ENGINEERING

GEOLOGY
ELSEVIER Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71 80

Properties and performance of lateritic soil in road pavements

Umarany Mahalinga-Iyer *, David J. Williams
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland4072, Australia
Received 6 May 1996; accepted 13 August 1996

Abstract

In many tropical countries the temperate zone specification has been adopted for the selection of highway materials.
However, in some tropical countries, many lateritic gravels have been successfully used in road pavements despite the
fact that they do not comply with the temperate zone specification requirements for particle size distribution, plasticity
characteristics, and sometimes CBR. A specification for the use of tropical soils in road pavements needs to be
developed, based on the genesis of the soils and the climatic environment.
The laboratory characteristics and performance as a paving material, of a lateritic soil developed on sandstone in
south-east Queensland, Australia, has been investigated. Based on the important features of the lateritic soil and its
good performance as a road pavement, a criterion suitable for the selection of lateritic soil developed on sandstone
as a paving material, under similar climatic conditions to those prevailing in south-east Queensland, has been
proposed.

Keywords: Compaction; Highways; Laterites; Laterization; Shear strength

1. Introduction the properties of lateritic soils are different from

Lateritic soils are generally found in tropical
and sub-tropical countries. Their geotechnical
properties are influenced by the climate, parent
rock and the degree of laterisation. The process of
laterisation and a definition of lateritic soil are
explained in Mahalinga-Iyer and Williams (1991).
During laterisation, iron oxide and aluminium
oxide coat and bind the clay particles leading to a
change in the micro-structure of the soil. The
mineralogy and micro-structure influence the
geotechnical properties of lateritic soil
(Mahalinga-Iyer and Williams, 1991 ). Therefore,
* Corresponding author. Tel. : 61 7 33654163;
fax: 61 7 33654599.
those of soils found in temperate zones.
For road construction, the traditional specifica-
tion developed in the United Kingdom and North
America has been used in many tropical countries,
because it was assumed that tropical soils would
have the same relationship between plasticity char-
acteristics and strength as temperate zone soils.
However, in the last two decades, many tropical
countries have successfully used lateritic soils for
road construction which do not comply with the
standard specification. The performance of lateritic
soil road pavements also depends on the climate
and drainage conditions. Tropical regions in
Africa, Brazil and Western Australia have devel-
oped their own road pavement specification for
lateritic soils, suitable for their climatic conditions

