the resource and sink function.

10. Intergenerational Equity.

The needs of the present generation should be
met without compromising the ability of future
 generations to meet their own needs. This implies
fairness to future generation. This doctrine calls
on all the people to give way that does not rob
future generations of the opportunity to prosper.
Resources must be conserved and preserved for
this generation and the next generation.

1.2. Ecology and the Ecosystem

The concept of the ecosystem, the biosphere, and

biotic community will be used as frame references. An
ecosystem is a complex web linking land, air, water, animals,
plants, and every other form of life in the biosphere, which
consist of different laws which as follows;

1. Everything Is Connected To Everything Else.

There is one ecosphere for all living organisms and what affects
one, affects all. Humans and other species are connected/
dependent on other species. With this in mind it becomes hard to
practice anything other than compassion and harmlessness.

2. Everything Must Go Somewhere.

There is no “waste” in nature, and there is no “away” to which
things can be thrown. Everything, such as wood smoke, nuclear
waste, carbon emissions, etc., must go somewhere.

3 .Nature Knows Best.

Humankind has fashioned technology to improve upon nature, but
such change in a natural system is, says Commoner, “likely to be
detrimental to that system.” The Creation, one can argue, has an
intelligence, and to tinker with that “UN intellectually” we get
global warming pollution, etc.

4. There Is No Such Thing As A Free Lunch.

 Exploitation of nature will inevitably involve the conversion of
resources from useful to useless forms. In nature, both sides of
the equation must balance, for every gain there is a cost, and all
debts are eventually paid.

1.2.1. Components of the

Ecosystem

Ecosystems consist of life forms existing in a symbiotic

relationship with their environment. Life forms in ecosystems
compete with one another to become the most successful at
reproducing and surviving in a given niche, or environment. Two
main components exist in an ecosystem: abiotic and biotic

Abiotic components of an ecosystem consist of the

nonorganic aspects of the environment that determine what life
forms can thrive. Examples of abiotic components are
temperature, average humidity, topography and natural
disturbances. Temperature varies by latitude; locations near the
equator are warmer than are locations near the poles or the
temperate zones. Humidity influences the amount of water and
moisture in the air and soil, which, in turn, affect rainfall.
Topography is the layout of the land in terms of elevation. For
example, according to the University of Wisconsin, land located in
the rain shadow of a mountain will receive less precipitation.
Natural disturbances include tsunamis, lightning storms,
hurricanes and forest fires.

Biotic Components. The biotic components of an

ecosystem are the life forms that inhabit it. The life forms of an
ecosystem aid in the transfer and cycle of energy. They are
grouped in terms of the means they use to get energy. Producers
such as plants produce their own energy without consuming other
life forms; plants gain their energy from conducting
photosynthesis via sunlight. Consumers exist on the next level of
the food chain. There are three main types of consumers:
herbivores, carnivores and omnivores. Herbivores feed on plants,
carnivores get their food by eating other carnivores or herbivores,
and omnivores can digest both plant and animal tissue.

1.3. Feeding Relationship

The ultimate source of energy for most living

organisms is the sun. Green plants are able to trap energy from
the sun and use it to convert carbon dioxide and water into food
energy in the form of sugar in a process known as
photosynthesis.
A. Food Chain

B. Food Web
 Where two animals are feeding on the same food
source competition may occur. Competition occurs between
animals and also plants when any resource is limited.
The different feeding levels at each stage of the food chain are
known as trophic levels
Green plants or producers form trophic level 1
Primary consumers form trophic level 2
Secondary consumers form trophic level 3
The tertiary consumer forms trophic level 4

At each trophic level energy is used up and waste

material produced, so there is less energy available for transfer at
each stage and a food pyramid is formed
 Energy Flow and Pyramid of Energy and Biomass

Energy is used up and lost as heat as it moves through

ecosystems, and new energy is continually added to the earth in
the form of solar radiation.

The most fundamental law governing the earth’s finite

resources states that matter can neither be created nor
destroyed; however, it can be transformed. In converting matter
from one form to another, energy is needed.
Energy Flow and Pyramid of Energy and Biomass
 Energy Flow and Pyramid of Energy and Biomass

1.4. Biochemical Cycles

Cycle is a series of change which comes back to the

starting point and which can be repeated. Cycle is a repeated
activity in the processes that an organism is doing in the
environment or the ecosystem.
The concepts of food chain, food web, and food
pyramid are important to consider in monitoring effects of
activities in ecosystems. Any activity not naturally or originally part
of the ecosystem would certainly cause disruptions in the
interactions and interrelationships in food and energy
relationships.
Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen is one of the primary nutrients critical for the
survival of all living organisms. Although nitrogen is very abundant
in the atmosphere, it is largely inaccessible in this form to most
organisms. This article explores how nitrogen becomes available
to organisms and what changes in nitrogen levels as a result of
human activity means to local and global ecosystems.

FLOW OF NITROGEN THROUGH THE ENVIRONMENT

 The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is
converted between its various chemical forms. This
transformation can be deadly carried out through both biological
and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle
include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.
The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen, [1] making
it the largest pool of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has
limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of
usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle
is of particular interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability
can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes, including primary
production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil
fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of
nitrogen in wastewater have dramatically altered.
NITROGEN CYCLE
 Oxygen, like carbon and hydrogen, is a basic element
of life. In addition, in the form of O3, ozone, it provides protection
of life by filtering out the sun's UV rays as they enter the
stratosphere. In addition to constituting about 20% of the
atmosphere, oxygen is ubiquitous. It also occurs in combination
as oxides in the Earth's crust and mantle, and as water in the
oceans.

PHOSPORUS CYCLE

Phosphorus moves in a cycle through rocks, water, soil and sediments and
organisms.

Here are the key steps of the phosphorus cycle:

1. Over time, rain and weathering cause rocks to release phosphate ions and other
minerals. This inorganic phosphate is then distributed in soils and water.
2. Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil. The plants may then be consumed
by animals. Once in the plant or animal, the phosphate is incorporated into organic
molecules such as DNA. When the plant or animal dies, it decays, and the organic
phosphate is returned to the soil.

3. Within the soil, organic forms of phosphate can be made available to plants by
bacteria that break down organic matter to inorganic forms of phosphorus. This
process is known as mineralization.

4. Phosphorus in soil can end up in waterways and eventually oceans. Once there, it
can be incorporated into sediments over time.

5. How Humans do affects the phosphorus cycle?

CARBON CYCLE
 The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged
between the biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth

WATER CYCLE
 The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the H2O cycle,
describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the
Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning
of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric
water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water
moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to
the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different
phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor).
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes.
For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and
cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the
environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with
freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is
also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes
including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the
maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
SULFUR CYCLE

The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves to and
from minerals (including the waterways) and living systems. Such biogeochemical
cycles are important in geology because they affect many minerals. Biogeochemical
cycles are also important for life because sulfur is an essential element, being a
constituent of many proteins and cofactors.

Steps of the sulfur cycle are:

 1. Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
2. Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate
(SO42−).
3. Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
4. Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing
derivatives).

ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes the dynamic
transitions through geologic time among the three main rock types: sedimentary,
metamorphic, and igneous. As the diagram to the right illustrates, each of the types of
rocks is altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. An
igneous rock such as basalt may break down and dissolve when exposed to the
atmosphere, or melt as it is sub ducted under a continent. Due to the driving forces of
the rock cycle, plate tectonics and the water cycle, rocks do not remain in equilibrium
and are forced to change as they encounter new environments. The rock cycle is an
illustration that explains how the three rock types is related to each other, and how
processes change from one type to another over time.