Road Geometric DESIGN - Chapter 2 Sight Distance - Topic 2

ROAD GEOMETRIC
DESIGN – Chapter 2
SIGHT DISTANCE
-Topic 2-
SIGHT DISTANCE:
INTRODUCTION TO SIGHT DISTANCE

 Sight Distance = The longest distance a driver can see in
front of him
 Sight distance may also be perceived as the length of

carriageway visible to a driver in both horizontal and vertical
planes.
 Sight distance is the most important feature in the safe and

efficient operation of a highway.
 Obstructions to the driver’s view may arise through various

objects such as parked vehicles, plants on the inside of
curves, cut sections, buildings, etc.
 For safe driving, certain minimum sight distances should be

prescribed.
INTRODUCTION TO SIGHT DISTANCE
 Sight distances that are commonly provided at the design

stage include:
1. Stopping sight distance

2. Passing sight distance
3. Intersection sight distance
4. Sight distance on horizontal curves
5. Sight distance on vertical curves
LESSON 1: STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)
 The clear distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his

vehicle to a stop before meeting a stationary or slow-moving
object on his way is known as the safe stopping sight
distance.
 The calculation of the minimum distance required to stop a

vehicle before it hits a stationary or slow-moving object
involves establishing values for speed, perception-reaction
time, braking distance and eye and object heights.
 The vehicle speed used in safe stopping sight distance

calculations is normally the design speed.
 Perception time is the time which elapses between the

instant the driver sees the hazard and the realization that
brake action is required.
 Reaction time is the time taken by the driver to actuate the

brake pedal, after realizing the need to brake, until the
brakes start to take effect.
Perception-reaction time = perception time + reaction time

 Field measurements indicate that combined perception-

reaction time typically vary form 0.5 s in difficult terrain
where drivers are more alert, to 1.5 s under normal road
conditions.
 For safe and comfortable design, a combined time of 2s is

suggested.
 For design purposes perception-reaction time of 1.5 s is

assumed for urban areas while 2.5 s is assumed for rural
areas.
 Perception-reaction distance is the distance traveled

during the perception-reaction time.
Perception-reaction distance = 0.278tV
where;
t = perception-reaction time (in seconds)
V = initial speed (in km/hour)
 Braking distance is the distance needed by a vehicle to

decelerate to a stop on a level road after the brakes have
been applied.
2
V
Braking distance, d 
254 f
where;
V = initial speed (km/hr)
f = longitudinal coefficient of friction (developed
between the tyre and the road surface)
 The longitudinal coefficient of friction proposed for certain

design speeds are as follows:
Design
speed, V 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
(km/hr)
Coefficient
of friction, 0.40 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.28
f
 The f-value depends on the following factors:
- carriageway conditions – wet roads are normally

assumed as water acts as a lubricant between the
carriageway and tyres.
- tyre quality – a well-patterned tread provides good

escape channels for bulk water and a radial ply
increases the tyre-road contact area.
- speed – the higher the vehicle speed the less is the

contact time available to expel water from between
the tyre and the carriageway.
- carriageway macrotexture and microtexture – a rough

macrotexture helps with the removal of bulk water and the
maintenance of skidding resistance at high speeds, while the
harsh microtextures of surfacing materials add to skid
resistance as the puncture and disperse the thin film of
water remaining after the removal of the bulk water by the
tyre tread and the carriageway surface.
 Eye and object heights used should ensure that there is an

envelope of clear visibility which enables drivers of low cars to
see low objects on the carriageway, and drivers of high vehicles
to see portions of other vehicles, even though bridge soffits at
sag curves and overhanging tree branches may be in the way.
 Eye heights are generally between 1.05 m – 2.00 m, while

object heights are between 0.26 m – 2.00 m.
 Generally,
Stopping sight distance = perception-reaction distance + braking distance

 On flat roads,
V2
Stopping sight distance, SSD  0.278tV 
254 f
 On slopes,
Stopping sight distance, V2

SSD  0.278tV 
 n 
254 f  
 100 
 Where;
n = gradient (%)
Example 1 (pg 44; problems 2-1)
A driver takes 3.5 sec to react to a

complex situation while travelling at a
speed of 60 km/hr. How far does the
vehicle travel before the driver initiates
a physical response to the situation (i.e.
putting his/her foot on the brake)?
Example 2 (pg 44; problems 2-6)
What is the safe stopping distance for a
section of rural freeway with a design
speed of 80 km/hr on a 3%
downgrade?
Example 3 (pg 40; paragraph 3)
An accident investigator estimates that a vehicle hit a