0013-7952/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

P H S0013-7952(96)00096-8
72 U. Mahalinga-!ver. D.J. Willi.ms / Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71 80
(Townsend et al., 1972; Gidigasu, 1984; Cocks and
Hamory, 1988). This paper discusses the properties
and performance as a road pavement constructed
using a lateritic soil developed on sandstone, found
in south-east Queensland.
2. Field study of area
2.1. Geology, topography, vegetation and climate
The study area was at Greenswamp, located in
the western region of south-east Queensland,
Australia (longitude 152~22'E, latitude 27'~28'S)
near Gatton, which is about 80km west of
Brisbane, the capital of Queensland. Fig. 1 shows
the location and geology of the study area. The
geology of the region (detailed by Cranefield et al.,
1976) comprises a complex series of rocks of
different geological age: (a) Woogaroo sub-group
of massive siliceous sandstone, conglomerate of
Lower Jurassic age (R-Jo): (b) Marburg formation
of shale, sandstone, siltstone, pebble conglomerate
of lower to middle Jurassic age (Jm); (c) basalt of
Tertiary age (Tb); (d) gravel, sand, silt of
Cainozoic age (Cza); (e) Alluvial gravel, sand, silt
of Quaternary age (Qa).
The parent rock of the study area is Marburg
sandstone, which underwent laterisation (Dep-
artment of Transport Report No. SWR 292, 1983).
The topography of the area has subdued undulat-
ing relief and the elevation is approximately 100 m
above mean sea level. The area is covered by native
vegetation, dominated by iron bark and gum trees.
The study area is located in a sub-tropical
climatic environment. The average monthly rain-
fall, temperature and relative humidity of the area,
based on the data available for the last 35 years,
are given in Table 1. The average summer daily
maximum and winter daily minimum temperatures
are 35 and 6°C, respectively. The mean annual
rainfall is 790 mm and the relative humidity at 9
a.m. lies between 74 and 61%.
2.2. General characteristics of soil prqfile
At the Greenswamp borrow pits, the lateritic
soil is developed as a residual soil on sandstone.
The soil profile consists of an upper 200-300 mm
layer of grey silty sand, overlying a lateritic soil
horizon about 1 m thick. This lateritic soil consists
of red and yellow mottled silty and clayey sand
and gravel. Below this horizon, a mottled zone
comprising a thin layer of orange-red clayey gravel
is found and this is underlain by weathered sand-
stone. The lateritic soil has been excavated and
used as a base for the construction of the Forest
Hill to Fernvale road.
3. Geological and engineering properties
The geological and engineering properties of the
Greenswamp pit lateritic soil were studied. The
experimental procedures are briefly outlined
in Mahalinga-Iyer and Williams (1994).
Mineralogical analyses using X-ray diffraction
showed that the lateritic soil is composed of kaolin-
ite, haematite, goethite and quartz. The soil con-
sists of 16% Fe203, 66% SiO 2 and 10% AI20 3,
with a silica/sesquioxide ratio of 2.51. The high
proportion of silica is due to the contribution from
the quartz grains. A thin section study at a magni-
fication of 10 showed that the quartz grains are
embedded in the matrix of kaolinite and iron
oxides. Haematite has segregated into dark brown
crystals and coatings on pore channel walls. Fig. 2
shows the micro-structure of the lateritic soil which
was obtained using the JEOL 6400F scanning
electron microscope at the Electron Microscope
Centre at The University of Queensland, Australia.
The particle size distribution range is given in
Fig. 3 and Atterberg limits data and specific gravi-
ties are given in Table 2. Included in Fig. 3 are the
National Association of Australian State Road
Authorities (NAASRA, 1980) particle size limits
for application in road pavement construction.
A standard compaction test carried out in the
laboratory, in accordance with AS1289, 1977,
showed that the optimum moisture content
(OMC) of the lateritic soil was 11% and the
maximum dry density was 2.02 t m 3. California
bearing ratio (CBR) testing was carried out on the
lateritic soil by the Department of Transport,
Queensland, and the values of CBR lay between
35 and 90%.
 U. Mahalinga-lyer. D.J. Williams / Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71-80 73

I I 20 °
u TERRITORY I QUEENSLANO

WESTERN
:, :
_ . . . . . . L C, reenswa

AUSTRALIA I' SOUTH io(

AUSTRALIA .!. . . . , .-.'],-~-)
30 °
' .-..-~ IINEWSOUTH/
-J'~~I \/. I:--,-LE~
~.0 o
t,L/:

(a) 0 SO0 lO00km

t.._ J |

27":~5'

t
3o"

35

40'
0 i •

152 15' 20 25 30' 35'

Scale 1 "250,000

Fig. 1. (a) Locality map. (b) Geological map of study area. R-Jo, lower Jurassic sandstone and conglomerate; Jm, lower to middle
Jurassic Marburg sandstone, siltstone and shale; Tb, Tertiary basalt; Cza, Cainozoic gravel, sand and silt; Qa, Quaternary alluvial
gravel sand and silt.
74 U. 91ahalink,a-1 "or. D.J Williams Engim,ering Geolozy 46 (1997) 71 80

