Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20, pp. 287-296.
Printed in Northern Ireland
Soil properties and pavement performance in the Niger Delta
J. O. A r u m a l a I & E. G. A k p o k o d j e 2
1Department of Civil Engineering and 2 Department of Geology, University of
Port Harcourt, P.M.B. 5323, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Abstract
The pavement conditions of roads in the Niger Delta and the
geotechnical properties of the soil materials used in
constructing them were studied in an attempt to find
permanent solutions to the recurrent widespread pavement
failures in the region. The most severe surface deformations,
pavement cracking and failures occur in the seasonally
flooded fresh/salt water swamps because of the high water
table, poor drainage and the very fine-grained (>70% fines)
silty clays/clays used. It is suggested that a pavement design
consisting of well compacted, subgrade/sub-base, cement
stabilized base course, paved shoulders and good drainage
would ensure good performance and avoid the expensive
haulage of better base materials from long distances.
Introduction
Within the past decade, several modern highways
(especially trunk A roads) have been constructed in
the Niger Delta whilst others are either under
construction or still in the planning stage (Fig. 1). All
the completed roads were constructed with soil
materials that were locally available within the region.
Widespread pavement failures have occurred in most
of the completed highways and many road sections
have been rendered untrafficable barely 2 years after
completion. These pavement failures may be attrib-
uted to several factors, namely: geotechnical pro-
perties of the soils, topography and drainage, climate,
depth to water table, geology, design and construction
methods. No study has been carried out to relate the
pavement performance in the area to these factors. In
two recent studies, Akpokodje (1986a, b) discussed
the engineering properties and classification of the
superficial soils of the Niger delta and a method for
reducing the cement contents required to stabilize two
of the soil types for pavement construction.
The study reported here was carried out to examine
the geotechnical properties of the soil materials used
to construct the major roads in the Niger Delta in
order to correlate pavement performance in the
region with the properties of the construction
material. This study was prompted by the desire to
find lasting solutions to the recurrent, widespread
pavement failures in the Niger Delta which constitute
a serious constraint to socio-economic activities in the
region.
Methods of study
Both field and laboratory studies were undertaken.
Nine major roads were chosen: (1) East-West
highway, (2) Mbiama-Yenegoa, (3) Kolo Junction-
Ogbia, (4) Ahoada-Ebocha, (5) Ahoada-Degema,
(6) Taba Junction-Bori-Kono, (7) Port Harcourt-
Igwuruta-Okehi, (8) Port Harcourt-Owerri and (9)
Port Harcourt-Aba expressway (Fig. 1).
A visual condition survey was carried out on all the
roads to evaluate the physical conditions of the
pavements. In assessing the pavement conditions of
the roads, the following distresses/defects were
considered: (a) cracking, (b) surface deformation, (c)
surfacing defects, (d) failed areas, (e) shoulder
conditions and (f) drainage conditions. Each
distress/defect was quantitatively rated, on the basis
of its extent (density) and severity whereas the
drainage conditions were qualitatively assessed (Table
1). A typical recording on the pavement evaluation
chart used during the field study is shown in Fig. 2.
This method of pavement evaluation, which has been
adopted primarily from the works of Chong et al.
(1975); Shahin & Kohn (1979); Carmicheal et al.
(1981) and Carmicheal (1982), is currently used by the
Pavement Evaluation Unit of the Nigerian Federal
Ministry of Works.
Soil materials for laboratory testing were taken
from under the failed sections of the pavement as well
as from borrow pits along the roadsides, especially
where failed areas are either scarce or have been
patched. In all cases, soil samples were taken at
various depths to determine: (a) differences between
soil materials used for the base, sub-base and
embankment or subgrade and (b) vertical variations in
the natural soil profile. The laboratory tests carried
out on the soil samples included particle size
distribution, Atterberg limits, linear shrinkage com-
paction and CBR. These various laboratory tests were
performed in accordance with the procedures specified
by the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM 1289, 1979) and the British Standards
Institution (B.S. 1924, 1975).
Physical environmental conditions
The climate, geomorphology and geology of the Niger
Delta have been described in detail by various authors
288 J . O . ARUMALA & E. G. AKPOKODJE

i r _.~._ .~..,_.~.~ ..... . r . x~

Expressway i i
t.'k t
Easl-West Highway t NIGERIA i;

Other major tarred roads

i
..... Roadsproposed or under construction
/
_ !

barho Zhl

,/
Omoku

Okehi

Aba

'art Harcourt

Junction

I0 0 20 40krn
I I I I I I

FIG. 1. Location map of the Niger Delta and the roads studied.

