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I. DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Various design factors to be considered in the horizontal alignment are design speed, radius of circular curves,
type and length of transition curves, superelevation and widening of pavement on curves.
The alignment should enable consistent, safe and smooth movement of vehicles operating at design speeds. It is
hence necessary to avoid those sharp curves and reverse curves which could not be conveniently negotiated by the
vehicles at design speed. Improper design of horizontal alignment of roads would necessitate speed changes resulting in
increased vehicle operation cost and higher accident rate.
A. DESIGN SPEED
The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends. The design speed of roads depends
upon (i) class of the road and (ii) terrain. The terrain has been classified as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep depending
on the cross slope of the country as given below:
TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION CROSS SLOPE OF THE COUNTRY, PERCENT
PLAIN 0-10
ROLLING 10-25
MOUNTAINOUS 25-60
STEEP Greater than 60
The recommended design speeds for different classes of urban roads are:
(i) For arterial roads 80kph ; (ii) Sub-arterial roads 60kph ; (iii) Collector streets 50 kph and ; (iv) Local streets 30kph
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B. HORIZONTAL CURVES
A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to central line of a road. When a
vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards through the center of
the vehicle.
𝑊𝑣 2
𝑃=
𝑔𝑅

Where: 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑘𝑔

𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑘𝑔
𝑅 − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝑚
𝑉 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑚/𝑠
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑚/𝑠 2

The ratio of the centrifugal force to the weight of the vehicle, P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the
impact factor. The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects:
(i) Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels and
(ii) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally outwards. ©ECL 0123590
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C. SUPERELEVATION
Superelevation may be defined as the one-sided transverse slope obtained by raising the outer edge of the
pavement with respect to the inner edge throughout the length of the curve to counteract the effects of centrifugal
force like overturning and skidding. It is usually denoted either in fraction or in percentage. It is expressed as the
ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width.

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Analysis of Superelevation
For equilibrium condition,
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐵

𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

𝑾𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝑷

𝑭𝑩
INNER SIDE 𝑭𝑨
E
𝜽
OF CURVE

𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑾
B
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In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer
edgeof the pavement is raised with rwespect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse inclination to the pavement surface is
known a ssuperelevation “e” is expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width.
𝑁𝐿
𝑒= = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑀𝐿
In practice the inclination 𝜃 with the horizontal is very small and the value of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 seldom exceeds 0.07. Therefore the value of
𝐸
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 is practically equal to 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Hence, 𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = which is measured as the ratio of the relative elevation of the
𝐵
outer edge, E to width of pavement B.
𝑬 = 𝑩𝒆

The value of friction of lateral friction, “𝑓” is taken as 0.15 for design purposes. The value of tan𝜃 or transverse slope
due to superelevation seldom exceeds 0.07 𝑜𝑟 1/15. Hence the value of tan𝜃 is about 0.01. Thus the value of (1 −
𝑓 tan𝜃) in the above equation is equal to 0.99 and maybe approximated to 1.0
𝑃 𝑃 𝑣2 𝑣2
Therefore, =𝑒+𝑓 But = Therefore, 𝑒 + 𝑓 =
𝑊 𝑊 𝑔𝑅 𝑔𝑅
Here 𝑒 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = tan𝜃
𝐹 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.15
𝑉 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑚/𝑠
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝑚
𝑔 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ©ECL 0123590
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EXAMPLE 01:
The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design is 50 kph and the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15
(a) Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop
(b) Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is needed
(c) Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and outer wheels should be equal.
SOLUTION:
(a) Superelevation required if full lateral friction (b) Coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is
is assumed to develop needed
𝑣2
𝑣2 𝑒 + 𝑓 = 𝑔𝑅 but 𝑒 = 0
𝑒 + 𝑓 = 𝑔𝑅
𝑣2
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑓=
50𝑘𝑝ℎ 𝑥 𝑥 = 14 𝑚/𝑠 𝑔𝑅
1𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 (14)2
𝑓=
𝑓 = 0.15 (9.81)(100)
𝑅 = 100𝑚 𝑓 = 0.20
(14)2 (c) equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and
𝑒 + 0.15 =
(9.81)(100) outer wheels should be equal
𝑓=0
𝑒 = 0.05
𝑣2 (14)2
𝑒= = = 0.20
𝑔𝑅 (9.81)(100) ©ECL 0123590
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Maximum superelevation:
In a highway, with mixed traffic, the value of superelevation so obtained from equations is to be limited to
avoid the danger of overturning. This maximum allowable limit of superelevation is called maximum superelevation.
It is equal to 7% for plain and rolling terrain while that of hilly terrain is 10% and the urban road is 4% according to
IRC.
Minimum superelevation:
If the value of superelevation obtained from the equations is equal or less than the usual camber value
provided to the road surface then it should be equal to the camber slope. This lower limit of superelevation equal to
the amount of camber is termed as minimum superelevation. It is (2-4) % for drainage purposes, especially for large
radius horizontal curve.

