1

Transportation Engineering-I
Chapter-1, Introduction to Transportation Planning and Engineering
 Introduction
 Modes of Transportation
 Comparison between different modes of Transportation
 Historical Development of Roads (Roman, Tresaguet, Telford, Macadam)
 Road Construction in Nepal
 Transport planning including objectives of Road Planning
 Classification of Roads: SRN, Rural/Local Road Network, Urban Road
Class ADT in 20 years perspective period Design Speed in Plain Terrain
I 20,000 PCU or More 120 KMPH
II 5000-20,000 PCU 100 KMPH
III 2000-5000 PCU 80 KMPH
IV <2000 PCU 60 KMPH

Chapter-2, Highway Alignment and Engineering Survey

 Introduction
 Requirements of Highway Alignment
 Factors controlling highway alignment
 Engineering Survey and its stages
 Route Location Process
 Engineering Survey: Map Study, Reconnaissance, Preliminary and Detailed Survey

Chapter-3, Geometric Design of Highway

 Definition and scope of geometric design

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Vehicle Dimensions
 Maximum width of Vehicle = 2.5m
 Maximum Height of Vehicle = 4.75m
 Maximum Length of Vehicle = 18m
 Wheel Base Length = 6m
 Maximum Single Axle Load = 100KN

Traffic Capacity (C)

1000𝑣
 (𝐶) =
𝑆
 Where, C = Traffic Capacity in vehicle/hour/lane
 v = Design Speed in KM/hr
 S = c/c spacing of vehicle in meter.
 Introduction to Road Standard in Nepal (NRS – 2070)
 Design Controls and Criteria
 Elements of Cross Section, Urban Road and Rural Roads

Camber

1
 Straight Camber, 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (1 𝑖𝑛 𝑛)
𝑛
2𝑥 2
 Parabolic Camber, 𝑦 = 𝑛𝑤
, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (1 𝑖𝑛 𝑛)

Width of Pavement

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Shoulder

Side-Slopes

Right of Way

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Friction

 Elements of Horizontal Alignment

 Definition and Types of Horizontal Curve
 Design of Horizontal Curve including night visibility consideration
28.65(𝑆 + 𝑙) 30𝑆
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 (𝑅) = ≈
𝛼 𝛼
Where, S = Night visibility Distance
𝛼 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ≈ 2°
 Sight Distance, Stopping Sight Distance, OSD, Setback from Obstruction

Sight Distance
 Actual length over road surface seen by driver sitting at specified height
 Drivers Eye Height (H) = 1.2m
 Object Height (h) = 0.15m
 Types
Intermediate Sight
Distance
Stopping Sight Distance
Sight Distance Head Light Sight
Overtaking Sight Distance Distance

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

𝑣2
 𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑛 … … … … … … . . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑔𝜂(𝑓± )
100
𝑣2 𝑘𝑚
 𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 0.278𝑣𝑡 + 𝑛 … … … … … 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑟
254𝜂(𝑓± )
100
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ≈ 1.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑛 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 % 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂 = 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

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Intermediate Sight Distance and Head Light Sight Distance

 Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) = 2*SSD
 Head Light Sight Distance (HLSD) = SSD

Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

 𝑑1 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ′𝑡 ′ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟
 𝑑2 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐴 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ′𝑇 ′ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 𝑑3 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐶 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠.
 OSD for one way traffic = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
 OSD for two way traffic = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3
𝑚
 𝑑1 = 𝑣𝑏 ∗ 𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑏 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
4𝑆 𝑚
 𝑑2 = 𝑆 + 𝑏 + 𝑆, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏 ∗ 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆 = 0.7𝑣𝑏 + 6, 𝑇 = √ 𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑠2
𝑚
 𝑑3 = 𝑣 ∗ 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑏 + 4.5 𝑠
 𝐹or Design Speed in KM/hr
𝑑1 = 0.278 ∗ 𝑣𝑏 ∗ 𝑡
14.4𝑆 𝐾𝑀
𝑑2 = 0.278 ∗ 𝑣𝑏 ∗ 𝑇 + 2𝑆, 𝑆 = 0.2𝑣𝑏 + 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = √ , 𝐴 𝑖𝑛
𝐴 ℎ𝑟. 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑3 = 0.278 ∗ 𝑣 ∗ 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑏 + 16

