UG Geometric Design I

Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Geometric Design of Highways
Lesson 1
Functional Classification, Design
Elements and Controls
Dr. Bhargab Maitra

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
India
Email: bhargab@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
Specific Instructional objectives
• Appreciate the need for Geometric design

• Classify the road system
• Identify broad elements of geometric design
• Identify design control and criteria
General
• Layout and dimensions of visible features of

roadways
• Optimum efficiency and maximum safety at

reasonable cost cost
• Improvement of design standard at a later

date- A difficult task
Functional classification
• Volume of traffic
• Type of traffic
• Purpose of road
• Importance / Priority
• Expected Speed
• Long/Short distance traffic
• Access control
• Traffic control at intersections
• Parking, loading/unloading
• Gradient, curves
Urban Roads Rural Roads

• Expressway • National Highways
• Arterial Street • State Highways
• Sub-arterial Streets • District Roads
• Collector Streets • Village Roads
• Local Streets
• Functional classification and roads in reality

Elements of Geometric Design

• Cross section elements
• Sight distance consideration
• Horizontal Alignment details
• Vertical Alignment details
• Intersection elements
Design Control and Criteria

Design Speed
• Mixed traffic, different types of vehicle
but single design value is required
• Selected value should satisfy requirements of

most of the drivers/ conditions
• Cumulative distribution of speed has a

typical “S” shape
100
% of vehicle at lower speed
90
80
85th percentile-Safe speed
70
95th /98th percentile-Design Speed
than x-axis
60
15th percentile-Lower speed limit
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Speed (km ph)

Design Speed (km/h)

Road Rolling Mountainous
Plain Terrain Steep Terrain
classification Terrain Terrain
Ruling Min Ruling Min Ruling Min. Ruling Min.
National and
State 100 80
Highways
Major District
Road (MDR)
Other District
Road (ODR)
Village Road
20
(VR)
Topography
IRC
• Plain 0 to 10 %,
• Rolling 10 to 25 %,
• Mountainous 25 to 60 %
• Steep terrain >60%
AASTHO
• Level
• Rolling
• Mountainous
Traffic factors
Traffic volume
• Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
• Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
Traffic composition
• Heterogeneous
• Passenger Car Unit / Equivalency (PCU/PCE)
• Suggested PCU/PCE values
Design Vehicle
Selected motor vehicle- weight, dimensions and
operating characteristics
• Single unit truck

• Semi-trailer
• Truck-trailer combination
Design Hourly Volume

• 30th Highest Hourly Volume V
• 8-10 % AADT (Typical Indian condition)
Hourly traffic volume - % of
AADT
No of hours in one year with traffic

volume exceeding that shown in Y-axis
Environmental and other factors
• Aesthetics and landscaping

• Air pollution
• Noise pollution
• Local site conditions
Summary
The need for geometric design
• Functional classification of road and its
relevance for geometric design
• Broad elements of geometric design
• Design control and criteria
Design Speed
Topography
Design Vehicle
Design Hourly Volume
Environmental and other factors

Lesson 2
Cross Section Elements
Dr. Bhargab Maitra

India
• Identify different cross section elements,

appreciate their needs and justify variations in
shapes and dimensions
Elements
• Carriageway • Side slope
• Shoulder • Lateral and vertical
• Roadway width clearances
• Right of Way • Kerb
• Building line • Guard rail
• Control line • Side drain
• Median • Other facilities
• Camber
Carriageway
Building Line
Building Line
Roadway width
Control Line
Control Line
Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder
ROW
ROW
width
Paved traveled width – Carries vehicular traffic

Width of Carriageway (meters)
Single lane Intermediate Two lanes Two lanes Multi lane road
lane without raised with raised (Width per
kerbs kerbs lane)
3.75 5.5 7.0 7.5 3.5
0.625m 2.5m 0.625m
Single Lane Carriageway
Shoulder Shoulder
3.75m
Maximum width of vehicle
as per IRC: 2.44m
0.5m 2.5m 1.0m 2.5m 0.5m
Two Lane Carriageway
7.0m
Shoulder
• One-half the difference between roadway width and
carriageway width
• Supports carriageway
• Provides space for stopped vehicle
Roadway width
Building Line
Building Line
Control Line
Control Line
ROW
ROW
width
Roadway
• Carriageway (including separator) + shoulders
Roadway width
Building Line
Building Line
Control Line
Control Line

ROW
ROW
width
Road Plain and Rolling terrain Mountainous and Steep

classification (meter) terrain (meter)
Single lane Two lane Single lane Two lane
NH and SH 12.0 12.0
MDR
ODR
VR
Culverts (up to 6.0m span)-normal roadway width