(Allen 1965; Short & Stauble 1967; Akpokodje 1979,
1986a, b). The Niger Delta has a tropical rain forest
climate with distinct wet (April-October) and dry
(November-March) seasons. The annual rainfall
ranges from 2000 mm inland to over 4000 mm at the
coast and approximately 85% of the annual rainfall
occurs in the wet season (Table 2). The Niger Delta
constitutes an extensive deltaic plain with numerous
marshes and backswamps that occupy as much as 50%
of the entire region. These areas are usually
submerged during the wet season where flood waters
range from 0.5 to 4 m deep.
Design features and pavement conditions
The standard practice of pavement design in the Niger
Delta follows the guidelines of the Nigerian Federal
Ministry of Works General Specifications (Roads and
Bridges, Vol. II) which were adopted from TRRL
Road Note 31 (1971), without much modification.
Although the exact design specifications of the
different roads vary according to the category, they
fall within the following general groups:
(i) Subgrade; compacted to 95 to 100% B.S.
compaction with soaked CBR of 5 to 11%.
(ii) 50 to 120 mm sub-base, compacted to 100% West
African Standard compaction.
(iii) 50 to 150 mm base of either coarse grained soils
compacted to 100% West African Standard
Compaction with a soaked CBR of at least 30%
or a cement stabilized soil (5 to 7% cement
content).
(iv) 30 to 90 mm double bituminous surface dressing
of rolled asphalt.

Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20

 SOIL PROPERTIES AND PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE 289

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Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20

290 J.O. ARUMALA & E. G. AKPOKODJE

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Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, V 0 1 . 2 0

 SOIL PROPERTIES AND PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE 291

TABLE 2. Average annual rain- A summary of the pavement conditions is given in

fall at some locations in the
Niger Delta
Location Average annual
rainfall (mm)
Patani 2073
Port Harcourt 2394
Degema 2333
Oloibiri 3173
Brass 3573
Opobo 3698
Bonny 4366
The Nigerian specifications for base course materials
are: ~<15% fines; WL~<30; PI~<13, unsoaked and
soaked CBR of i>80 and >30, respectively (PI =
plasticity index).
Close examination of the roads revealed very little
adherence to the design specifications. This is mainly
due to poor supervision by government officials and,
in some cases, the lowering of the design specifications
during construction as a result of insufficient funds.
The soaked CBR content of the subgrade and some of
the base materials was found to be as low as 2% and
most of the roads do not have well defined sub-bases.
The base courses were only stabilized with cement in
localized places instead of along the entire length of
the road. This is inspite of the fact that more than
15% of the material passes the 7 4 # m sieve. The
measured thicknesses of the base courses range from
100 to 150mm whereas the bituminous surface is
between 10 and 90 mm thick. Most of the roads are
either without well constructed shoulders or have
unpaved ones. However, paved shoulders are now
being constructed on the East-West highway.
Table 3. They were generally moderate to poor
although there are a few good ones. All showed signs
of fatigue cracking and patched areas are numerous,
indicating previous widespread pavement failure. The
worst roads in terms of surface deformation and
pavement failure are: Patani-Kaiama, Mbiama-
Yenegoa and Kolo Junction-Ogbia. Just 21 years after
completion of the Patani-Kaiama road, the whole
pavement has completely broken down. Figure 3
shows a completely disintegrated section of this road.
At present, the whole section (18 km) of the road is
being renovated. The entire pavement has been
removed and replaced with: (1) an approximately
300mm thick sub-base composed of dredged river
channel sand, (2) approximately 100 mm thick base
course made up of crushed hard rock aggregates and
(3) 50mm surface dressing of hot mixed asphalt
concrete. Although the channel sands were com-
pacted, they did not bind very well because of lack of
fines. The addition of about 3 to 5% of cement would
have probably given the sub-base adequate cohesion
and bearing capacity.
The entire length of the 45 km Kolo Junction-
Ogbia road has failed completely, only 21 years after
its completion. The road has no organized shoulder
and the low level of the finished roadway has resulted
in poor drainage and frequent flooding/waterlogging.
Figure 4 shows the base (top surface) course of a
section of the road where the clayey soil used had
undergone extensive tension/shrinkage cracking on
drying. Such soils also swell extensively when
saturated and the seasonal shrinkage and swelling lead
to pavement failure.
Where there is an organized shoulder, they are very
poorly compacted and therefore cannot withstand the
weight of vehicles during the wet season. Figure 5

