CHAPTER-II: Geometric Design Of Highways

OUTLINES
2

 2.1 Introduction

 2.2 Design Controls and Criteria

 2.3 Elements of Geometric Design

 2.3.1 Horizontal Alignment

 2.3.2 Vertical Alignment

 2.3.3 Cross-Sectional Elements of Highway

 2.1 INTRODUCTION
3

 Highway geometric design is the process whereby the dimension &layout of the
road through the terrain is designed to meet the needs of the road users.

 Is used to determine the safe, efficient, & economic operation of highway.

 Factors to be considered in Geometric Design:

 Long service year
 Avoid faulty designs which may need large costs of rectify

 Consistent design with the standard

 Road signs & intersection lightings should be included
 Safety elements should be included
 Initial construction & operation costs should be considered
 2.2 Design Controls And Criteria
4

 The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of

design controls, engineering criteria, and project specific
objectives which include:
I. Functional classification of the road
II. Nature of terrain
III. Sight distance
IV. Design Vehicle
V. Design traffic volume and composition
VI. Design speed
VII. Human Factor
VIII. Environment Factor
 I. Functional Classification of Road
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 II. Nature of Terrain
6

 The geometric design elements such as gradients, sight distance, cross sections,
radius of curvature, speeds, etc. of a highway are affected by nature of terrain
(topography, physical features, and land use).
 Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:

FLAT: Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road, having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical
alignment (transverse terrain slope up to 5 percent).
 Cont...
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 ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and
fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some
restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
Cont...
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 MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges.

This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment
obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance
(transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent).
Cont...
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 ESCARPMENT: Escarpment include situations where switchback roadway

sections are used or side hill transverse sections which cause considerable earthwork
quantities, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent.
 III.Sight Distance
10

 Sight distance: is the distance along a roadway throughout which an object of specified
height is continuously visible to the driver.
 This distance is dependent on the height of the driver’s eye above the road surface, the
specified object height above the road surface, and the height and lateral position of sight
obstructions within the driver’s line of sight.
 For highway safety, the designer must provide sight distances of sufficient length that
drivers can control the operation of their vehicles.
 There are various sight distances. However, the following sight type of distances will
discuss in this portion.
A. Stopping sight distance [SSD]
B. Decision Sight Distance[DSD]
C. Passing sight distance [PSD]
D. Intersection sight distance [ISD]
 A. Stopping Sight Distance
11

 Stopping sight distance: is the minimum distance required to stop a vehicle traveling
before it reaches a stationary object in the vehicle’s path.

 The stopping distance depends on several factors, including the road surface, gradient of
road and the driver’s reflexes.

 Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:

(1) Brake reaction distance: the distance moved from the instant the object is sighted
to the moment the brakes are applied (perception & brake reaction time, referred to as
the total reaction time)
(2) Braking distance. The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins.
V2
SSD= d1+d2 SSD  0.278 * Prt * V 
254  f  G 
 Cont.…
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SSD= d1+d2 V t
d1  v  t 


o d1 = total reaction distance(m) 3.6

o d2 = breaking distance (m)
v2
d2 
o V =initial vehicle speed (km/h)
2(a  Gg )
o v = ditto but (m/s)
2
V
o G = gradient (%) positive uphill & 
a
negative downhill.
2  3.6  9.81(
2
 G)
o f=a/g=a/9.81 = coefficient of 9.81
2
longitudinal friction. V

o t= reaction time [2.5sec]
254 ( f  G )
 B. Decision Sight Distance
13

 Decision sight distance: is the distance needed for a driver to detect

and perceive an obstacle or information , and select an appropriate
maneuver.
 Is important when a driver approaches a traffic control device, or
posted information signs.
 DSD for change in speed, path, or direction on rural, suburban, and
urban road is given by

DSD  0.278V  t

 Where t ranges b/n [10.2sec,14.5sec] –AASHTO (2001)

 C. Passing Sight Distance
14

 Passing sight distance: is the minimum sight distance on two way single
roadway roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass
another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle
traveling at the design speed.
 Assumptions in computing safe PSD
 The overtaken vehicle travels @ a uniform speed

 The passing vehicle is required to follow @ the same speed until there is an
opportunity to pass
 The driver of the passing vehicle requires a certain period of time to start his
maneuver
 The passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and its average
speed during its occupancy of the left lane is greater than that of the overtaken
vehicle
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Control of Sight Distance

Sight distance should be checked during design and adjustments made to meet the
minimum requirements . The following values should be used for the determination of
sight lines.
 Driver’s eye height = 1.07m

 Object height for SSD= 0.15m

 Object height for PSD = 1.30m

 Object height for DSD = 0.00m

The above values are for simple utility vehicle, and hence different values are used for large
vehicles.
 Cont.…
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Sight Distance for Horizontal Curve

 Cont.…
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Sight Distance for Vertical Curve

 D. Intersection Sight Distance
21

 Is similar to SSD, except that the object being viewed is another vehicle that may be

entering the road from a side road or crossing the road at an intersection.

 The driver approaching the intersection on the through road should have a clear view of

the intersection including any vehicles stopped, waiting to cross, or turning.