 Overtaking Zone
Minimum Overtaking Zone = 3*OSD
Maximum Overtaking Zone = 5*OSD

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Setback Distance
𝛼 180𝑆 𝛼
 When 𝐿𝐶 > 𝑆, 2
= 2𝜋(𝑅−𝑑) 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑅 − (𝑅 − 𝑑) cos 2
𝛼 180𝐿 𝛼 𝑆−𝐿𝑐 𝛼
 When 𝐿𝐶 < 𝑆, 2
𝑐
= 2𝜋(𝑅−𝑑) 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑅 − (𝑅 − 𝑑) cos 2 + 2
∗ sin 2
Where, d = distance between center line of road and center line of inside lane in ‘m’

Horizontal Curves
𝑃 𝑣2
 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝑊) = 𝑔𝑅
 Effects on Horizontal Curve
𝑃 𝑏
Overturning Effect, 𝑊 = 2ℎ
Where, b = Wheel base width and h=height of CG of vehicle from road pavement
𝑃
Lateral Skid of Vehicle, =𝑓
𝑊
Where, f = coefficient of Lateral Friction
 Superelevation

Analysis of Superelevation
 Superelevation (e) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
 Expressed in 1 in x or %
 Maximum Superelevation = 7% or 1 in 15 and 10% for Hill Road
𝑣2 𝑚
 General Equation: 𝑒 + 𝑓 = 𝑔𝑅 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑠
𝐾𝑀 𝑣2
𝐼𝑓 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 , 𝑒+𝑓 =
ℎ𝑟 127𝑅
Where, e = Superelevation, f = Coefficient of Lateral Friction and R = Radius of Curve
𝑣2
 Ruling Radius (𝑅𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ) = 127(𝑒+𝑓)
 Design Steps of Superelevation
Taking 75% of design speed and neglecting friction
(0.75𝑣)2 𝑣2
𝑒= =
127𝑅 225𝑅
If e < 0.7, ok and if e > 7%, adopt e = 0.07 and Go to second step
𝑣2
Taking e = 0.07 find ‘f’, 𝑓 = 127𝑅 − 𝑒
If f < 0.15, ok and if f > 0.15, Adopt f = 0.15 and Go to third step
Taking e = 0.07 and f = 0.15, calculate new design speed as,
𝑣𝑛𝑒𝑤 = √127𝑅(𝑒 + 𝑓)

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 Extrawidening

Extrawidening
 Extrawidening of pavement is sum of mechanical widening and psychological widening.
𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊𝑚 + 𝑊𝑝 … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑛𝑙 2
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑊𝑚 =
2𝑅
𝑣
𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑊𝑝 =
9.5√𝑅
Where, n = number of lanes, l = Wheel Base Length of Vehicle,
R = Radius of Curve and v = Design Speed in KM/hr

 Transition Curve: Definition, Types and Design

Design of Transition Curve

 Length of Transition Curve
Based on rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (Comfort Condition)
𝑣3 80 𝑚
𝐿𝑠 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐 𝑛 = ( 3)
𝐶𝑅 𝑘𝑚
75 + 𝑣 ( ) 𝑠
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑚 𝑣3
𝐼𝑓 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 , 𝐿𝑠 =
ℎ𝑟 46.54𝐶𝑅
Based on rate of introduction of Superelevation
𝑒 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ (𝑤 + 𝑤𝑒 )
𝐿𝑠 = 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟
2
𝐿𝑠 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ (𝑤 + 𝑤𝑒 ) with respect to edge
By Empirical Formula
2.7𝑣 2
For Plain and Rolling Terrains, 𝐿𝑆 = 𝑅
𝑣2 𝑘𝑚
For Mountainous/Steep Terrain, 𝐿𝑠 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑚.
𝑅 ℎ𝑟

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 Elements of Transition Curve (From Surveying II)