bridge abutment at a speed of 32.19 km/hr, based
on his/her assessment of damage. Leading up to the
accident location, he/she observes skid marks of
30.48 m on the pavement (f = 0.35) and 22.86 m on
the grass shoulder (f = 0.25). There is no grade. An
estimation of the speed of the vehicle at the
beginning of the skid marks is desired.
LESSON 2: PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (PSD)
 Sufficient sight distances must be available on two-way,

two-lane roads to enable faster vehicles to safely overtake
slower ones, without causing disruption to traffic flow on the
opposite direction.
 Figure 2-1 shows the four components of the minimum

distance required for safe passing on two-way, two-lane
roads.
 d1 = perception-reaction distance traveled by a vehicle

while its driver decides if it is safe to pass the vehicle
in
front.
d1 = vs  t1
where;
vs = speed of the slower vehicle (m/s) and
t1 = time taken for the driver to decide on
making the pass (s), usually 3.5 s
 d2 = the overtaking distance traveled by the overtaking

vehicle in carrying out the actual passing maneuver
d2 = 2s + vs 4s
a
where;
s = safe clearance distance between the fast and
slow vehicles
= 0.7vs + 6
vs = speed of the slower vehicle (m/s)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
 d3 = the safe distance between the overtaking vehicle and

the opposing vehicle at the instant the overtaking
vehicle returns to its correct lane
d 3 = vo  t 3
where;
vo = speed of the oncoming vehicle (m/s) and
t3 = safety time (s), usually 1.5 s
 d4 = the closing distance traveled by the opposing vehicle

during the passing maneuver (this distance is
sometimes taken as 2/3 d2)
 Thus, the safe passing sight distance,
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
* Note: It is always assumed that the speed difference between

the faster vehicle and the slower vehicle is 16 km/hr
Table 2-1 shows PSD values according to JKR:
Design Speed (km/hr) Passing Sight Distance (m)
120 800
100 700
80 550
60 450
50 350
40 250
30 200
20 200
Example 2:
A vehicle traveling at 80 km/hr wants to overtake

a slower vehicle in front. The speed of the
oncoming vehicle is 70 km/hr. Calculate the
minimum PSD required for this maneuvre.
Assume the acceleration, a is 1.0 m/s2, and the
speed difference between the faster vehicle and
the slower vehicle is 16 km/hr.
LESSON 3: INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE
- Intersection sight distance is needed to permit control of

the vehicle to avoid collision.
- For the sight of distance of the driver of a vehicle passing

through an intersection, two aspects must be considered:
(a) there must be a sufficient unobstructed view to

recognize the traffic signs or traffic signals at the
intersection
(b) there must also be a sufficient sight distance to make
a safe departure after the vehicle has stopped at the
stop line
 To get the view of appropriate traffic - The area of sight

should be unobstructed by buildings or other objects across
the corners of an intersection. This is known as the sight
triangle (see Figure 2-2).
 Any object within the sight triangle high enough above the
elevation of the adjacent roadways to constitute a sight
obstruction should be removed or lowered.
 Such objects include cut slopes, trees, bushes and other

erected objects also should be removed.
 Parking within the sight triangle should also be eliminated.

LESSON 3: INTERSECTION SIGHT
DISTANCE:
(A) SIGHT DISTANCE APPROACH
(1) SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

Sight distance for approach, Where;
2
Vt 1  V 
SA    
3.6 2a  3.6 
Sa = Sight distance traveled from the driver recognize traffic

signals to vehicle stop with applying brake
t = total reaction time (urban = 6 s, rural = 10 s)
a = acceleration (maximum allowable acceleration = 1.96
m/s2)
V = vehicle speed or design speed (in km/hr)
DISTANCE:
(2) PRIORITY INTERSECTIONS
 Equation = similar as for sight distance of approach at

signalized intersections.
 However, total reaction time is taken as 2 s.
 Reason decision making is not required as every driver
must stop.
DISTANCE:
(B) SIGHT DISTANCE FOR DEPARTURE
 Sight distance for departure,
Where;
S  0.278V ( J  t )
D a
SD = min sight distance along major road from
intersection (m)
V = vehicle speed or design speed (in km/h)
J = sum of perception time and the time required to
shift to first gear or actuate an automatic shift (in
seconds)
ta = time required to accelerate and traverse the
distance S to clear the major road (in seconds)
*Note : J-value for rural areas is 2 s, while for urban and

suburban areas is 1.0 s to 1.5 s
 ta values can be obtained from Figure 2-3. It depends on the

distance S which the crossing vehicle must travel to cross the
major road. (see Figure 2-4)
 Distance traveled during crossing maneuver,
S=D+W+L
Where;
S = distance vehicle must travel to cross major road
D = distance from near edge of pavement of front of
stopped vehicle (for design purposes, taken as 3
m)
W = width of pavement along path of crossing vehicle
(in m)
L = overall length of vehicle (5 m for passenger cars,
10 m for single unit trucks and 15 m for semi-trailers)
 Table 2-2 gives the stopping sight distance for intersection approach at
Signalized Intersections and Stop-Controlled Intersections, as
recommended by JKR:
Major Speed of Signal Control Stop Control