 The safety at intersection areas can be controlled by:
 Level-I: Basic rules of the road
 Level-II: Direct assignment of right of way using yield or stop signs.
 Level-III: Traffic signalization
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 Example2.1: Determine the minimum stopping sight required for a

road segment with maximum speed limit 75km/h. The road segment is
flat train with zero vertical grade and moves at acceleration
3.68m/sec2. Assume reaction-perception time 2.5sec.
 Example2.2:Determine the minimum passing sight required having the
following data:
 Average speed passing vehicle =60km/hr

 Difference in speed passed and passing=10km/h

 Time of initial maneuver=2.5 second

 Average acceleration passing vehicle=2.5km/h/s

 Time passing vehicle occupies left lane=5 second

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 Exercise 2.1: determine the maximum speed limit for a road section with minimum
stopping sight distance 120m and moving at acceleration 3.5m/sec2 on upward
grade 3%. Assume the reaction-perception time=2.5second.

 Exercise2.2:While descending a -7% grade at a speed of 90 km/h, George notices a

large object in the roadway ahead of him. Without thinking about any alternatives,
George stabs his brakes and begins to slow down. Assuming that George is so
paralyzed with fear that he won't engage in an avoidance maneuver, calculate the
minimum distance at which George must have seen the object in order to avoid
colliding with it. You can assume that the roadway surface is concrete and that the
surface is wet. You can also assume that George has a brake reaction time of 0.9
seconds because he is always alert on this stretch of the road.
 Cont.…
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 Exercise2.3 :Based on the given figure below, check whether an

ISD meets the sight distance requirements (safe operation) or not,
which structure (Hotel or shop(s)) need re- shape (remove)?
 IV. Design Vehicle
30

 Physical and Performance characteristics of vehicles affect geometric design

Physical characteristics Performance characteristics
 Power to weight ratio  Acceleration rates
 Minimum turning rad  deceleration rates
 Vehicle height & width  Air pollution
 Driver Eye Height  Noise pollution

Affects
 width of the traffic lane
 Capacity and turning radius of roads
 Selection of max. gradient
 Intersections, ramp, climbing or passing lane design

 The vehicle fleet in Ethiopia is classified into four design vehicles categories(DV1-DV4)
 DS1-DS5 = All DV
 DS6& DS7, DS8 & DS9 = DV1-DV3, DS10=DV1
 Cont.….
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Design Vehicle Design Overall (m) Overhang

Wheel Min.
Vehicle (m)
base Design
(m) Turning
Designation Height Width Length Front Rear
Radius
(m)

4x4 Utility DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Vehicle
Single Unit DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Truck
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8. 13.7
Combination 4=
13.2
 V. Traffic Volume and Composition
32

 Information on traffic volumes, traffic composition and traffic loading

influences the design of geometric features such as no of lanes, widths,
alignment and grades.
 The traffic has a major impact on the selection of road class and standards.
 Traffic volume – AADT, ADT, PHV, DHV

 Directional distribution – the percentage of traffic volume flowing in each

direction
 Traffic composition – the percentage of different types of vehicles in the
traffic stream – different types of vehicles are converted into passenger
car unit to design a road width
 Traffic projection – using the design period of a road (5-20 years)a
reliable traffic projection should be made considering the following
elements
Cont....
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– Traffic projection (cont’d.):–

• Current traffic – currently using the existing road
• Normal traffic growth – anticipated growth due to population growth or
change in land use
• Diverted traffic – traffic that switches to a new facility from nearby roads
• Converted traffic – traffic resulting from changes of mode
• Change of destination traffic – traffic that has changed to different
destination due to new or improved transport and not changes in land use
• Induced traffic – traffic that did not previously exist in a any form but
results when new or improved transport facilities are provided
• Development traffic – traffic due to improvement on adjacent land
development that would have taken place had the new or improved road not
been constructed
 VI. Design Speed
34

 Design speed is the max safe speed selected for designing specific section of road
considering the terrain, land use, classification of the road, etc.

 The road elements include horizontal and vertical alignment, super elevation and
sight distance, lane width, shoulder width and clearance from obstacles are directly
related to design speed.

Various factors influence the speed of vehicles on a particular road. These include

Driver capability, driver culture and driver behavior

Vehicle operating capabilities
The physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings
Weather
Presence of other vehicle
Speed limitations (posted speed limits)
 VII. Human Factors
35

 Human factor includes the following;

 Driver performance; drivers are able to use the highway safely and
efficiently as on any other criterion
 Pedestrians; interaction of pedestrian with traffic should be carefully
considered in road planning and design.
 Cyclists; Bicycle use is increasing and should be considered in road planning.

VIII. Environmental Factors

Designers should consider various factors besides providing safe and efficient
transport systems. Some of these includes;
 Land use landscape integration; design objectives should include to choose
the route least damaging to the landscape.
Cont....
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 Aesthetic of design: the location of the road, its alignment and

profile, the cross section design, and other feature should aesthetically
be in harmony with setting.
 Noise abatement; a design objectives is to keep the noise at or
below acceptable levels.
 Air pollution by vehicles.
 2.3 Geometric Design Elements
37

 outlines
 2.3.1 Horizontal Alignment

 Straights (Tangents)
 Curves
 Super-elevation
 Curve Widening
 2.3.2 Vertical Alignment

 Introduction
 Vertical Curves
 Miss-Phasing of Vertical Curves
 2.3.3 Cross sectional Elements of Urban Highway
 2.3.1 Horizontal Alignment
38