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Design of superelevation
Superelevation is designed for the particular vehicle called design vehicle which has some standard weight and
dimensions. But in the actual case, the road has mixed traffic conditions. Different vehicles require different values
of superelevation. For example Heavily loaded trucks require the small value of superelevation otherwise toppling
may occur, fast moving vehicles may be provided with high superelevation while slow moving ones require small
superelevation. The design procedure for superelevation is as follows:
Step 1 Find value of superelevation taking 75% of design speed neglecting f,
(0.75𝑣) 2
Hence, 𝑒 = 𝑔𝑅
Step 2 If value of 𝑒 is less than 0.07 then it is taken for design otherwise value of 𝑒 is taken as 0.07
Step 3 Find value of frictional coefficient (𝑓) with full design speed regarding maximum superelevation
𝑣2 𝑣2
Hence, 𝑓 = −𝑒 = − 0.07
𝑔𝑅 𝑔𝑅
Step 4 If value for 𝑓 is less than 0.15 then it is taken for design otherwise value for 𝑓 is taken as 0.15
Step 5 The allowable speed for maximum value of 𝑒 = 0.07 and 𝑓 = 0.15 is calculated
Hence, Allowable speed 𝑣𝑎 = 0.22𝑔𝑅
If the allowable velocity is greater than or equal to 𝑣 then the design is adequate otherwise other speed control
measures are adopted.
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Example 02:
A two lane road with design speed 80 𝑘𝑝ℎ has horizontal curve of radius 480 𝑚. Design the rate of superelevation for mixed
traffic. By how much should the outer edges of the pavement be raised with respect to the center line, if the pavement is rotated
with respect to the center line and the width of the pavement at the horizontal curve is 75 𝑚.
Solution:

1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑚
80 𝑘𝑝ℎ 𝑥 𝑥 = 22.22
1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑠

(0.75𝑣) 2 (0.75)(22.22) 2
𝑒 = = = 0.059
𝑔𝑅 (9.81)(480)

Since this value is less than 0.07, the superelevation of 0.059 may ba adopted.
The total width of pavement 𝐵 = 75 𝑚.
Raising of outer edge with respect to center
𝐵𝑒 7.5(0.059)
𝐸= = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝒎
2 2
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Example 03:
Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius 500 𝑚 and speed 100𝑘𝑝ℎ
Solution:
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑚
100 𝑘𝑝ℎ 𝑥 𝑥 = 27.78
1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑠
For mixed traffic conditions, superelevation is given by
2
(0.75)(27.78)
𝑒 = = 0.089
(9.81)(500)

As the value is greater than the maximum superelevation of 0.07, the actual superelevation provided is restricted to 0.07.
(27.78) 2
𝑓= − 0.07 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟕
(9.81)(500)
As the friction is less than 0.15, the design is safe with a superelevation of 0.07

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Example 04:
The design speed of a highway is 80 kph. There is a horizontal curve of radius 200m on a certain locality. Calculate the
superelevation needed to maintain this speed. If the maximum superelevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the
maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not possible to increase the radius. Safe limit of transverse coefficient
of friction is 0.15.
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑚
Solution: 80 𝑘𝑝ℎ 𝑥 𝑥 = 22.22
1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑠
2
(0.75)(22.22)
𝑒 = = 0.142
(9.81)(200)
Maximum allowable value of e is to
be limited to 0.07.
(22.22) 2
𝑓= − 0.07
(9.81)(200)
As this value is greater than the maximum allowable safe friction
𝑓 = 0.18 coefficient of 0.15 and also at as the radius can not be increased,
𝑣𝑎 = 0.22𝑔𝑅 = 0.22 9.81 200 the speed has to be restricted.
𝒎 Hence the maximum allowable speed Va on this curve is obtained
𝑣𝑎 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟕𝟖 = 74.81𝑘𝑝ℎ by assuming the full value of design friction coefficient on 0.15.
𝒔
Hence the speed may be restricted to 74 or 70 kph on this curve
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Seatwork

A major district road within bituminous pavement surface in low rainfall area has horizontal
curve of radius 1400 m.
if the design speed is 19 m/s, what should be the superelevation? Is the curve still safe with the
speed of 19 m/s? Discuss.

©ECL 0123590