CE 10: PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING A.

UBATAY

Geometric Design
I. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAYS
A. DESIGN SPEED
It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so
favorable that the design features of highway govern. A very smooth curve will require a very high design speed.

B. SIGHT DISTANCES
Sight distance, in the context of road design, is how far a driver can see before the line of sight is blocked by a hill
crest, or an obstacle on the inside of a horizontal curve or intersection i.e. sight distance is the continuous length of
highway ahead visible to the driver. Insufficient sight distance can have implications for the safety or operations of a
roadway or intersection.

When designing for the alignment of the road, two types of sight distance are normally checked for adequacy:
stopping sight distance (SSD) and passing sight distance (PSD).
1. Stopping Sight Distance is the shortest distance required for a vehicle
travelling at the assumed running speed to stop safely before reaching
a stationary object in its path.

SD = 𝒅𝟏 + 𝒅𝟐
𝒅𝟏 – distance traversed during perception plus brake reaction time.
Brake reaction time consists of perception time of about 1.5 seconds
and action time of 1.0 seconds
𝑣𝑡
𝑑1 =
3.6

𝒅𝟐 – distance required for stopping after brakes are applied. Short distance is required when negotiating an
uphill.
CE 10: PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING A. UBATAY
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑑2 = or 𝑑2 =
2𝑔𝑓 (3.6)2 2𝑔 (3.6)2 (𝑓 ± 𝐺)

Where: v – running speed , kph

t - reaction time, s
g – 9.81 m/s
f – coefficient of friction
G – gradient (+ for uphill, - for downhill)
Minimum SSD is normally computed for wet pavement condition. For design speeds grater than or equal to 80kph, the
running speed is taken as 85% of the design speed. For less than 30kph, full value of design speed is assumed for running speed.

2. Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

For two-lane highways, passing sight distance is the shortest distance required for a vehicle to safely pull out
of a traffic lane, pass vehicle traveling in the same direction, and return to the correct lane without
interfering either with the overtaken vehicle or opposing traffic. Along Curves, this is the length of the road
that must be visibly free of obstruction in order to permit a vehicle moving at the design speed pass a slower
moving vehicle.

PSD is composed of four distances:

a. 𝒅𝟏 – distance traveled during perception and reaction time and during the initial acceleration to the point of
encroachment on the left lane
𝑣0 𝑡1 𝑎 𝑡12
𝑑1 = +
3.6 2
b. 𝒅𝟐 – distance traveled while overtaking vehicle occupies any part of the left lane (opposing lane)
𝑣 𝑡2
𝑑2 = ; 𝑡2 = 7.6 ∼ 11.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
3.6
c. 𝒅𝟑 – distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing vehicle
𝑑2 = 15 ∼ 80𝑚
d. 𝒅𝟒 – distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing vehicle occupies the
left lane
2
𝑑4 = 𝑑2
3
CE 10: PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING A. UBATAY

C. Minimum Radius of Curvature

Smooth-flowing curves are often desired when designing highways. However, the cost of providing such
curves may be too prohibitive. Existing structures or terrain may prevent the designer from providing
gentle curves. It is therefore necessary to determine the minimum radius of curvature that may be
required for any given desired speed.

𝑣2
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
127 (𝑒 + 𝑓)
Where: v, design speed
e , super elevation
f , side friction

D. Superelevation
Banking or superelevation is necessary to counteract the centrifugal force that is acting on the vehicle. The
value of maximum superelevation e may range from 6 percent to 12 percent.
CE 10: PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING A. UBATAY

E. DESIGN VOLUME
In designing roads, the 30th highest peak hour volume has been found to be the most reasonable hourly volume that
provides the best result (see figure 6.5). The 30th hourly volume is exceeded only twenty-nine times in a year.
Beyond this value on the right, the distribution of hourly volumes is relatively flat. Another characteristic of this 30th
hourly volume is that its value as a percentage of AADT does not vary much over the years. Depending on the type of
highways, the value of K may range from 7 percent to 15 percent.

The directional distribution D, is defined as the percentage of the heavier volume over the total highway volume. This
directional distribution is relevant only when designing or analyzing highways with two or more lanes in one
direction. For two-lane or three-lane, two-way highways, the directional distribution are not considered. In the case
of two-Lane, two-way highways, the heavier movement will tend to use the other direction for overtaking. For three-
lane, two-way highways, the heavier movement will tend to occupy the
extra third lane.
CE 10: PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING A. UBATAY
F. Number of Lanes
The basic task in designing highways is the determination of the number of lanes needed to meet the
given design volume under a specified level of service. The procedure may follow a trial and error one.
Initially the number of lanes is assumed. With this assumption, the corresponding capacity is obtained
from lookup tables. If the desired level of service is known, then its corresponding volume/capacity ratio
will be known. This v/c ratio should be greater than the value of the ratio of the design hourly volume over
the estimated capacity. If the inequality is satisfied, then the assumed number of lanes is okay; otherwise,
it is modified depending on the result of the initial computations. In some cases, correction factors are
applied that would reduce the capacity if some substandard values (width of lane, presence of gradient,
etc.) deviate from the ideal ones. The Philippine Highway Planning Manual provides a guide on basic
capacity for various road types in tables 6.5a and 6.5b

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. A driver traveling at 50mph is 80m from a wall ahead. If the driver applies the brake immediately at a brake reaction
time of 2 seconds and begins slowing the vehicle at 10 m/s2.
a. Find the distance from the stopping point to the wall.
b. Determine the braking time or time during deceleration.
c. Assume that the brake efficiency of the vehicle is 70%, find the average skid resistance of the pavement.

2. A car having a weight of 40 KN is moving at a certain speed around the curve. Assuming no lateral pressure between the
tire and pavement and considering a centrifugal ratio of 0.30.
a. Compute the force that will tend to pull the car away from the center of the curve.
b. If the degree of curve is 40 determine the maximum speed that the car could move around the curve.
c. Compute the angle of embankment to be provided for this speed if the skid resistance is 0.12.

3. A proposed highway is to be designed with adequate shoulder and clearance in a level terrain with the following:
AADT = 40,000 pcu/day
D% = 65%
K = 9%
Estimate the number of lanes that will provide LOS B.