 2.3.1.1 Introduction
 Horizontal Alignments:
 It consists of a series of intersecting tangents & circular curves with or without
transition curves
 Should be designed to the highest standard consistent with topography.
 Be chosen carefully to provide good drainage & minimize earthworks.
 Should be designed to achieve a uniform operating speed.
 Horizontal Alignment consists of:
 Straight lines-tangents
 Curves:
 Simple circular curves
 Compound Curves
 Reverse Curves
 Transitional Spirals curves
 Super-elevation
 Curve widening
 Cont.…
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Reverse curve

Simple curve
 A. STRAIGHTS (TANGENTS)
40

 Long straights should be avoided because they are monotonous for drivers & cause
headlight dazzle on straight grades (Soln. winding alignment with tangents
deflecting some 5 – 10 degrees)
 Short straights between curves in the same direction should not be used because of
the broken back effect.
 In such cases where a reasonable tangent length is not attainable, the use of long
transitions or compound curvature should be considered.
 Guidelines concerning the length of straights :
 Maximum length should not be greater than 20*V in meters
 Minimum length should not greater than 2*V for sight distance.
 Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction should have
lengths >(6*V) meters, where V is the design speed in km/h.
 Straights between the end and the beginning of un-transitioned reverse circular
curves should have lengths greater than two-thirds of the total super elevation
run-off.
 B. CIRCULAR CURVES
41

 Due to different terrain conditions, different types of curves are used in

horizontal alignment.
 The most common types of horizontal curves are:

R1

R R1
R2
R2

(1) Simple curve (3) Compound curve (2) Broken back curve
 Cont.…
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R2

R2
R1
R1

(a) With tangent (b) Without tangent

(4) Reverse Curve
 I. Simple Horizontal Curves
43

Definition of simple circular terms

R = Radius of Circular Curve
PC = Point of Curvature @ begin of Curve
PT = Point of Tangency @ End of Curve
PI = Point of Intersection
T = Tangent Length is distance from PC to PI or
from PT to PI. (T = PI – PC = PT - PI)
LC = Length of Curvature is distance from PC to
PT along the curve.
(LC= PT – PC)
M = Middle Ordinate is : length from the middle
of chord to the middle of curve.
E= External Distance is distance from PI to middle
of curve.
C = Chord Length is straight-line distance from
A to B.
Δ = Deflection Angle
 Cont….
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D – degree of curve that defines,

From chord definition, R = 10 / Sin (D/2) (Central angle which subtends 20m arc)
From arc definition, R = 1145.916 / D (Central angle which subtends 20m arc)

 Tangent (T) = R*tan (Δ/2)

 External distance (E) = R*(Sec (Δ/2) – 1) or E = T*tan (Δ/4)
or E= R*(1/(Cos Δ/2)-1)
 Middle ordinate (M) =R*(1- Cos (Δ/2))
 Long chord (C) = 2R*Sin (Δ/2)

 Length of Curve (Lc) = 20* Δ/D or Lc = R*π* Δ/180

 Stations of PC, PI, and PT:

PC = PI – T, P T = PC + Lc or PT = PI + T
 II. Compound Curves
45

 Define compound curves

 A compound curve consists of two or more simple curves, which
deflect in the same direction, are tangent to one another, and have
two or more centers on the same side of the curve

 There are several variables L,S,,TL,TS,RL and RS of which four

are independent.

 Given four of the variables, all other data necessary for setting out
the curve can be computed as outlined below.
Cont.…
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  L   s
L
TL  RL tan
2

TS  R S tan s
2
LT  TL  p
ST  TS  q
P TL  TS q
 
sin  S sin180    sin  L
ST= short Tangent of CC RL=Large Curve Radius
LT= Long tangent of CC RS=Small Curve Radius
∆=Deflection Angle ∆L=Central Angle of large radius curve
PCC= Point of compound curve ∆S=Central Angle of small radius curve
Cont…
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Cont.….
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Example 3 : a compound curve with a large curve first :

 L= 34º,S= 26º, RL= 150m, Rs= 100m and PCC@2+140.00
 Determine:
 LT

 ST and

 The stationing of beginning of the curve (PC), ending of the curve (PT) and point
of intersection (PI)

Ans.
LT=85.53m, ST=83.09m
PC=2+048.28, PI= 2+133.8
PI= 2+216.9
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 Exercise: two tangents intersect at station4+016.77. the deflection angle to the

right is 40º00’00’’. It is decided to design the highway for a minimum radius of
270meters and maximum degree of curve, Da is to be 4º.

 Calculate T,C,LC,M,E and the stationing of P.C and T.C using 20 meters arc
length. In addition, compute the angles required for layout setting on the ground.

 Exercise: Determine R,C,LC,M and the station of the ending of the curve if the
external distance is limited to 12m. The station of point of intersection (PI) is @
2+042.50 and the station of beginning (BC) of the curve is@1+952.50. In
addition, tabulate data needed to set out by a theodolite and tape for a circular
curve.
 III. Reverse Curve
50
 V. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
51

 Objects on the inside of a curve like vegetation, building or cut face

will, sometimes, obstruct the line of sight.