TABLE 3. Results of pavement condition survey 1

Year of Surface
com- Distance deform- Surfacing Failed Shoulder Drainage
Road pletion (km ) Cracking ation defects areas conditions conditions
East-West Road
Patani-Kaiama 1983 18 Slight Severe Slight Severe 3 1
Kaiama-Ahoada 1981 40 Slight Moderate Slight Moderate 1 4
Ahoada-Imo River 1981 115 Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate 1 4
Mbiama-Yenegoa 1978 28 Slight Severe Slight Severe 1 4
Kolo Junction-Ogbia 1983 45 Moderate Severe Moderate Severe 1 4
Ahoada-Ebocha 1978 82 Slight Moderate Moderate Moderate 1 4
Ahoada-Degema 1977 48 Moderate Moderate Slight Severe 1 4
Taba Junction-Bori-Kono 1977 25 Slight Slight Slight Slight 1 4
PH-Igwuruta-Okehi 1978 100 Moderate Moderate Slight Severe 1 4
PH-Aba expressway 1980 50 Moderate Moderate Slight Moderate 1 4
PH-Owerri 1980 100 Moderate Moderate Slight Severe 1 4
1 See text for description of categories of severity and density.

Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20

292 J. O. A R U M A L A
FIG. 3. Completely broken down section of the East-West
highway between Patani and Kaiama.
FIG. 4. Extensive shrinkage cracking of the base materials of
the Kolo Junction-Ogbia road.
FIG, 5. Failed shoulder of the Patani-Kaiama road.
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20
& E. G. A K P O K O D J E
FIG. 6. High shoulder drop off along the East-West
highway.
shows a failed shoulder on the Patani-Kaiama road.
The shoulder drop off on most roads is severe (Fig. 6),
especially where they are unpaved and have been
seriously affected by erosion. The drainage conditions
of the roads were also poor. It is common to find
portions of the pavement and shoulder waterlogged
for days; Fig. 7 shows a section of the flooded
Mbiama-Yenegoa road.
FI~. 7. Flooded section of the Mbiama-Yenegoa road.
Soil properties
A summary of the geotechnical properties of soil
materials taken from under the failed sections of the
various roads and the borrow pits is given in Table 4.
The East-West highway was divided into three
segments since it crosses different geomorphic,
geologic and drainage/hydrogeologic units. The
particle size distributions of most of the soils are
characterized by an excess of fine materials (<74/~m),
ranging from 17 to 94%. About 95% of the soils from
 SOIL P R O P E R T I E S A N D P A V E M E N T P E R F O R M A N C E 293

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Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20