Major Road Rural Urban (on Minor
(km/hr) Road)*
100 480 370 260

80 350 260 170
60 240 170 105
50 190 130 80
40 140 100 55
30 100 70 35
*On Major Roads of Stop Controlled Intersections, the Stopping Sight
Distances must comply to those given in Table 4-3 (page 61).
Example 3:
A car traveling at 75 km/hr along a secondary road

approaching an intersection with priority control. The car
departs from the intersection at a speed of 60 km/hr. The
width of pavement along the path where the vehicle
crosses is 7.0 m. Calculate the required sight distance for
approach and departure.
LESSON 4: SIGHT DISTANCE ON
HORIZONTAL CURVES
 Difficulties in providing the required safe stopping and

passing sight distances are most commonly encountered in
urban road design where the alignment constraints are such
that the desired visibility can only be achieved at
considerable financial and environmental costs.
 In rural areas, diverse obstructions at the side of the road,

e.g. buildings, bridge supports, slopes of cuttings, solid
fences, or uncut grass on or adjacent to verges, can hinder
visibility.
HORIZONTAL CURVES
 In both urban and rural areas, safety fences in the central

reservation between dual carriageways can hinder the
achievement of the minimum stopping distance in the inside
lane because of the low object height.
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Figure 2-4 illustrates

the situation where
the required sight
distance lies wholly
within the length of
the curve, L is
assumed equal to
the required sight
distance, S. M is the
minimum offset
clearance desired
between the
Figure 2-4: Sight distance for horizontal centerline and any
curve (S  L) lateral obstruction.
HORIZONTAL CURVES
S2
 Therefore when S < L: M ;where R = horizontal curve
8R radius
Figure 2-5 illustrates

the situation where
S is greater than the
available length of
curve, L and
overlaps onto the
Figure 2-5: Sight tangents for a
distance on horizontal distance of l on
curve (S > L) either side.
HORIZONTAL CURVES
L( 2 S  L )
 Therefore when S > L: M
8R
Where;
M = desired minimum clearance offset
L = length of curve
R = horizontal curve radius
S = required sight distance
Example 4:
The figure below illustrates the proposed site for the

construction of a building that is adjacent to a horizontal
curve section of a rural highway. The suggested offset
clearance is 10 m. The highway design speed is 100 km/hr,
while the curve length and curve radius is 200 m and 600 m
respectively. Drivers’ perception-reaction time is taken as
2.5 s and the coefficient of friction between the tyres and
the road surface is 0.28. Is the suggested offset clearance
adequate to allow for safe stopping sight distance?
LESSON 5: STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
The following
shows how
stopping sight
distance (SSD)
on a horizontal
curve can be
calculated given
the curve radius
(R) and middle
ordinate (M).
 Based on the diagram:


L  R
180
length of sight line, l = 2Rvsin(s/2)
s 180SSD
SSD  Rv s 
180 Rv
 s
M  R (1  cos ) Ms  Rv (1  cos )
2 2
180SSD s
Substitute s  into Ms  Rv (1  cos )
Rv 2
  180SSD     90SSD 
    Ms  Rv 1  cos 
Rv
Ms  Rv 1  cos     Rv 
 2 
 
 
Rv  1  Rv  M s 
SSD  cos  
90   Rv 
Highway Agency Design Speed (km/h) Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Malaysian Highway 140 325

Authority (LLM) 120 225
100 150
80 100
Public Works 120 285
Department (JKR) 100 205
80 140
60 85
50 65
40 45
30 20
20 20
Table 4-3: SSD (JKR & LLM)

Design speed (km/h) Stopping Sight Distance (m)

AASHTO 2001 AASHTO 1994
Design Desirable Minimum
30 35 29.6 29.6
40 50 44.4 44.4
50 65 62.8 57.4
60 85 84.6 74.3
70 105 110.8 94.1
80 130 139.4 112.8
90 160 168.7 131.2
100 185 205.0 157.0
Table 4-4: SSD (AASHTO)