 A measure for such problems is removing the objects, if it is

economically feasible, otherwise we have to increase the radius of the
curve to ensure that SSD is available

 The required radius of curve is dependent on the distance of the

obstruction from the centerline and the sight distance.
Cont.…
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Case 1. SSD< Lc

M  Rv1  cos(28.65 SSD / Rv)

SSD  Rv / 28.65cos 1(( Rv  M ) / Rv)
Rv  R  0.5w
w  int ernal  lane  width
Cont.…
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Case 2: SSD =Lc

M  R1  cos(28.65SSD / R)
SSD  R / 28.65cos 1(( R  M ) / R)
Cont.…
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Case 3: SSD >Lc

M  Lc 
2  SSD  Lc 
8 R

SSD  4 RM / Lc  ( Lc / 2)
Cont…
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Exercise: a two lane rural road (3.5*2) has a horizontal circular curve
deflected at 40º to the right with zero vertical inclination and the speed
limit on the curve is 70km/hr. Besides, the average reaction time
t=2.6Sec and horizontal friction factor f=0.357.Determine the minimum
sight clearance (M) ,if the radius of the curve is

I. R=200m II. R=150m III. R=100m

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Exercises
 IV. Transition Curves(spiral Curves)
61

 Combination of high speed and sharp curvature can result in lateral shifts in
position and encroachment on adjoining lanes.
 TC(SC) can be inserted between tangent and circular curves or between two
circular curves to reduce the abrupt change in lateral acceleration
 Advantages of transition curves:
 The chance of overturning vehicles becomes less
 Provides comfort to the passenger while travelling on curves
 Provides a convenient desirable distance for super elevation runoff
 Provides location for super-elevation runoff (not part on tangent/curve)
 Facilitates gradual change in width of pavement (full widening to start at
circular curve)
 Enhances the aesthetic appearance of a highway
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 Some of the important properties of

The spirals are given below:
ƒL = 2Rθ
θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
ƒθs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) = 28.65Ls / Rc
(in degrees)
ƒTs = Ls /2 + (Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)
ƒS = Ls2 / 24Rc
ƒEs = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) – Rc
 Stations in Spiral Curves
Sta.BS=Sta.HIP-Ts
Sta.BC=Stat.BS+Ls
Sta.EC=Stat.BC+Lc
Sta.ES=Stat.EC+Ls
Cont.…
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Length of Transition: The length of transition should be determined from the following
two conditions:
i. The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers.
Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc). Where: V = speed (Km/hr) Rc = radius of the circular curve(m),
C = the rate of change of radial acceleration ( 0.2 -0.6m/sec3, 0.3m/sec3 is often used)
ii. The rate of change of super elevation (super elevation application ratio) should be such
as not to cause higher gradients and unsightly appearances.
Ls is equal to super elevation runoff length.
 The rate of raising the outer edge above the centre line depends on design speed:
Cont.…
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Where:
θs = spiral angle ,
Δ = total central angle ,
Δc = central angle of the circular arc extending from BC to EC = Δ - 2 θs ,
Rc = radius of circular curve ,
L = length of spiral from starting point to any point,
R = radius of curvature of the spiral at a point L distant from starting point.
Ts = tangent distance,
Es = external distance,
S = shift,
HIP = horizontal intersection point, BS = beginning of spiral, BC = beginning of
circular curve, EC = end of circular curve, ES = end of spiral curve.
 Cont.…
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 Example: A transition curve is required for a two lane carriageway road with a
design speed of 85 km/hr and minimum horizontal radius 510m deflected to the
right at angle 42º (HIP=3+300). Assume a value of 0.3 m/s3 for C.

 Calculate the following:

(a) The transition length, Ls
(b) The shift, S
(c) Tangent length

 (d) The external distance (E)

 (e) The stations of BS, BC, EC and ES

Cont…
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Cont…
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 C. Super-elevation
69

 Super-elevation is the banking of the roadway along a horizontal curve so that the
drivers can negotiate the curve at safe and comfortable speed.
 Vehicles moving along a curved path are subjected to an outward reactive force
(centrifugal force)
 This force will be balanced by side friction developed b/n the tyres and pavement
 To avoid both sliding and overturning of vehicles on a curved path, super elevating
the outer edge is necessary, in addition to the developed side friction

o The allowable value of super-elevation may vary from agency to agency and mainly
depend on:
-Climate (Water, air, temperature, Ice)
-Terrain conditions (Flat, Rolling, Mountainous etc)
-Adjacent land use (rural or urban)
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Forces & Equilibrium

Resolving the Forces // and | to the road

(// to the road)

Wv 2
F  WSin  Cos
gR
e
1 ( | to the road)
Wv 2
WCos  Sin  N
gR

Frictional force, F= m *N
Cont.…
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Wv 2
N  Cos  WSin
gR
Wv 2  Wv 2
 Sin  WCos   Cos  WSin
 gR  gR
 v 2   v2 
Sin   1  Cos   
 gR   gR 
v2
 v 2
gR
Tan  But the term has a very small value and could
v 2 gR
1 be ignored for all practical purposes. Check using
gR
typical values like V=50km/hr;
 = 0.16; and R=100m.
Cont.…
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v2 Where;
Thus, Tan   e V = Velocity(Km/hr), design Speed
gR
R = Radius of curvature (m)
v 2 V 3.6 
2
V2 e = Rate of change of super elevation(m/m)
 e     or f = Side friction factor (dimensionless)
gR 9.81R 127 R
Application: Normally, f is given, e is also known when the location of the
designed highway is known. The rest is to determine V when R is known, or
determine R when V is given.
 Application: Minimum radius;