Table 1 chart. The failure envelope of the soil tested is

Mean climatological dala t'or the study area transferred to the chart and from the relative
Month Rainfall Temperature ( C 1 Humidity position of the failure envelope to the class bound-
(mm) 19.00 a.m. ) aries, the W A C C T class number is obtained. Fig. 4
Maximum Mimmmn shows a typical failure envelope plot from which
the WACCT class number was obtained. The
January 122.7 31.3 19.0 68
February 1(11.5 30.6 18.9 71
W A C C T class number at O M C (11%) was between
March 83,3 29.3 17.3 7(t 3.t) and 3.2, decreasing to between 2.4 and 2.0 at
April 54.3 26.9 13.6 71 90% O M C (9.9%) and to between 1.8 and 1.0 at
May 42.9 23.5 10. I 73 70% O M C (7.7%).
June 43. I 20.8 7.5 74
Suction measurements were carried out using
July 4(I.{1 20.5 6.1 71
August 26.9 22.1 6.7 67
the filter paper method (McQueen and Miller,
September 36.2 25.1 9.3 62 1968 ) on specimens obtained from triaxial samples
October 61.(~ 27.9 13.1 61 and on other specimens at different moisture
November 76.6 30.1 15.9 61 contents. Fig. 5 shows the variation of suction
December 1(13.2 31.3 18.1 65
with moisture content for drying and wetting
cycles.
Volumetric shrinkage was studied on two com-
pacted lateritic soil specimens of 106 m m diameter
and 110 m m height. The specimens were air-dried
at 23 C and 50% humidity, until a moisture content
of 2% was reached, and then allowed to swell
gradually. Fig. 6 shows the shrinkage and swelling
curves obtained.

4. Road construction and field testing

The Greenswamp borrow pit lateritic soil was

4
i used for the construction of the base for the Forest
Fig. 2. Micro-structure of Greenswamp lateritic soil.
Unconsolidated, undrained triaxial tests were
carried out on lateritic soil specimens of 100 mm
diameter and 200 mm height compacted at OMC.
Two sets of specimens were subsequently dried to
90 and 70% of OMC. The results of the tests were
used to assign the Western Australian Confined
Compression Test ( W A C C T ) class number which
is similar to the Texas class number. These tests
were carried out in accordance with Western
Australian Material Testing Manual Test WA
142.1. The specimen preparation and testing are
briefly explained in Mahalinga-lyer and Williams
(1994). The Western Australian Material Testing
Manual provides a W A C C T class classification
Hill to Fernvale road which is about 7 km from
the pit. The road was constructed in 1989-1990
over a length of 3 km and a total width of 9 m.
The lateritic soil was wetted to O M C using a water
tank and grader and compacted using a 10t
Burmac vibrating roller. One hundred percent
relative compaction was readily achieved with eight
to ten rolling passes at full vibration followed by
five to six passes of static rolling. The base was
left for 2 weeks open to traffic, and then sealed
over a central width of 7 m. The shoulders (0.5 m
on either side) were also sealed and the outer 0.5 m
width on both sides sloped to facilitate surface
drainage.
The strength of the base was tested 4 years after
construction using a Clegg Impact H a m m e r
(Clegg, 1976). The device consists of a compaction
hammer with a mass of 4.5 kg, to which is attached
 U. Mahalinga-Iyer, D.J. Williams / Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71-80 75

/
I00

90_
LIMits suggested by NAASRA (1980)
80_
itl
70_

o 60-
£.
a 5o_
q_

40_
u
£.
30_
n

£0

I0

0
t - I I I
0,001 0,01 0.I 1.0 10 100
Portic[e size, mm

Fig. 3. Particle size distribution data.

Table 2 sented in Fig. 7 and Table 3. The road is perform-

Physical properties of Greenswamp lateritic soil
ing well, carrying approximately 1000 vehicles per
Liquid Plasticity Linear Specific gravity day, of which 10% are commercial vehicles carry-
limit index shrinkage ing a maximum axle load of 11.5 t and no defects
(%) (%) (%) Coarse Fine have been found since construction.
(+2.36 mm) (-2.36 mm)

Greenswamp lateritic soil:

26.0 8.1 7.0 2.82 2.69
5. Discussion
NAASRA (1980) specification:
25.0 6.0 3.0
5.1. Mineralogical and chemical properties

an accelerometer. The hammer is dropped from a
height of 457 mm and, as it strikes the pavement,
the peak deceleration is recorded on a scale of
1 0 g = l impact value on the meter. The
Queensland Department of Transport recommends
dropping the hammer six times at each location,
averaging the last three readings to give the impact
value. The Clegg Impact Hammer Value (CIV) is
a measure of the strength of the base and a CIV
of 40 and above represents high strength. At each
test location, the seal was removed and samples
were taken for moisture content determination.
Field densities were also obtained, using the sand
replacement method. The results obtained are pre-
The silica/sesquioxide ratio of the lateritic soil
was found to be 2.51. Some researchers (Joachin
and Kandiah, 1941; Correia et al., 1969; Vargas,
1974) have used this ratio to define the lateritic
soil and they suggested the above ratio must be
less than 2. However, this approach has been
criticized by others (Pendelton and Sharasuvana,
1946; Alexander and Cady, 1962; De Graft-
Johnson et al., 1972; Gidigasu, 1976), who argued
that the silica-sesquioxide ratio is inadequate for
correctly assessing the nature and degree of lateri-
zation. From thin section studies, Alexander and
Cady (1962) have shown that the hardness of a
lateritic soil is controlled by the arrangement of
76 L/. Mahalinga-lver, D..I. Williams ,' Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71 ~;0

400

WACCT Class No. 3.0 to 3.2

¢ at I00 k P a = 35°
300
o,
f

~ 2oo

O>
.m
100

/
I00 100 200 300 400 500 600
Normal stress, kPa

Fig. 4. Strength envelope of Greenswamp lateritic soil compacted at OMC.

Wetting -- ~ - ~ ~

o I t --+-- t I --
0 a 4 6 8 10 12
ldoisture content, %

Fig. 5. Variation of suction with moisture content lbr compacted Greenswamp lateritic soil,
 U. Mahalinga-lyer, D.J. Williams/ Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71-80 77

0.39

o Drying
• Wetting
0.38

0.37
0
:,.3
=J

0,36
0

0.35

0.34 - - t I I I I I -
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

MoisLure c o n t e n t ,

Fig. 6. Shrinkage and swelling curves for compacted Greenswamp lateritic soil.

70

60 c
tp

50 • tp
• tp
• tp
co
40 • c

o
c s
30
8

t p Traffic w h e e l p a t h
c Centre
zo J i I I I
4 5 6 7 8 9 I0
Moisture content,