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝑣3
𝐿𝑠 =
𝐶𝑅
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑣𝑔. 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐶 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Spiral Angle – The angle between back tangent and tangent
at the junction of transition curve is called spiral angle.
𝐿𝑆
𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝜙𝑠 ) =
2𝑅
Shift – The distance by which circular portion shifted inward
𝐿2𝑠
is called shift. 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑆) = 24𝑅
∆ 𝐿𝑆
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = (𝑅 + 𝑆) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 +
2 2
𝜋𝑅(∆−2𝜙)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐿𝑆 + 1800 + 𝐿𝑆
𝜙
Check, Total deflection(𝛼𝑛 ) = 3𝑆 and perpendicular offset in junction between transition curve
and circular curve is given by 𝑂𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 4 ∗ 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 (𝑆).

Design of Circular Curve

 Elements of Simple Circular Curve (From Surveying II)
Point of Commencement (𝑇1 ) – Beginning point of Curve
Point of Tangency (T2 ) – Ending Point of Curve
Point of Intersection (B) – When two tangents are
extended, they will meet at a point is called point of
intersection.
Deflection Angle (∆) – External angle between two
tangents.
∆
Tangent Length (𝑇1 𝐵) = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛(2)
∆
Chord length (𝑇1 𝐹𝑇2 ) = 2𝑅𝑆𝑖𝑛 (2)
𝜋𝑅∆
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑇1 𝐸𝑇2 ) = 1800
∆ ∆
Mid Ordinate (𝐸𝐹) = (𝑦) = 𝑅 ∗ (1 − cos 2) = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
∆
𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝐵𝐸) = (𝑒) = 𝑅 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 1)
2
Normal Chord – A chord between two successive regular station on a curve.
Sub-Chord – Any chord shorter than normal chord.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Chainage of B is known
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇1 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 − 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇1 +
2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇2 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇1 + 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

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 Elements of Vertical Alignment (From Surveying II)

Deviation Angle (N) = |𝑔1 − 𝑔2 |
Length of Vertical Curve, 𝐿 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑁
𝐿
Tangent Length, 𝑇𝐿 = 2
𝐿2
Vertical Apex Distance, 𝑒 = 8𝑅
𝐿
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑉𝐶 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑉𝐼 − 2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑉𝐶 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑉𝐶 + 𝐿
1 𝑔 𝐿
𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑉𝐶 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑉𝐼 − 100 ∗2
2 𝑔 𝐿
𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑉𝐶 = 𝑅𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑉𝐼 − 100 ∗2
 Definition and types of Gradient
Ruling Gradient
Limiting Gradient
Exceptional Gradient
Minimum Gradient
𝛽
Momentum Grade, 𝐿 = ∗ (𝑣12 − 𝑣22 )
2𝑔(𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑖)

 Grade Compensation
30+𝑅
Grade Compensation, % 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅
75
Limiting Value of Grade Compensation = 𝑅
Grade after Compensation = Original Grade - % Compensation
 Definition and types of vertical curves

 Design of vertical summit curve

Design Length of Summit Curve

 Length of Summit Curves for SSD
𝑁𝑆 2
When L>SSD, 𝐿 = 2
(√2𝐻+√2ℎ)
2
(√2𝐻+√2ℎ)
When L<SSD, 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 𝑁
Where, H = Height of Eyelevel of Driver (m) = 1.2m
h = Height of Object = 0.15m

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 Length of Summit Curve for OSD or ISD

2
(√2𝐻+√2ℎ) 𝑁𝑆 2
When L>OSD or ISD, 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 𝑁
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ = 𝐻, 𝐿 = 8𝐻
8𝐻
When L< OSD or ISD, 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 𝑁

Highest Point on Summit Curve

 The highest point on summit curve is at a distance of 𝑛1 ∗ 𝑅 from BVC and 𝑛2 ∗ 𝑅 from EVC.
 Generally, simple square parabola is provided for vertical summit curves.
𝑥2
 RL of Highest point on curve = RL of BVC + 𝑛1 𝑥 − 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑥 = 𝑛1 𝑅
2𝑅
𝑥2
 RL of Highest point on curve = RL of EVC + 𝑛2 𝑥 − 2𝑅 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑥 = 𝑛2 𝑅
 Design of vertical valley curves