V2
Rmin 
127 emax  f max 
Cont.…
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Exercise : Two rural highway tangents intersecting at an angle of 20 degrees are to

be connected by a circular horizontal curve. For a design speed of 90 km/hr,
maximum allowable super elevation (e=0.1) and friction coefficient (f=0.14), find:
the minimum radius required.
Exercise: The design speed of a highway is 80 Kph. There is a horizontal curve of
radius 200m on a certain locality. Safe limit of coefficient of side friction is 0.15.
a)Calculate the super elevation required to maintain this speed
b) If the maximum super elevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the
maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not possible to increase
the radius.
Cont.…
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Attainment of Super elevation

 The transition from a tangent to a curved super elevated section must be
accompanied without any appreciable reduction in speed
So that, comfort and safety of occupants of the travelling vehicle is ensured.
 The normal cambered surface on the straight reach of the road is changed into a
super elevated surface in two stages :
 First Stage : The outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is
level(Tangent Runout ).
 Second Stage : three methods may be adopted to attain the full super-elevation
(Super elevation runoff ).
 The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway
(commonly used)
 The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge
 The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge
Cont.…
76
Cont.…
77

Super elevation Transition

 Is the distance required for accomplishing the transition from a normal crown
section to a fully super elevated section
 Is a function of the design speed and rate of super elevation
Cont.…
78

Super elevation Runoff with Spiral Curve(tangent-spiral-circular)

• Super elevation runoff is effected over the whole of the transition curve

• The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to spiral (TS) at the
beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the end

• The change in cross slope begins by removing the adverse cross slope from the
lane or lanes on the outside of the curve on a length of tangent just ahead of TS
(the tangent run out)
Cont.…
79
Cont.…
80

Super elevation Runoff without Spiral Curve(tangent-circular)

 Super-elevation runoff is considered to be the length beyond the tangent runout.
 Empirical methods are employed to locate the super elevation runoff length with
respect to the point of curvature (PC)
 Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds of the runoff on the
tangent approach and one-third on the curve
Cont.…
81

Runoff length: can be calculated:

 Based on appearance or comfort criteria. One such criterion is a rule that the
difference in longitudinal slope (grade) between the centerline and edge of traveled
way of a two-lane highway should not exceed 1200.(criteria based on a maximum
acceptable difference between longitudinal grades of the axis of rotation.)
Cont.…
82

 Exercise: The two lane highway (2*3.5m) is going to design with

none spiral curve maximum super-elevation 6%, maximum relative
gradient 0.4% and normal crown slope 2%. The simple circular curve
starts at station 3+350.Determine:
 Length super-elevation runoff length;
 Length of tangent runout;
 The station of beginning of the tangent length runout, the begging and
ending super-elevation off length.
 D. Widening of Curves
83

 There is a tendency to drive a curved path longer than the actual curve, shifting the
vehicle laterally to the right on right-turning curves and to the left on left-turning
curves creating a need for additional pavement width.

 Widening is required for design Standards DS1 through DS5 at high fills for the
psychological comfort of drivers and to prevent offtracking.

 The amount of widening needed varies with

 The width of the pavement on tangent
 The design speed

 The curve radius or degree of curvature

Cont.…
84

The widening required can be calculated from

Wc = n *B2 / 2R + V / 10 R1/2
Where: Wc = total widening B = wheel base R = radius of curve V =
design speed (Km/hr) n = number of lanes

R2
L
B R1
f
Cont.…
85

Widening Curves and High Hills(from ERA Manual)

Cont…
86
Cont…
87
Cont…
88
Cont…
89
Cont.…
90

Example 2.9:Compute the extra widening required for a pavement of 7m width on a

horizontal curve of radius 250m if the largest wheel base of vehicle expected on
the road is 7.0m. Design speed is 70 Kph.
Exercise: A highway road alignment is designed for minimum stopping sight
distance of 370m at tangent section. Due to limitation of right of way, 6 percent
down grade road alignment changed its direction to 4 percent up grade at PI
station of 12+350. In order to connect two tangents of road, simple horizontal
curve is selected and station 12+276 is considered as PC station. Assume, the
curve was designed with a super elevation of 7%, side friction factor of 0.12, and
longitudinal friction of 0.1 respectively for the highway alignment. Determine a)
the station of PT? b) External distance c) mid-ordinate d) curve length e) chord
length f) minimum distance that should cleared from center of curve two lane
having 3.5m each width. Assume that the perception reaction time is 2.5second.
Cont…
91

 Exercise:A two-lane (3.5 m width each), two-way horizontal curve

section of a roadway is connected by two spiral transition curves to
tangents with a deflection angle of 0.7rad. If the difference in grade
between the centerline and the edge of the carriageway in the super
elevation transition is exactly equal to 1/20, what is the maximum safe
speed of vehicles on the horizontal curve? Assume 0.12 side friction.
 Critical curve Station
 TS (Tangent to Spiral Curve) 1+390
 SC (Spiral to Circular Curve) 1+550
 CS (Circular to Spiral Curve) 1+750
 ST (Spiral Curve to Tangent) 1+830
 Cont…
92
 2.3.2 Vertical Alignment
93
 1. Introduction
94

 Once the horizontal alignment has been determined, the vertical alignment of the
section of highway in question can be addressed.
 The vertical alignment is composed of a series of straight-line gradients connected
by curves, normally parabolic in form.
 The most desirable design is one with long vertical curves between grade tangents
that provides smooth riding qualities and good visibility with the minimum amount
of earth work.
 1.1. Grades- It is a measure of the inclination, or slope, of the roadway
 It is defined as the rise over the run
 Grade affects speed, capacity and cost of operation.
 An increase in gasoline consumption, a reduction in speed, and an increase
in emissions and noise are apparent when grades are increased.
 MAXIMUM GRADIENTS- greatly affects both the serviceability and cost of
the road (function of speed and train category).
Cont…
95

