SSD and PSD

A road is made up links and intersections/Interchanges

Elements of link design are: Horizontal alignment, vertical profile, cross-sections and road
drainage

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Flat or Level Terrain
Level terrain is that condition where highway sight
distances, as governed by both horizontal and vertical
restrictions, are generally long or could be made to be so
without construction difficulty or major expense.

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Rolling Terrain
It is that condition where the natural slopes consistently
rise above and fall below the road or street grade and
where occasional steep slopes offer some restriction to
normal horizontal and vertical roadway alignment.

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Mountainous Terrain
It is that condition where longitudinal and transverse
changes in the elevation of the ground with respect to the
road or street are abrupt and where benching and side hill
excavation are frequently required to obtain horizontal and
vertical alignment.

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Stopping Sight Distance - SSD

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Overview
Sight Distance
This section provides descriptions and information on sight distance,
one of several principal elements of design that are common to all
types of highways and streets.
Of utmost importance in highway design is the arrangement of
geometric elements so that there is adequate sight distance for safe
and efficient traffic operation assuming adequate light, clear
atmospheric conditions, and drivers' visual acuity.
For design, the following four types of sight distance are considered:
• Stopping Sight Distance
• Decision Sight Distance
• Passing Sight Distance
• Intersection Sight Distance

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Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance is defined as the distance needed for drivers to see an
object on the roadway ahead and bring their vehicles to safe stop before colliding
with the object.
Two components:
– Distance traveled while reacting (2.5 seconds assumed reaction time)
– Distance traveled while braking (Assumes wet road (decelerate of 3.4 m/sec2)
Sight distance can also be a problem on horizontal curves (buildings, embankments,
tree growth, etc.)
The line of sight is a chord of the curve. The sight distance should be measured
along the centerline of the inside lane of the curve (not the centerline of the
roadway)
Stopping sight distance is influenced by both vertical and horizontal alignment.
For vertical sight distance, this includes stopping sight distance or passing sight
distance at crest vertical curves and headlight sight distance at sag vertical curves .

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In computing and measuring stopping sight distances, the height of the
driver's eye is estimated to be 1,080 mm and the height of the object to be
seen by the driver is 600 mm, equivalent to the tail-light height of a
passenger car. Note: a = g/f where g= 9.81m/s2 and deceleration rate (a) of
3.4 m/s2

v 2

S = + vt
2a
r

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 Decision Sight Distance
• Decision sight distance is the distance required for a driver to detect
an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source,
recognize the source, select an appropriate speed and path, and
initiate and complete the required maneuverer safely and efficiently.
Because decision sight distance gives drivers additional margin for
error and affords them sufficient length to manoeuvre their vehicles
at the same or reduced speed rather than to just stop, its values are
substantially greater than stopping sight distance.

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 Passing Sight Distance

• Passing sight distance is applicable only in the design of

two-lane roadways (including two-way frontage roads).

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Full Overtaking Sight Distance
On most two-lane, two-way highways, vehicles frequently overtake slower-moving vehicles by
using the lane meant for the opposing traffic. To complete the passing maneuver safely, the
driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead. Passing sight distance is determined on
the basis that a driver wishes to pass a single vehicle, although multiple-vehicle passing is
permissible.

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Full overtaking sight distance
Based on observed traffic behavior, the following assumptions are made:
1. The overtaken vehicle travels at a uniform speed.
2. The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the overtaken vehicle as it
enters a passing section.
3. The passing driver requires a short period of time to perceive the clear
passing section, when reached, and to start maneuvering.
4)The
. passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver, during the occupancy
of the right lane, at about 15 km/h higher than the overtaken vehicle.
5)There is a suitable clearance length between the passing vehicle and the
oncoming vehicle upon completion of the maneuver

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 Full overtaking Sight Distances - FOSD
• Determined empirically
• Based on passenger car requirements
• Vehicle being passed travelling @uniform speed
• Clearance suitability
• Minimum PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

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Initial maneuver distance d1
The distance d1 traveled during the initial maneuver period is
computed with the following equation:

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Distance while passing vehicle occupies left lane (d2).
Passing vehicles were found in the study to occupy the left
lane from 9.3 to 10.4 s. The distance d2 traveled in the left lane
by the passing vehicle is computed with the following
equation:

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Clearance length (d3).
The clearance length between the opposing and passing vehicles at the end
of the passing maneuvers was found in the passing study to vary from 30 to
75 m

Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle

(d4)
The opposing vehicle is assumed to be traveling at the same speed as the
passing vehicle, so
2d
d = 2

3
4

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 Initial maneuver distance d1

Distance while passing vehicle occupies left

lane (d2).

Clearance length (d3). The clearance length between the opposing and passing vehicles at
the end of the passing maneuvers was found in the passing study to vary from 30 to 75 m.

Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle (d4)

d4=2/3 d2

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 Intersection Sight Distance
• The operator of a vehicle approaching an intersection should have an unobstructed view of the entire
intersection and an adequate view of the intersecting highway to permit control of the vehicle to avoid
a collision. When designing an intersection, the following factors should be taken into consideration:
• Adequate sight distance should be provided along both highway approaches and across corners.
• Gradients of intersecting highways should be as flat as practical on sections that are to be used for
storage of stopped vehicles.
• Combination of vertical and horizontal curvature should allow adequate sight distance of the
intersection.
• Traffic lanes should be clearly visible at all times.
• Lane markings and signs should be clearly visible and understandable from a desired distance.
• Intersections should be free from the sudden appearance of potential conflicts.
• Intersections should be evaluated for the effects of barriers, rails, and retaining walls on sight
distance. For selecting appropriate intersection sight distance, refer to SANRAL’s A Policy on
Geometric Design for Highways and Streets. Sight distance criteria are provided for the following
types of intersection controls:
• Intersections with no control
• Intersections with stop control on the minor road
• Intersections with yield control on the minor road
• Intersections with traffic signal control
• Intersections with all-way stop control
• Left turns from the major road.

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