Fig. 7. Variation of strength with moisture content for Greenswamp lateritic base.
78 U. Mahalinga-lyer, D..L Williams / Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71 ..80
Table 3
Change in dry density
Location Dry density {tm 3)
Initial After 4 years
1 2.16 2.23
2 2.29 2.35
iron oxide in relation to other minerals. The sig-
nificant difference between a hard lateritic crust
and a soft lateritic soil of similar chemical composi-
tion, is explained by the iron oxide in the hard
crust having greater crystallinity and having segre-
gated from the matrix to accumulate as pore
channel linings and in the exterior shell. De Graft-
Johnson et al. (1972) stated that the lateritic
gravels from Ghana had silica/sesquioxide ratio
between 2.5 and 6, due to the presence of quartz.
But these gravels showed very high mechanical
strength and perlbrmed very well in the road
pavements.
In the lateritic soil tested, the quartz is sur-
rounded by iron oxide and is crushed during
specimen preparation for chemical analysis, result-
ing in the high silica/sesquioxide ratio recorded.
However, the thin section study showed that haem-
atite has segregated from the matrix and appeared
as pore channel linings. This shows that the soil
tested is in a good state of laterization. Though
the chemical analysis gives useful information
about the composition of lateritic soil, the thin
section study reveals its state of laterization.
5.2. Particle size distribution and plasticity
Fig. 3 shows the particle size distribution of the
lateritic soil to be slightly coarser above 2.36 mm
size than the limits suggested by NAASRA (1980)
for the use of natural gravel as a road pavement
base material. The Atterberg limit values for the
lateritic soil shown in Table 2, also do not comply
with the NAASRA (1980) specification. As
explained by Mahalinga-Iyer and Williams (1994),
the NAASRA values were obtained for temperate
zone soils. However, these values can be relaxed
to suit the environment, as the performance of a
lateritic road pavement is influenced by the climatic
environment (Wooltorton, 1954; Gidigasu, 1984).
5.3. Compaction. strength and suction
The CBR values for the lateritic soil lay in the
range from 35 to 90%. The CBR is the most
widely-used value to select a road pavement mate-
rial. The CBR does not reflect the strength and
stiffness of the soil directly, while the performance
of a road base is mainly influenced by its strength
and stiffness. The WACCT class number reflects
the shear strength of a road pavement base mate-
rial, and the Western Australian Main Roads
Department recommends that the class number
should not be greater than two at the expected
field moisture content, for satisfactory
perlbrmance.
Fig. 4 shows the strength envelope, and angle of
shearing resistance ¢ at 100 kPa normal stress of
the lateritic soil compacted at the OMC (11.0%)
using Standard compaction. The WACCT class
number at OMC is in the range from 3.0 to 3.2,
decreasing to between 1.8 and 1.0 at a moisture
content of 7.7%. The in situ moisture contents lay
between 5.3 and 7.9%. Therefore the WACCT
class number at the in situ moisture content is
approximately 1.4, which indicates high strength
and implies good performance of the base. The
angle of shearing resistance increases from 35: at
11.0% moisture content to 4 9 at 7.7% moisture
content. Similar observations were made by Toll
(1990) and by Mahalinga-Iyer and Williams
(1994).
Fig. 5 shows the variation of suction as com-
pacted lateritic soil specimens were dried from
OMC and subsequently wetted. The value of suc-
tion varies from 3.22pF (166kPa) to 5.25 pF
(17 780 kPa). For a particular value of moisture
content, the suction value for the drying cycle is
higher than that for the wetting cycle. Similar
observations were reported by Toll et al. (1987)
and by Mahalinga-Iyer and Williams (1994) lbr
compacted lateritic soils. Therefore, the high angle
of shearing resistance observed and high suction
contribute to the high shear strength observed in
the field, as the base remains unsaturated in the
particular climatic environment.
 U. Mahalinga-lyer, D.J. Williams / Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71 80
5.4. Shrinkage and swelling
Fig. 6 shows the shrinkage and swelling curves
for two compacted lateritic soil specimens. When
the specimens were dried from OMC of 11.0% to
a moisture content of 2.0%, the volumetric shrink-
age was only 1.8%. George (1968) stated that the
amount of shrinkage is primarily a function of the
amount and type of clay minerals present and the
moulding moisture content. The shrinkage
increases with increase in clay content, and mont-
morilionite contributes more than illite or kaolinite
mineral. The higher the moulding moisture
content, the higher the tendency to form a dis-
persed structure, and accordingly the shrinkage is
higher. In the lateritic soil tested, the clay fraction
is 4-6%, and the dominant clay mineral is kaolin-
ite. Fig. 2 shows the micro-structure of the lateritic
soil, in which it can be seen that the particles are