294 J. O. A R U M A L A
the failed road section of the riverine areas (seasonally
flooded fresh and salt water mangrove swamps)
contain more than 40% fines. Although soils from the
permanently dry lands contain less than 40% fines,
they still lack adequate amounts of the coarse fraction
(56 to 93% passed through a 425 ~m sieve). The silt
fractions of the soils from the riverine areas are high
(37 to 60%), in contrast to the very small amounts
(<10%) in soils from the permanently dry lands.
Generally, the soils are of low to medium plasticity
although the liquid limit of some samples may be as
high as 65%. Those soils that are predominantly made
up of the fine sand and silt fractions are usually
nonplastic. The majority of soil samples fall above the
'A' line on the Casagrande plasticity chart and the rest
either fall on or slightly below the line. Thus, although
the soils are mainly inorganic clays, some inorganic
silts and dual classification soils (silt/clay) also occur.
The relatively low plasticity of the soils in view of the
high percentage of fines (up to 94%) is an indication
of the absence of significant amounts of very active
clay minerals such as montmorillonite. This view is
reinforced by the low percentage of linear shrinkage.
The ranges of the achievable laboratory maximum
dry densities and optimum moisture contents with
standard Proctor compaction effort are 1523 to
2060 kg/m 3 and 10 to 26%, respectively; the values for
modified AASHO compaction effort are 1644 to
2142 kg/m 3 and 8 to 23%, respectively. As would be
expected, soils with large amounts of fines (e.g.
Patani-Kaiama, Kaiama-Ahoada, Mbiama-Yenegoa
and Kolo Junction-Ogbia) gave lower dry densities
and higher optimum moisture contents. The results of
the modified AASHO compaction show that the use
of heavier and more powerful compaction plants will
increase the dry densities achievable in the field.
Both the unsoaked and soaked (4 days) CBR values
are low (2 to 67%). The soaked values of the very
silty/clayey soils are in most cases 60% or more lower
than their unsoaked values. This means that the
strength or bearing capacity of the subgrade, sub-base
or base course built with such materials will be
reduced by more than half of its strength (at the time
of construction) if allowed to absorb additional water.
Suitability of the soils for base course
construction
The specifications for mechanically stable base course
materials stipulate: (1) a certain particle size
distribution to ensure high dry density when
compacted and (2) certain amounts of fines and levels
of plasticity which ensure preservation of both wet
and dry strength. In addition, 80% unsoaked CBR is
specified for light traffic roads. A comparison of the
soil properties of the Niger Delta with the Nigerian
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20
& E. G. A K P O K O D J E
specifications for base course materials shows that
most of the soils do not satisfy the Nigerian standard
because: (1) they have excess fines (i.e. fines >15%),
(2) the plasticity values of the cohesive soils are higher
than the specified values (i.e. WL ~<30; PI<~ 12) and
(3) the CBR (both soaked and unsoaked) are much
lower than the minimum acceptable value (80%). If
all the Nigerian specifications have to be met, then
none of the Niger Delta soils should be used for base
course construction. This would mean hauling suitable
materials from distances of 80 to 200 km. Under these
conditions, it would be more economical to improve
the properties of these substandard materials by
stabilization and to use new design and construction
methods that take into account the soil properties and
the physical environmental conditions.
With regard to the construction of embankments
and general filling, more than 80% of the sandy soil of
the permanently dry areas meets the Nigerian
specifications (fines ~<35%, soaked CBR~>5%)
whereas the upper layers of most soils from the
riverine areas do not satisfy these specifications.
However, the sands/sandy lithologies that usually
occur at depth constitute acceptable fill materials.
The general poor performance of roads in the Niger
Delta can be attributed principally to the substandard
paving properties of the soil materials. Other
contributory factors include poor compaction and
drainage, lack of paved, waterproof shoulders and a
high water table. Severe pavement cracking, surface
deformations and failures that occur in the Patani-
Kaiama, Mbiama-Yenegoa and Kolo Junction-Ogbia
roads are due to the very fine grained (>70% fines)
silty clays/clays used.
Although most of the sandy loam/sandy clay soils in
the permanently dry areas fall below the standards
specified for conventional base materials, the majority
of the roads built with them or with their cement
stabilized mixtures showed a high degree of perfor-
mance and durability provided the construction was
properly performed with good shoulders and drain-
age. This clearly shows that durable roads can be built
in the Niger Delta with the so-called substandard soil
materials once the design and construction methods
take into account the poor geotechnical properties of
the soils and the environmemal conditions.
Proposed pavement design
In designing flexible road pavements for the Niger
Delta, it is important to consider the following factors
which greatly influence their performance: (i) amount
of traffic, (ii) soil properties and sub-surface
occurrence of highly compressible organic clays and
peat and (iii) drainage, seasonal flooding and depth to
water table.
Three categories of roads exist in the Niger Delta,
