Doc. Ref No.

:
KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 3: SIGHT DISTANCE Page No.: 1 of 6

3.1. STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

The features of the road ahead which affect the sight distance are the horizontal alignment and vertical profile of the road,
the traffic condition and the position of obstructions. For the purpose of measuring the stopping sight distance or visibility
ahead, IRC has suggested the height of eye level of driver as 1.2 m and the height of the object as 0.15 m above the road
surface.
The distance within which a motor vehicle can be stopped depends upon the factors listed:
1. Total reaction time of the driver – the time taken from the object is visible to the driver to the
instant the brakes are effectively applied.
2. Speed of the vehicle
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Frictional resistance between the road and the tires and
5. Gradient of the road, if any

Theoretical Discussion
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the sum of the distance traveled during a driver’s perception/reaction or brake reaction
time and the distance traveled while braking to a stop. To calculate SSD, the following formula is used:

𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑣2
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔𝑓
Where: 𝑣 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,
= 0.40 – 0.35 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 30 − 80 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 9.81 𝑚/𝑠2

When there is an ascending gradient of say +n% the component of gravity adds to the braking action hence the braking
distance is decreased.
𝑣2
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔(𝑓 ± 0.01𝑛)

The following discusses the theoretical rationale for each assumption within the SSD model.
1. Brake Reaction Time. This is the time interval between when an obstacle in the road can first be physically seen
and when the driver first applies the brakes. The assumed value is 2.5 𝑠. This time is considered adequate for 90% of
drivers in simple to moderately-complex highway environments.

2. Speed. The SSD tables provide a minimum value which is based on the design speed.

3. Grade Adjustment. AASHTO ’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets provides values to adjust
the SSD for each grade which, theoretically, affects braking distances. Due to the conservative SSD model and the
nature of the State’s terrain, the use of the grade adjustment is not required.

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 Doc. Ref No.:
KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 3: SIGHT DISTANCE Page No.: 2 of 6

4. AASHTO. AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets provides additional information on
the assumptions used to develop the SSD model.

EXAMPLE 1: Calculate the stopping sight distance for design speed of 50 kph for
(a) Two way traffic lane road
(b) Two way traffic on a single plane road
Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.37
Solution:
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑣 = 50 𝑘𝑝ℎ ∗ 𝑥 = 13.89 𝑚/𝑠
1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣2
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔𝑓
(13.89)2
𝑆𝐷 = (13.89)(2.5) + ( )
2(9.81)(0.37)
𝑆𝐷 = 61.30 𝑚
(a) Two way traffic lane road= 61.30 𝑚
(b) Two way traffic on a single plane road= 2(𝑆𝐷) = 2(61.30) = 122.60 𝑚

EXAMPLE 2: Calculate the minimum sight distance to avoid a head collision of two cars approaching from the
opposite directions at 90 and 60 kph. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 seconds, coefficient of friction of 0.7 and a brake
efficiency of 50%, in either case.
Solution:
𝑣2
𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔𝑓
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑣1 = 90 𝑘𝑝ℎ ∗ 𝑥 = 25 𝑚/𝑠
1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑣2 = 60 𝑘𝑝ℎ ∗ 𝑥 = 16.67 𝑚/𝑠
1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
As the brake efficiency is 50%, the wheels will skid through 50% of the braking distance and rotate throught he
remaining distance. Therefore, the value of coefficient of friction developed may be taken a s50% of the coefficient of
friction, i.e., f=0.5x0.7=0.35
Stopping distance for the first car 𝑆𝐷1
(25)2
𝑆𝐷1 = 25(2.5) + = 153.51 𝑚
2(9.81)(0.35)
Stopping distance for the second car 𝑆𝐷2
(16.67)2
𝑆𝐷2 = 16.67(2.5) + = 82.14𝑚
2(9.81)(0.35)
∴ 𝑺𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒗𝒐𝒊𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 − 𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒔
= Stopping distance for the first car 𝑆𝐷1
𝑆𝐷1 + 𝑆𝐷2 = 153.51 + 82.14 = 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟔𝟓 𝑚