Design Length of Valley Curves

 Length of Transition curve for comfort condition
𝑁𝑣 3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒, 𝐿 = 2√
𝐶
Where, N = Deviation Angle, v = Design Speed in m/s
𝑚
C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (0.6 s3 )
If v in km/hr, 𝐿 = 0.38√𝑁𝑣 3
 Length of Valley Curve for Head light sight distance
𝑁𝑆 2
When L > SSD, 𝐿 =
2(ℎ1 +𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)
2(ℎ +𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)
When L < SSD, 𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 1 𝑁
Where, N = Deviation Angle
S = Head Light Sight Distance = SSD
ℎ1 = 0.75𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 = 1°

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Lowest Point on Valley Curves

 Generally, Cubic parabola is provided in vertical valley curves.
 When the gradients are not equal, the lowest point lies onside of flatter grade and this point is at
distance of 𝑥0 from BVC.
𝑛1
𝑥0 = 𝐿 ∗ √
2𝑁
3 2𝑁
& 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 3𝐿2
2𝑁 𝑛
RL of Lowest point on curve = RL of BVC −𝑛1 𝑥𝑜 + 3𝐿2 𝑥𝑜3 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑥0 = 𝐿 ∗ √2𝑁1

Curve Resistance
 Loss of tractive force due to turning of vehicle on horizontal curve
 Curve Resistance = 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

Chapter-4, Highway Drainage

 Introduction and importance of highway drainage system
 Causes of Moisture Variation in Subgrade Soil
 Surface Drainage System

Design of Surface Drainage System

 Hydrologic Analysis
𝑄 =𝐶∗𝐼∗𝐴
𝑚𝑚
Where, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 ( 𝑠
)
𝐴 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓
𝐶 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐶1 𝐴1 + 𝐶2 𝐴2 + 𝐶3 𝐴3 + ⋯
𝐶=
∑𝐴
 Hydraulic Analysis
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣

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2 1
1
Manning’s Equation, 𝑄 = 𝑛 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑅 3 ∗ 𝑆 2
Where, 𝑛 = 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.013 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐴
R = Hydraulic Radius = 𝑃
S = Longitudinal Slope of Channel
 Different Types of Road Side Drain
 Cross Drainage Structures
 Different Types of Energy Dissipating Structures
 Sub-Surface Drainage System
 Drainage of infiltrated water
 Control of Seepage
 Lowering of Water Table
 Control of Capillary Rise

Chapter-5, Hill Road

 Introduction
 Special Consideration in Hill Road Design
 Alignment of Hill Road Design: General Consideration, Route Location in Hills, Gradient,
Design and Types of Hairpin Bends

Design of Hairpin Bends

 Minimum Design Speed – 20 KMPH
 Minimum Radius of Reverse Curve (r) = 15m
 Radius of Main Curve (R) = 15m
 Superelevation – 1 in 10
 Maximum Gradient – 1 in 40
 Minimum Transition Length (m) = 15m
 Length of Hairpin Bend for Symmetrical Curve,
𝑆 = 𝐶𝑟 + 𝑚 + 𝐶 + 𝑚 + 𝐶𝑟
 Length of Hairpin Bend for unsymmetrical Curve,
𝑆 = 𝐶𝑟1 + 𝑚1 + 𝐶 + 𝑚2 + 𝐶𝑟2
𝜋𝑟𝛽
 Length of Reverse Curve, 𝐶𝑟 = 1800
𝜋𝑅𝛾
 Length of Main Curve (c) = 1800
𝛽
2 tan
 tan 𝛽 = 2
𝛽
1−tan2
2

𝛽 (−𝑚±√𝑚2 +𝑅(2𝑟+𝑅))
 𝛽 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠, tan 2 = (2𝑟+𝑅)
0 0
 𝛾 = 360 − 2(90 − 𝛽) − 𝛼
 Types of Hill Road Cross Sections
 Special Features in Hill Road
 Types of Retaining Structures
 River Training Structures
 Slope Stabilization Structures and Gully Control Structures
 Road Safety Measures in Hill Roads: Barriers and Delineation

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Chapter-6, Highway Materials