micro-aggregated and bonded together. Kaolinite
usually has a dispersed plate micro-structure, but
laterization caused the above change. The bonds
between the particles at the micro-level also pro-
vide additional resistance to volume change. All
the above factors contribute to the low shrinkage
observed in the compacted lateritic soil. Hence,
shrinkage does not cause any problems in the field.
The compacted lateritic soil specimens showed
slight swelling in the laboratory, but this may not
be significant in the field as the base is confined.
5. 5. FieM behaviour and performance
Fig. 7 shows the variation of moisture content
with the Clegg Impact Hammer values (CIV)
measured on the 4-year-old lateritic soil base. As
expected, the CIV decreases with increase in mois-
ture content. Along the centre of the road, the
CIV lay between 35 and 58 (equivalent CBR of 82
and 207%, respectively) and the moisture content
lay between 7.4 and 5.3%. Along the traffic path,
the CIV lay between 43 and 55 (equivalent CBR
of 114 and 192%, respectively) and the moisture
content lay between 7.4 and 6.9%. These CIV
values show that the strength of the base is fairly
high. From Fig. 7, it is also clear that the strength
along the traffic path is higher than that at the
centre, at similar moisture contents. This indicates
79
that trafficking as well as time causes an increase
in strength. The dry density of the base also
increases with time and trafficking, as shown by
the values given in Table 3.
Since construction, no defects (such as rutting,
cracks or pot holes) have been found on the road
surface. The performance of the road has been
good. This is due to the high strength of the
lateritic soil base, which in turn depends on its
moisture content, with the sealed shoulders pre-
venting any moisture migration. Therefore, for
good performance of lateritic soil pavements, the
shoulders must be adequately compacted, sealed
and sloped to facilitate surface drainage to prevent
any moisture migration.
Based on the above study, a selection criterion
is suggested in Table 4 for use in selecting a lateritic
soil developed on sandstone, for the construction
of lightly trafficked road pavements in a sub-
tropical climatic environment. A similar selection
criterion for lateritic soil formed on basalt was
proposed by Mahalinga-Iyer and Williams (1994)
for lightly trafficked road pavements in a sub-
tropical climatic environment. The basalt-derived
soil contains only kaolinite and haematite and is
more plastic (PI = 13%) than the sandstone-derived
soil (PI =9%). The allowable design traffic for the
basalt-derived soil is 5 x 105 ESA, whereas that for
Table 4
Suggested selection criterion for lateritic soil from sandstone as
base course in well-drained sealed road pavements, in sub-tropi-
cal climatic environments: design traffic (ESA), < 1.58 × 106;
rainfall deficit (mm), > 950
Suggested Old
WACCT at 90% OMC
Class No. < 2.2
Cohesion (kPa) > 50
Tensile strength (kPa) > 55
Soaked CBR >40 80
Maximum size (mm) 26.5 19
Plasticity Index (%) <9 6
Linear Shrinkage (%) <7 3
Notes: ( 1) shoulders must be sealed; (2) the specimens to assess
WACCT class number must be compacted at 100% OMC
(Standard compaction), dried to 90% OMC, and cured for
3 weeks without further moisture loss, prior to testing; ( 3 ) min-
eralogically, haematite, quartz and kaolinite must be present;
(4) rainfall deficit = annual evaporation - annual rainfall.
811 U. Mahalinga-,~ver. D.J. Fv)lliams / Engineering Geology 46 (1997) 71 80
the sandstone-derived soil is 1.58 x 10~ ESA. The
basalt-derived soil is more suitable for an area that
has a rainfall deficit (annual e v a p o r a t i o n - annual
rainfall; Cocks and Hamory, 1988) higher than
1300 mm. The sandstone-derived soil can be used
in an area that has a rainfall deficit higher than
950 ram.
6. Conclusions
The lateritic soil developed on sandstone in
south-east Queensland, Australia comprises geo-
thite, haematite, kaolinite and quartz. The high
silica/sesquioxide ratio is due to the presence of
quartz. The particle size distribution and plasticity
of the soil do not conform to the NAASRA
specification for use in road pavement construc-
tion. The WACCT class number is more suitable
for estimating the strength and field performance
of the soil than its CBR. The high shear strength
of the compacted lateritic soil is due to its high
angle of shearing resistance and high suction. The
field strength measured by the Clegg impact
hammer and dry density have increased with time
and trafficking. The volumetric shrinkage of the
compacted soil is low due to its low clay content
and its micro-structure. Based on the study of field
performance, a selection criterion t~r the use of
lateritic soil developed on sandstone in lightly
trafficked road pavements in sub-tropical climatic
environments is suggested.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to acknowledge the
Queensland Department of Transport and the
Laidley Shire Council tbr their assistance and
approval to test the lateritic soil base.
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