 SOIL PROPERTIES AND PAVEMENT
TABLE 5. Relevant geotechnical properties of the two subgrade materials and
estimated pavement thickness
Percentage
passing Plastic
0.074mm limit
Subgrade material sieve (%)
Sandy loam/sandy clay 17-40 33-45
Silty clay/clay 60-94 38-65
they are: (i) expressways, over 1500 commercial
vehicles per day (e.g. Port Harcourt-Aba express-
way); (ii) trunk roads, 450 to 1500 commercial
vehicles per day (e.g. East-West highway, Port
Harcourt-Owerri road); (iii) all other public roads,
150 to 450 commercial vehicles per day. Only the last
two categories will be considered because it is very
unlikely that expressways of any length will be built in
the region in the immediate future. The annual
growth rates o f commercial traffic are not expected to
exceed 6% and a 10 year design life will be assumed
for all roads.
Two major groups of natural subgrade materials
occur in the region: (a) sandy loams/sandy clays found
in the permanently dry land and (b) silty clays/clays
which occur in the seasonally flooded fresh/salt water
swamps and meander belt. The geotechnical pro-
perties (ranges) of these two groups of soils relevant
to pavement design are given in Table 5. Using the
standard CBR design procedure (Road Note 29,
1970; Road Note 31, 1971) which combines subgrade
CBR and a cumulative number of standard axles, the
minimum total thicknesses of the pavements over the
two types of subgrade materials range from 300 to
700 mm for a daily traffic of 150 to 1500 commercial
vehicles. The in situ subgrade material should be
compacted to 100% B.S. and embankments built with
the same material to bring the finished road level to at
least i m above the envisaged maximum water level.
Where highly compressible organic clays or peat occur
on or near the surface, they must be excavated.
As mentioned earlier, no standard conventional
base course materials with the required gradings,
plasticity and a minimum unsoaked CBR of 80%
occur naturally in the Niger Delta. The use of cement
stabilized base course with adequate sub-base is
suggested in preference to the expensive haulage of
acceptable base materials from distances exceeding
80 km. In the permanently dry lands, the sub-base can
be constructed with the in situ soil, compacted to at
least 95% modified A A S H O and with a minimum
soaked CBR of 8%. In the case of the seasonally
flooded swamps, similar compaction and CBR
specifications are suggested but the composition of the
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20
PERFORMANCE 295
Estimated thickness
Plas- (ram)
ticity 150 to 450 450 to 1000
index Soaked commercial commercial
(%) CBR traffic traffic
10-19 8-18 300 350
15-35 2-5 600 700
sub-b;:~se should be a 1:1 mix (by weight) of the silty
clay/day and either the underlying uniformly graded
sand or dredged river channel sands. The base course
can be made up of the same soil materials as the
sub-base, but stabilized with varying proportions of
cement (e.g. sandy loam/sandy clay with 4% cement
and 1:1 mix of silty clay/clay and sand with 6%
cement). The soil/cement mixture must be compacted
to at least 100% B.S. and should also possess a
maximum 7 day compressive strength of 1720 kN/m 2
(~250 psi). The minimum thickness of the bituminous
surface dressing should be 50mm. The suggested
thicknesses of the different pavement layers are given
in Fig. 8.
The use of a cement stabilized mixture of local in
situ soil and uniformly graded sand has been
successful in the recent construction of a 2.5 km dual
carriageway access road to the National Fertilizer
Company Ltd (NAFCON), Onne, near Port Har-
court. A similar construction method was used for the
10 year old Western Avenue dual carriageway in
Lagos.
It is suggested that shoulders should be constructed
with the same materials and specifications as the
sub-base and paved with a 10 to 25 mm single coat of
surface bituminous dressing. The soil/cement base
course is impermeable and therefore does not need
separate drainage. However, the slope (3 to 5%), the
cross falls and the size (1 to 2 m) of the side ditches
must be adequate to facilitate the high runoff of the
equitorial rain forest region. Where shoulders are
unpaved, they must be densely grassed to prevent
erosion. Good drainage is essential since all road
failures occur during the rainy season.
Conclusion
The following conclusions can be drawn from the
present study.
(1) The very poor pavement performance of roads
in the seasonally flooded areas is primarily caused by
the use of highly substandard soil materials. Other
296 J. O. ARUMALA & E. G. AKPOKODJE

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A a C 150-450 commercial vehicles per day

B 8 D 450- 1500 commercial vehicles per day

FIG. 8. Thickness of the proposed pavement design.

important contributary factors include poor design, a AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS 1979. Annual
high water table and failure to adhere to design Book of American Society for Testing and Materials
specifications. Standards.
(2) None of the in situ soils of the Niger Delta BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTE 1975. Methods of Testing
meets the standard specifications of acceptable base Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. British Standard
1924.
course materials; they therefore require cement CARMICHEAL, R. F. 1982. The role of visual conditions
stabilization. surveys in pavement management systems. Report
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Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, London, 1987, Vol. 20