©ECL0123590
 Doc. Ref No.:
KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 3: SIGHT DISTANCE Page No.: 3 of 6

Example 3: Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed of
80kph. Assume other data as per IRC recommendations.
The reaction time t may be taken as 2.5 seconds and design coefficient of friction is 0.35
1000 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑣 = 80𝑘𝑝ℎ ∗ 𝑥 = 22.22 𝑚/𝑠
1 𝑘𝑚 3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐
(22.22)2
𝑆𝐷 = (22.22)(2.5) +
2(9.81)(0.35 − 0.01(2))
𝑆𝐷 = 132 𝑚

3.2. DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE

Theoretical Discussion
A driver may be required to make a decision where the highway environment is difficult to perceive or where
unexpected maneuvers are required. This occurs in an area of concentrated demand where the roadway elements,
traffic volume, and traffic-control devices may all compete for the driver’s attention.

This relatively complex environment may increase the required driver reaction time beyond that provided by the
SSD value (2.5 𝑠). At such a location, the designer should consider providing decision sight distance to provide an
additional margin of safety.

Decision sight distance reaction time ranges from 3 𝑡𝑜 14.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 depending on the location and expected
maneuver. The avoidance maneuvers used to develop Figure 42-2A, Decision Sight Distance, Columns A through E,
are as follows:
1. Column A, Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road.
2. Column B, Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road.
3. Column C, Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road.
4. Column D, Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road.
5. Column E, Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road.

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐷𝑆𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑚

𝑉 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑘𝑚/ℎ
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑣𝑒𝑟 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 + 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒), 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

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 Doc. Ref No.:
KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 3: SIGHT DISTANCE Page No.: 4 of 6

Applications
The designer should consider using decision sight distance at a relatively complex location where the driver reaction
time may exceed 2.5 s. Example locations where decision sight distance may be appropriate include the following:

1. exit or entrance gore;

2. lane drop;
3. freeway left-side entrance or exit;
4. railroad/highway grade crossing;
5. approach to detour or lane closure;
6. toll plaza; or
7. Intersection location where unusual or unexpected maneuvers are required.

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 Doc. Ref No.:
KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 3: SIGHT DISTANCE Page No.: 5 of 6

3.3. PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE/ OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety
against the traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing
sight distance available.
The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the distance measured along the center of the road which a driver with his eye
level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface.
*SEE ATTACHED VIDEO FILE IN THE GOOGLE CLASSROOM FOR THE THEORETICAL ANALYSIS.**

OVERTAKING ZONES
It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length of road visible ahead at every point is sufficient for safe
overtaking.This is seldom practicable and there may be stretches where the safe overtaking distance can not be provided.
In such zones where overtaking or passing is not safe or is not possible, , sign posts should be installed indicating “No
Passing” or “Overtaking Prohibited” before such restricted zones start. But the overtaking opportunity for vehicles
moving at design speed should be given at frequent intervals. These zones which are meant for overtaking are called
overtaking zones.

The OSD and pavement width should be sufficient for safe overtaking operations. Sign posts should be installed at
sufficient distance in advance to indicate the start of the overtaking zones; this distance may be equal to (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 ) for one
way roads and (𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 ) for two way roads. Similarly the end of the overtaking zones shouldalso be indicated by
appropriate sign posts installed ahead at distances specified above. The minimum length of overtaking zone should be
three times the safe overtaking sight distance. It is desirable that the length of overtaking zones is kept “five” times the
overtaking sight distance.

3.4. SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION

At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers approaching the intersection
from either sides. They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop the vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for
each road can be computed from the design speed. The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either
side should be able to see each other.
The design of sight distance at intersections may be based on three possible conditions:

(i) Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed:

(ii) Enabling approaching vehicle to stop:
(iii) Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road:

©ECL0123590
 Doc. Ref No.:
KALINGA STATE UNIVERSITY Effectivity Date: June 2020
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERNG AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING Revision No.: 0
LESSON 3: SIGHT DISTANCE Page No.: 6 of 6

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