Maximum Gradients (from ERA Manual)

Topography Maximum Gradient (%), for Design Standard
DS1 to DS3 DS4 & DS5 DS6 to DS8 DS9 DS10
D A D A D A D A D A
Flat 3 5 4 6 6 8 6 8 6 8
Rolling 4 6 5 7 7 9 7 9 7 9
Mountainous 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Escarpment 6 8 7 9 10 12 13 15 14 16
Urban 6 8 7 9 7 9 7 9 7 9
 Desirable maximum gradients [D] were set to assure user comfort and to avoid severe
reductions in the design speed
 If the occasional terrain anomaly is encountered that requires excessive earthworks to
reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable standard an absolute maximum gradient[ A]
can be used.
 The maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent for road
standards DS1-DS5, and 6 percent for DS6-DS10.
Cont…
96

 MINIMUM GRADIENTS
 The minimum gradient for the usual case is 0.5 percent.
1.2. CRITICAL LENGTH OF GRADIENT
 It is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade upon which a
loaded truck can operate without unreasonable reduction in speed.
 It is defined as the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or the point at
which it has lost a certain amount of speed.
 It depends on the gradient of the approach and it decreases as the gradient increases.
 Where it is necessary to exceed the critical length of gradient on heavily trafficked
roads, it is desirable to provide either with safe passing distances on the rise, or a
climbing lane for heavy vehicles.
Cont…
97

1.2.1 CLIMBING LANES

Normal (inner) lane

Climbing lane
Cont…
98

 It is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has the effect of
reducing congestion in the through lanes by removing slower moving vehicles
from the traffic stream.
 A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a steep gradient.
 It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in the through lane.

 The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed
and traffic volume.

 Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic volumes are
greater than 400 ADT.
 Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited particularly to trunk and link
roads.
Cont…
99

Climbing Lanes (from ERA Manual)

Critical Length of Maximum
Gradient Gradient above which a Desirable
Design Class
(%) Climbing Lane is Length of
required (m) Gradient (m)
DS2 &3 4 300 900
DS2, 3 & 4 5 240 800
DS2, 3 & 4 6 200 700
DS2, 3 & 4 7 170 600
DS2, 3 & 4 8 150 500
DS2, 3 & 4 9 130 400
DS2, 3 & 4 10 Required 400
DS4 11 Required 400
DS4 12 Required 400

 Climbing lanes must be clearly marked and, where possible, should end on
level or downhill sections where speed differences between different classes
of vehicles are lowest to allow safe and efficient merging maneuvers.
 2. Vertical Curves
100

 In highway design, most vertical curves are equal-tangent curves. This means that the
horizontal distance from the center of the curve to the end of the curve is identical in both
directions.

 In highway design, the following should be known before starting any vertical curve
calculations
 Grades of the disjointed segments of roadway
 Design speed of the roadway
 Sight distance
 The first step in the design of a vertical curve is the calculation of the curve length
i.e. L =K* |A|
 Where A= |g2-g1| -ve crest curves; +ve sag curves
 K= degree of curvature
Cont…
101

 Design Criteria: to be considered in selecting length of the curve are:

 Minimize cut and fill
 Balance cut and fill
 Maintain adequate drainage
 Not exceed max. gradient
 Meet fixed elevation, other roads or bridges
 Provide sufficient Sight distance
Cont…
102
Cont…
103
Cont…
104
Cont…
105
Cont…
106
Cont…
107
Cont…
108

 Example: A 4.6% gradient meets a – 3% grade at station 92 + 600 elevation of

1004.28m. A vertical curve of length 360m is utilized, determine the station and
elevation of the PVC and PVT. Calculate elevation at every 20m station and locate
the station and elevation of the high point of the curve

Ans.
PVC sta. =92+420
PVT sta. =92+780
Elev. PVC =1000 00m
Elev. PVT =1002.88 m
xh = 217.89 m
High point sta. =92+637.89
Elev. xh = 1005.01 m
Cont…
109
Cont…
110

Exercise: Two straights AB and BC falling to the right at 1 in 10 and 1 in

20, respectively, are to be connected by a parabolic vertical curve 200m
long. Given the chainnage and reduced level of B are 3+627.00m and
84.64m, respectively, design the vertical curve. Compute the through
chainnages of the begin (A1) and the end (C1) of the vertical curve, as well
as the curve level at every round 20m-multiple.
Exercise: The length of a tangent vertical curveequals300[m].The initial
and the final grades are known to be 2.5%and‐1.5% respectively. And the
grades intersect at the station 3 + 650 and at an elevation of 210.500 m.
(a) Determine the station and the elevation of the VPC and PVT points. (b)
Calculate the elevation of the point on the curve100 meters from the VPC
point. (2Mark)
(c) Determine the station and the elevation of the highest point on the curve.
Cont…..
111

2.1.Critical Lengths of Curves

2.1.1. Length of crest vertical curves
 Crest vertical curves are curves that connect inclined sections of roadway
 SSD is usually the controlling sight distance in determining the length of crest
curves(L); sometimes PSD is also the case.
Cont…
112

For PSD
L = Length of the crest vertical curve h1=3.5ft (1.07m)
S = Sight distance h2=4.25ft (1.28m)

A = The change in grades ( |G2-G1| as a percent) For SSD

h1=3.5ft (1.07m)
h1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground h2=0.5ft (0.15m)
h2 = Height of the object above the roadway
Cont.…
113

 EXAMPLE 2.11: Determine the minimum length of a crest vertical

curve between a +0.5% grade and a -1.0% grade for a road with a 100-
km/h design speed. The vertical curve must provide 190-m stopping
sight distance. Round up to the next greatest 20 m interval.