Example 5:
A horizontal curve on a U5 highway is

designed with a 700 m radius, 3.6 m lanes
and a 100 km/hr design speed. Determine
the distance that must be cleared from the
inside edge lane to provide sufficient sight
distance for desirable and minimum SSD.
LESSON 6: SIGHT DISTANCE ON VERTICAL
CURVES
 A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between
successive tangent gradients in the road profile.
 As a motorist traverses a vertical curve, a radial force acts on

the vehicle and tries to force it away from the centre of the
curvature and this may give the motorist some discomfort.
 The discomfort experienced is minimized by restricting the

gradients and by using a type and length of vertical curve
which allows the radial force to be experienced gradually
and uniformly.
 Sight distance requirements are also aided by the use of long

vertical curves on both crest and sag curves.
CURVES
 For crest curves;
Figure 2-6: Sight distance on crest vertical curve (S  L)

CURVES
 Figure 2-6 illustrates the condition where the required sight

distance S is contained within the available length of the
vertical curve L.
2
AS
 When S < L: Lmin 
( 2h1  2h2 ) 2
where;
A = difference in grades
h1 = eye height
h2 = object height
CURVES
Figure 2-7: Sight distance on crest vertical curve (S > L)
Figure 2-7 illustrates the condition where S is greater than

L and overlaps on either sides of the vertical curves.
CURVES
2( h1  h2 ) 2
 When S > L: Lmin  2S 
A
AS 2
 For Sag Curves: (a) When S < L: Lmin 
 8( h1  h2 ) 
 8 D  
 2 
Where;
D = vertical
clearance
(ideally taken  8( h1  h2 ) 
 8 D  
as 5.7 m)
 2S   
2
(b) When S > L: Lmin
A
VERTICAL CURVES
Example 6:
A car is traveling at 90 km/hr on a crest vertical

curve connecting grades of +1% and 2% and having
a curve length of 300 m. Further ahead of the car, a
box from a truck has fallen onto the travel lane. The
height of the box is 500 cm. Eye height is taken as
1.06 m. Ignore the effects of grades on stopping
sight distance. The road is in a rural area. Calculate
the minimum length required for the car to stop
safely and avoid colliding with the box.

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ROAD GEOMETRIC

INTRODUCTION TO SIGHT DISTANCE

 Sight distance may also be perceived as the length of

 Sight distance is the most important feature in the safe and

 Obstructions to the driver’s view may arise through various

 For safe driving, certain minimum sight distances should be

 Sight distances that are commonly provided at the design

1. Stopping sight distance

 The clear distance ahead needed by a driver to bring his

 The calculation of the minimum distance required to stop a

 The vehicle speed used in safe stopping sight distance

 Perception time is the time which elapses between the

 Reaction time is the time taken by the driver to actuate the

Perception-reaction time = perception time + reaction time

 Field measurements indicate that combined perception-

 For safe and comfortable design, a combined time of 2s is

 For design purposes perception-reaction time of 1.5 s is

 Perception-reaction distance is the distance traveled

Perception-reaction distance = 0.278tV

 Braking distance is the distance needed by a vehicle to

 The longitudinal coefficient of friction proposed for certain

 The f-value depends on the following factors:

- carriageway conditions – wet roads are normally

- tyre quality – a well-patterned tread provides good

- speed – the higher the vehicle speed the less is the

- carriageway macrotexture and microtexture – a rough

 Eye and object heights used should ensure that there is an

 Eye heights are generally between 1.05 m – 2.00 m, while

Stopping sight distance = perception-reaction distance + braking distance

Stopping sight distance, V2

Example 1 (pg 44; problems 2-1)

A driver takes 3.5 sec to react to a

An accident investigator estimates that a vehicle hit a

 Sufficient sight distances must be available on two-way,

 Figure 2-1 shows the four components of the minimum

 d1 = perception-reaction distance traveled by a vehicle

 d2 = the overtaking distance traveled by the overtaking

 d3 = the safe distance between the overtaking vehicle and

 d4 = the closing distance traveled by the opposing vehicle

 Thus, the safe passing sight distance,

* Note: It is always assumed that the speed difference between

A vehicle traveling at 80 km/hr wants to overtake

- Intersection sight distance is needed to permit control of

- For the sight of distance of the driver of a vehicle passing

(a) there must be a sufficient unobstructed view to

 To get the view of appropriate traffic - The area of sight

 Such objects include cut slopes, trees, bushes and other

 Parking within the sight triangle should also be eliminated.

(A) SIGHT DISTANCE APPROACH

(1) SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

Sa = Sight distance traveled from the driver recognize traffic

 Equation = similar as for sight distance of approach at

*Note : J-value for rural areas is 2 s, while for urban and

 ta values can be obtained from Figure 2-3. It depends on the

Major Speed of Signal Control Stop Control

100 480 370 260

A car traveling at 75 km/hr along a secondary road

 Difficulties in providing the required safe stopping and

 In rural areas, diverse obstructions at the side of the road,

 In both urban and rural areas, safety fences in the central

Figure 2-4 illustrates

Figure 2-5 illustrates

The figure below illustrates the proposed site for the