 Introduction and classification of highway Materials
 Subgrade Soil
 Characteristics of Subgrade Soil
 Desirable Properties of Subgrade Soil
 California Bearing Ratio Test

CBR Test
 California Bearing Ratio
𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
 𝐶𝐵𝑅 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
Penetration (mm) Standard Load (kg) Unit Standard Load (kg/cm2)
2.5 1370 70
5 2055 105
 CBR at 2.5mm Penetration > CBR at 5mm Penetration

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 Road Aggregates
 Definition and classification of road aggregates

Flakiness Index, Elongation Index, Angularity Number

100𝑊1
 Flakiness Index: 𝐹𝐼 = 𝑊
< 15%
Where, 𝑊 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑊1 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑘𝑦 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
100𝑊1
 Elongation Index: 𝐸𝐼 = 𝑊
< 15%
Where, 𝑊 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑊1 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
100𝑊
 Angularity Number = 67 − (0 to 11)
𝑊𝑤 ∗𝐺𝑎
Where, W = Weight of Aggregate in Cylinder
𝑊𝑤 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝐺𝑎 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒
More the angular number, more angular the aggregates.
 Desirable properties of road aggregates
 Tests on road aggregates and their significance

Destructive Test
 Abrasion Test
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1.7 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒
𝐿𝐴 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = ∗ 100% … … . . < 30%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
 Crushing Test
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2.36 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒
𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝐴𝐶𝑉) = ∗ 100% … … . . < 35%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

 Impact Test

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𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2.36 𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝐴𝐼𝑉) = ∗ 100% … … . . < 35%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
 Comparing gradation specification
 Proportioning of Road Aggregates
 Bituminous Road Binders
 Definition and classification of road binders
 Liquid bitumen – Cutback Bitumen and Emulsion Bitumen
 Tests on Bituminous Binders: Penetration, Viscosity, Ductility, Softening Point

Tests on Bitumen
 Penetration Test / Grade Test
1
Penetration in 𝑡ℎ of mm, standard needle of 100gm weight, at 250 C, during five Seconds
10
 Viscosity Test
Time taken by 50ml bitumen to pass through orifice of 4 or 10 mm diameter at 25/400C.
 Ductility Test
Distance in ‘cm’ to which the bitumen specimen of standard size stretched before the thread breaks.
Minimum Cross section – 10mm*10mm, Temperature-270C, Pull rate – 50 mm/min
 Softening Point Test / Ball and Ring Test
Temperature at which steel ball with bitumen touches the metal plate. Rate of Heating 50C per
minute
 Bituminous Mixes
 Definition and Classification
 Marshall’s Method of Bituminous Mix Design

Marshall’s Method of Bituminous Mix Design (Steps)

 Selection of aggregates
 Selection of aggregates grading
 Determination of Specific Gravity of blended aggregate mix
100
𝐺𝑎 =
𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 + 𝐺4 … …
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑊1 , 𝑊2 … . 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐺1 , 𝐺2 … 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
 Proportioning of Aggregates
By Analytical Method
By Graphical Method
Trial and Error Method
 Preparation of Specimens
 Determination of Specific Gravity of Compacted Specimen
100
𝐺𝑎 =
𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝐺3 + 𝐺4 … …
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑊1 , 𝑊2 , 𝑊3 , 𝑊4 … . % 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐴, 𝐹𝐴, 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 , 𝐺4 … … … 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐴, 𝐹𝐴, 𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
 Measurable Specific Gravity at Laboratory
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝐺𝑚 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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𝐺𝑡 −𝐺𝑚
 % 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 (𝑉𝑣 ) = 𝐺𝑡
∗ 100%
% 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
 % 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑉𝑏 = ∗ 𝐺𝑚
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑉𝑀𝐴 = 𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑏
𝑉
 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛, 𝑉𝐹𝐵 = 𝑉𝑀𝐴
𝑏
∗ 100%
 Stability Test of Compacted Specimens
 Selection of Optimum Bitumen Content
Test Property Specific Value
Marshall Stability (kg) >340
Flow Value, (mm) 8 to 16
% Air Voids 3 to 5
Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB) (%) 75 to 85

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