 Exercise: An existing vertical curve on a highway joins a +4percent

grade with a -4 percent grade. If the length of the curve is 100 m, what
is the maximum safe speed on the curve. Assume that longitudinal
friction=0.4andtheperception-reactiontime=2.5
Cont.…
114

2.1.2. Length of Sag vertical curves

 Sag vertical curves are curves that connect descending grades, forming a bowl or a
sag
 Once again, the sight distance is the parameter that is normally employed to find the
length of the curve(L).
 The length of sag vertical curves is also determined by considering driver comfort,
drainage, and aesthetics.
Cont…
115

L = Curve length (ft)

S = Sight distance (ft) [normally the SSD]
β = Beam upward divergence (°) ;[Assumed as 1°]
h = Height of the headlights (ft) ;[Assumed as
2f,(0.6m)]
A = Change in grade [|G2-G1| as a %]
Cont.…
116

2.1.3. Riding comfort

 The effect of comfort of driving in vertical direction is more pronounced in sag
curves than on crest vertical curves.
 Riding is comfortable on sag curves when radial acceleration does not
exceed 0.3m/sec².
 Let radial acceleration be a, a = V²/R
 Since the parabola practically coincide with a circle of radius R, L = ΔR,
where Δ is in radians
 Expressing Δ in percentage of the difference in the downward and upward
grades, Δ =A/100
 Combining all the above equations L = (V²A)/100a
 If a = 0.3m/sec², then L= V²A/30
Cont…
117
Cont…
118
Cont…
119
Cont…
120

Exercice: A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –3 percent grade to a +3

percent grade. The design speed is 65 km/hr, the coefficient of skidding friction f, is

0.32, and the perception–reaction time is 2.5 seconds. Determine the minimum length of

curve in meter, that will satisfy all minimum criteria.

Cont…
121

 EXercice: A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a –3 percent grade to

a +3 percent grade. The design speed is 65 km/hr, the coefficient of skidding

friction f, is 0.32, and the perception–reaction time is 2.5 seconds. Determine

the minimum length of curve in meter, that will satisfy all minimum criteria.
Cont…
122

2.2. Sight Distance at underpass Structures

 When sag curves occur at an under pass, the overhead structure may shorten
the sight distance.
 There fore, the minimum length of vertical curve which will provide a
specified sight distance for under pass structures should also be considered.
Cont…
123
Cont…
124
Cont…
125

 Exercise: determine the minimum length of required to

connect a descending 4% grade to an ascending 3% grade.
The vertical clearance should be 5.1m and the required sight
distance is 300m. The height of eye for a commercial vehicle
is 1.83m and the hazardous object is 0.46m above the
pavement surface. Assume that comfort requirement is
satisfied.
Cont…
126

2.3.Combination of Horizontal & Vertical Alignment

2.3.1. Alignment Defects due to Miss-phasing

 Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road implies their coordination so
that the line of the road appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation of
hazards and visual defects.

 This issue is important in the design of high-speed roads on which a driver must be
able to anticipate changes in both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the
safe stopping distance.
 It becomes also more important with small radius curves.
 Defects may be purely visual (aesthetically displeasing) or may endanger the safety
of the user by concealing hazards on the road ahead.
Cont…
127

2.3.2. Types of miss-phasing and Corrective Action

 When the horizontal and vertical curves are adequately separated or when they
are coincident, no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action is required.
 Here below are the different cases of miss-phasing:
1. Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve
 Vertical curve overlaps either the beginning or the end of a horizontal curve,
 In this case, driver’s perception of the change of direction at the start of the
horizontal curve may be delayed because his sight distance is reduced by the
vertical curve. This defect is hazardous.
Cont…
128

 The defect may be corrected by completely separating the curves.

 If this is uneconomic, the curves must be adjusted so that they are coincident at
both ends, if the horizontal curve is of short radius, or they need be coincident
at only one end, if the horizontal curve is of longer radius.
Cont…
129

2.3.2. Insufficient Separation Between The Curves

 If there is insufficient separation between the ends of the horizontal and
vertical curves, a false reverse curve may appear on the outside edge-line
at the beginning of the horizontal curve.
 Corrective action: consists of increasing the separation between the curves,
or making the curves concurrent.
Cont…
130

2.3.3 Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve
 If both ends of a crest curve lie on a sharp horizontal curve, the radius of the
horizontal curve may appear to the driver to decrease abruptly over the
length of the crest curve.
 If the vertical curve is a sag curve, the radius of the horizontal curve may
appear to increase.
 The corrective action: is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to
separate them.
Cont…
131

