GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

Highways

Indian Academy of Highway Engineers (IAHE)

9TH October, 2017
Dibyendu Sengupta, B.Tech, MS, PE

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 Agenda
I. Introduction to Geometric Design Standards
II. Intersection Design
III. IRC Codes
I. IRC: 38 Design of Horizontal Curves
II. IRC: 66 Practice on Sight Distance on Rural Highways
III.IRC: 73 Geometric Standards for Rural Highways
IV. IRC: 86 Geometric Design Standard for Urban Roads in
Plains
V. IRC: SP-23 Vertical Curves for Highways
VI. IRC: SP-41 Guidelines for design of At-grade intersections

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A. Introduction to Geometric Design
Standards

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Factors influencing Highway Design
• Functional classification
• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and
medians
• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
• Topography of the area that the highway traverses
• Level of service
• Available funds
• Safety
• Social and environmental factors
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 Highway Design Standards
• Design Hourly Volume
– The design hourly volume (DHV) is the projected hourly volume that is used for design.
This volume is usually taken as a percentage of the expected ADT on the highway.
• Design Speed
– Design speed is defined as a selected speed to determine the various geometric features
of the roadway. Design speed depends on the functional classification of the highway,
the topography of the area in which the highway is located, and the land use of the
adjacent area. For highway design, topography is generally classified into three groups:
level, rolling, and mountainous terrain.
– Level terrain is relatively flat. Horizontal and vertical sight distances are generally long or
can be achieved without much construction difficulty or major expense.
– Rolling terrain has natural slopes that often rise above and fall below the highway grade
with occasional steep slopes that restrict the normal vertical and horizontal alignments.
– Mountainous terrain has sudden changes in ground elevation in both the longitudinal
and transverse directions, thereby requiring frequent hillside excavations to achieve
acceptable horizontal and vertical alignments.
• Design Vehicle
– A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway. Its weight,
dimensions, and operating characteristics are used to establish the design standards of
the highway.
 Highway Design Standards (cont’d)
• Cross-Section Elements
– The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel lanes,
shoulders, and medians (for some multilane highways). Marginal elements include
median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails, sidewalks, and side slopes
 Sight Distances
• Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway that the driver can
see in both the horizontal and vertical planes.
• Two types of sight distance are detailed:
– stopping distance and overtaking distance

• Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

– minimum sight distance required by the driver in order to be able to stop the car
before it hits an object on the highway
• The distance itself can be subdivided into three constituent parts:
– The perception distance – length of highway travelled while driver perceives hazard
– The reaction distance – length of highway travelled during the period of time taken
by the driver to apply the brakes and for the brakes to function
– The braking distance – length of highway travelled while the vehicle actually comes
to a halt.
 Sight Distances (cont’d)
• SSD measured between two points
– 1.2m height above ground (driver’s height)
– 0.15m height – for object

• IRC:66
 Overtaking Sight Distance
• Overtaking Sight Distance
– minimum sight distance required by the driver in order to be able to stop the car
before it hits an object on the highway
• The distance itself can be subdivided into three constituent parts:
– The perception distance – length of highway travelled while driver perceives hazard
– The reaction distance – length of highway travelled during the period of time taken
by the driver to apply the brakes and for the brakes to function
– The braking distance – length of highway travelled while the vehicle actually comes
to a halt.
 Overtaking Sight Distance (cont’d)
• Applicability
– Single carriageways of two-way traffic and unobstructed sight distance
– Straight sections of road with no opportunity for overtaking

• IRC: 66
 Intermediate Sight Distance
• Intermediate Sight Distance (By IRC: 66)
– Sections for road where overtaking sight distance cannot be provided
– Twice of Stopping Sight Distance

• Applicability
– In sections where overtaking sight distance is not possible
– Economics, undulating terrain
– Drivers to be cautioned about overtaking by signage
– Posted speed limit should be for overtaking sight distance
Road Alignment

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 Alignment
• Horizontal and Vertical alignment

• The design of the alignment depends primarily on the design speed

selected for the highway

• The least costly alignment is one that takes the form of the natural
topography

• It is important that the alignment of a given section has consistent

standards to avoid sudden changes in the vertical and horizontal layout
of the highway
 Vertical Alignment
• Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent
grade to another so that vehicles may run smoothly as they traverse the
highway
– curves are usually parabolic in shape
• Crest vertical curve
– Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only criterion used for
design of a crest vertical curve
• Sag vertical curve
• Minimum length of a sag vertical curve is controlled by the following 4
criteria
– SSD provided by the headlight,
– comfort while driving on the curve,
– general appearance of the curve, and
– adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve.
 Vertical Alignment (cont’d)
• K-Values
– The required minimum length of a vertical curve is given by the equation
 Horizontal Alignment
• Consists of straight sections of the road (known as tangents) connected by
curves. The curves are usually segments of circles, which have radii that will
provide for a smooth flow of traffic

• Horizontal curves & sight distance

 Horizontal Alignment (cont’d)
• Consists of straight sections of the road (known as tangents)
connected by curves. The curves are usually segments of circles,
which have radii that will provide for a smooth flow of traffic
• There are four types of horizontal curves:
• simple