2.3.4. Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve

 If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal curve, a hazard may
be created because a vehicle has to undergo a sudden change of direction during the
passage of the vertical curve while sight distance is reduced.
 The corrective action: is to make both ends of the curves coincident.
 If the horizontal curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if the crest occurs
off the horizontal curve.
 The corrective action: is to make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the
crest on to the horizontal curve.
 If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip, depending on the “hand”
of the horizontal curve will appear in the road alignment.
 The corrective action: is to make both ends of the curves coincident or to separate
them.
Cont…
132

The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing

 The phasing of vertical curves restricts their movement and fitting to
the ground so that the designer is prevented from obtaining the lowest
cost design.
 Therefore, phasing is usually bought at the cost of extra earthworks
and the designer must decide at what point it becomes uneconomic.
 He will normally accept curves that have to be phased for reasons of
safety.
 In cases when the advantage due to phasing is aesthetic, the designer
will have to balance the costs of trail alignments against their
elegance.
2.3.4. CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS OF URBAN HIGHWAYS
 Introduction
134

 A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or

curbs, drainage features, and earthwork profiles.
 Definitions
 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use by moving
traffic, including traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration
and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes.
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking
lanes and viewing areas
 Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back slopes

 For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also include

facilities for pedestrians, cyclists, or other specialist user groups.
 Cont.…
135

 These include curbs, footpaths, and islands.

 It may also provide for parking lanes.
 For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include medians.

BACKSLOPE: - Slopes back to natural

topography are known as back slope.
FORESLOPE: - Slopes down to ditch are
called fare slope.
 Cont.…
136
 Cont.…
137
 I. Lane widths
138

 Lane width or carriageway width has great influence on safety and comfort.

 Selection of road width depends on the following factors:

 Classification of the road: The higher the class of road, the higher the
level of service expected and the wider the road will need to be.

 Traffic: The heavy traffic volumes on a road the wider traffic lanes
needed

 Vehicle dimensions:

 Vehicle speed: As speeds increase, drivers have less control of the lateral
position of vehicles, reducing clearances, and so wider traffic lanes are
needed.
 Cont.…
139
Road Functional Design Design Traffic Surface Type Width (m)
Classification Standard Flow (AADT)*
Carriageway Shoulder
DS1 10000–**15000 Paved ***Dual 2 x 7.3 See T.4-2

T
DS2 5000–10000 Paved 7.3 See T.4-2
R
U DS3 1000–5000 Paved 7.0 See T.4-2
L
I N
K DS4 200–1000 Paved 6.7 See T.4-2
M N
A
K DS5 100– 200 Unpaved 7.0 See T.4 -2
C I
O N DS6 50–100 Unpaved 6.0 See T.4-2
L A
E C
F C
C
E
E T DS7 30–75 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2
S
O
E S
R
D S
DS8 25–50 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2
E
R DS9 0–25 Unpaved 4.0 See T.4-2

DS10 0–15 Unpaved 3.3 See T.4-2

 II. Shoulders
140

 A shoulder is the portion of the roadway

continuous to the carriageway.
 Has the following purposes: Shoulder
 For the accommodation of stopped
vehicles; traditional and intermediate
non-motorized traffic, animals, and
pedestrians;
 For emergency use; the recovery of
errant vehicles; and
 Lateral support of the pavement courses.
 Shoulder widths vs. design standards,
terrain type, and urban/rural environment
are presented in the ff Table.
 Cont.…
141

Design Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) Town Section Widths (m)

Standard Parking Foot
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Shoulder Lane*** way Median!
DS1 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 5.0 (min)
(min)
DS2 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 Barrier!

DS3 1.5 - 3.0++ 1.5 - 3.0++ 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a

DS4 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 n/a 3.5 2.5 n/a

DS5* 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS6** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a 3.5+++ 2.5 n/a
DS7 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) 1.0 (earth) n/a n/a + n/a + n/a

DS8** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a

DS9** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
DS10** 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 n/a n/a + n/a + n/a
 III. Normal Cross fall
142

 Also known as camber or crown.

 It should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great
as to make steering difficult.

 On unpaved roads,
 The minimum acceptable value of cross fall depends on the need to carry surface
water away from the pavement structure effectively, and

 The maximum value depends on the need to avoid erosion of materials.

 The normal cross fall should be 2.5 percent on paved roads and 4 percent on
unpaved roads.
 IV. Side Slopes & Back Slopes
143

 Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to
provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
 Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating the safety
aspects:
 the top of the slope (hinge point),
 the side slope, and
 the toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or
with a back slope, forming a ditch).
 Rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the hazard potential.
Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is also beneficial.
 Cont…
144

(1) HINGE POINT

CARRIAGEWAY (2) SIDESLOPE

(5) BACKSLOPE

(4) DITCH BOTTOM

SHOULDER

(3) TOE OF SLOPE

 Cont.…
145
Material Height of Slope Side Slope Back Slope Zone Description

Cut Fill
Earth or Soil 0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
Black Cotton Soil* 0.0 - 2.0m - 1:6 - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4

Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:4 or flatter.

Motorists who encroach on recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles
or slow them enough to return to the roadway safely.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most
motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily.
Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into this category.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.
Slopes steeper than 1:3 generally fall into this category.
 V. Roadside Ditches
146

 Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in mountainous and

escarpment terrain, and 1.0m elsewhere, using a “v-ditch”
configuration.
 The side slope and back slope of ditches should generally conform to
the slopes given in the above Table.
 Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive clay soils such
as black cotton soils.
 Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a minimum distance of
4-6m from the toe of the embankment, dependent on functional
classification (6m for trunk roads)