• compound

• reversed
 Horizontal Alignment (cont’d)
• Transition curves
– These curve types are used to connect curved and straight sections of highway.
– They can also be used to ease the change between two circular curves where the
difference in radius is large
– The purpose of transition curves is to permit the gradual introduction of centrifugal
forces
B. Intersection Design Standards

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 Types of Intersections and Interchanges
• Highway intersection is required to control conflicting and merging
streams of traffic so that delay is minimised
• The three main types of junction dealt with in this chapter are:
– Priority intersections, either simple T-junctions, staggered T-junctions or crossroads
– Signalised intersections
– Roundabouts
• Priority intersections

• Roundabouts
 Roundabouts
• Geometric parameters of a Roundabout
 Roundabouts (cont’d)
• Geometric parameters of a Roundabout
 Case Study
• What are the important elements of an
intersection?

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 Intersections
• Turning radii
• Corner radii
• Channelizing islands
• Approach widths
• Lane usage
 Signalised Intersections
• Allocate separate time periods to conflicting traffic movements at a
highway intersection so that the available carriageway space is utilised
as efficiently and safely as possible
• The installation of traffic signals is justified by the need to:
– Reduce delay to motorists and pedestrians moving through the junction
– Reduce accidents at the junction
– Improve the control of traffic flow into and through the junction in particular and
the area in general, thereby minimising journey times
– Impose certain chosen traffic management policies
• Signal Warrants
– The investigation of the need for a traffic control signal shall include an analysis of
applicable factors contained signal warrants
– A traffic control signal should not be installed unless an engineering study indicates
that a traffic control signal will improve the overall safety and/or operation of the
intersection (MUTCD)
 Signalised Intersections (cont’d)
• Pretimed Operation
– Assigns green time to each approach based on historical traffic flow data

• Actuated Operation
– Assigns green time to each approach based on vehicle detection
IRC: 73 Geometric Design Standards
for Rural (Non-urban) Highways

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 Main Features
• Classification of non-urban roads in India:
– National Highways
– State Highways
– Major District Roads
– Other District Roads
– Village Roads

• Terrain
 Main Features (cont’d)
• Design Speed
– Basic parameter which determines all geometric features
– “Ruling design speed” the guiding criterion
– In exceptional cases (site conditions, costs etc) “Minimum design speed” can be
used
– Should be preferably be uniform – throughout the highway
 Main Features (cont’d)
• Cross-sectional elements

• Road Lane width (ROW)

• Standards for building setbacks

 Main Features (cont’d)
• Roadway width
 Main Features (cont’d)
• Carriageway width
– Related to design traffic and roadway capacity

• Shoulder width
– One half of the difference between roadway width and carriageway width
• Median width
– Rural Highways – minimum 5m
– Land restricted areas – 3m
– Bridges/viaducts – 1.5m
– Absolute minimum – 1.2m
 Main Features (cont’d)
• Crossfall/ Camber
– varies with surface

• Typically
– Undivided roads – crown in the middle, sloping towards the edge
– Divided roads – unidirectional slope towards the outer edge
IRC: 38 Guidelines for Design of
Horizontal Curves for Highways

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 Main Features
• Crossfall/ Camber
– varies with surface

• Typically
– Undivided roads – crown in the middle, sloping towards the edge
– Divided roads – unidirectional slope towards the outer edge
 Superelevation
• Superelevation
– Helps vehicles counteract centrifugal forces on horizontal curves
– Friction not enough to counteract – can cause vehicles to skid outwards
 Main Features (cont’d)
• Design of Circular Curve Radius

• Widening pavements

• Transition Curves
IRC: SP 23 Horizontal Curves for
Highways

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 Main Features
• Gradient
– Rise or fall along the length of the road (ratio or percentage)

– N – deviation angle

• Ruling gradient – most commonly used in design

• Limiting gradient – topography makes it impossible for ruling gradient
without huge cost
• Exceptional gradient – difficult situations – not more than 100m
 Vertical Curves
• Summit curves
• Valley (sag) curves

• Length of vertical curves

governed by – T
– Valley curves governed by night
visibility – Headlight sight distance

• Sight distance for consideration

– Stopping sight distance
– Overtaking sight distance
– Intermediate sight distance

• Criteria for measuring sight

distance
IRC: SP 41 Guidelines for design of At-
grade Intersections in Rural and Urban
Areas

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 Main Features
• Factors for design of a safe intersection
 Intersection Types
• At-grade Uncontrolled intersections

• At-grade Intersections with Priority Control

• At-grade Signalised Intersections

• Grade-separated Intersections
 Intersection Categories
• At-grade intersections
 Conflict Points
• One major objective of intersection design
– Minimise conflict points
 Sight Distance at Intersections
• Two considerations which are important to the driver as he approaches an
intersection:
– Overall visibility at intersection layout so that it can be comprehended properly at
first glance by the approaching driver
– Sight triangle visibility to negotiate an intersection is another important
requirement on becoming aware of approaching intersection, the driver must be
able to observe and comprehend the speed and direction of approaching traffic
from all other legs of the intersection.
Sight Distance at Intersections (cont’d)
Case Study

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 References

• Traffic and Highway Engineering – N. Garber and L. Hoel

• Highway Engineering – Martin Rodgers

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Q&A

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