(measured from outside to outside of the parapet
walls)
Bridges (greater than 6.0m span)- clearway

between kerbs
- Single lane bridge
- Two lane bridge
- Multi lane bridge bridge
Right of Way (ROW)/ Land Width

Roadway width
Building Line
Building Line
Control Line
Control Line

ROW
ROW
width
• Land secured and preserved for road purpose
• Should be adequate to accommodate all the cross

section elements
• Should provide space for future upgradation

Road Plain and Rolling terrain Mountainous and

classification (meter) steep terrain
(meter)
Open areas Built up areas Open Built-up
Normal Range Normal Range Normal Range
NH and SH 45 30-60
MDR
ODR
VR
Roadway width
Building Line
Building Line
Building line
Control Line
Control Line
ROW
ROW
width
Control line
• Control construction/ developmental activities
Road Plain and Rolling terrain Mountainous and
classification steep terrain
Open areas Built up areas Open Built-up
Overall Width Overall Set back distance Set back distance
betwn. Width betwn. betwn. building line betwn. building line
building lines control lines and road boundary and road boundary
NH and SH 80 150
MDR
ODR
VR
Median
• Longitudinal space separating dual carriageways
• Separates directional traffic streams
• Should be as wide as possible
• Width is restricted by economic consideration
• Uniform width is preferable
• Width depends on type of road/cross drainage
structure and availability of land
• Transition length for change in width
Camber
• To drain off rain water from road surface
• Depends on type of road surface and amount of
rainfall
Surface Type Camber (per cent)
Earth road
WBM and gravel road
Thin bituminous pavement

High type bituminous
1.7-2.0
surfacing or rigid pavement
Shape of camber
• Parabolic, straight line or combination
Parabolic Shape
Combination of Straight
and parabolic Shape
Straight line Shape
Providing camber in the field

• Templates or camber boards -To check the lateral
profile of finished pavement during construction
Side slope
• Type of soil
• Height of embankment or depth of cutting
• A flatter slope - conducive for erosion control but

is costly
Condition Slope (H:V)
Embankment in silty/sand/gravelly soil 2:1
Embankment in clay or clayey silt or inundated condition 2½:1
Cutting in silty/sandy/gravelly soil 1:1
Cutting in disintegrated rock or conglomerate ½:1
Lateral and vertical clearances
• Generally required – ROB, Underpass locations
• Lateral clearance- Distance between the extreme

edge of the carriageway to the nearest face of the
structure
• Vertical clearance- Height above the highest point

of traveled way to the lowest point of the overhead
structure.
Kerb
Vertical or sloping member along the edge of a

pavement or paved shoulder
• Desirable for urban roads

• Facilitates and controls drainage
• Strengthens and protects pavement edge
• Delineates pavement edge
• Presents more finished appearance
• Encourages orderly roadside development
Barrier Semi barrier Mountable

Guard rail
• Prevents vehicle from running off
• Vertical W-beam or box-beam along the edge
of shoulder
• Painted guard stone
W-Beam Guard Rail Guard Stone

• High embankment
• Outer side of sharp horizontal curve
• Approach of bridge
Side drain
• Proper drainage to enhance the life of pavement
• Surface drainage- Efficiently remove surface water
and lead them to natural water channels
• Along the toe of embankment
V-Shape Trapezoidal shape
• Sub-surface drainage- Drainage of underground

water
Other facilities
Parking lane
• Urban roads
• On street parking
Truck Lay-bye Foot-path

• Road side amenities • Urban roads
• Repair / rest • Safety of pedestrians
Bus-bay
• Widening
• Avoids conflict

Lesson 3
Stopping Sight Distance and
Decision Sight Distance
Dr. Bhargab Maitra

India
• Appreciate the need for providing Stopping Sight

Distance and Decision Sight Distance
• Identify influencing factors and understand the
basis for suggesting design values
General
Sight Distance- Length of road visible to a driver
Stopping Sight Distance- Length of road required

for safe stopping of a moving vehicle
Minimum required sight distance for safe operation

of traffic – Absolute Minimum Sight Distance
Criteria for measurement

• Height of driver’s eye above road surface (H)
• Height of object above road surface (h)
H
h
IRC AASHTO
• H = 1.2m • H = 1.08m
• h = 0.15m • h = 0.6m
The value of ‘h’ (as per AASHTO) is based on

• Rationalization of the size of object that may be
encountered
• Impact on construction cost: A value lesser than
0.6m (height of passenger car taillights) may
increase construction cost substantially
• Drivers ability to perceive and react: At high
speeds most drivers are limited in their ability to
detect small objects
Factors Influencing Stopping Sight Distance

• Perception / Reaction time of driver
• Speed of Vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road and tires (IRC)
or Deceleration rate (AASHTO)
• Longitudinal gradient of road
Perception/Reaction time
Time taken from the instant an object is visible to
the instant brakes are applied effectively
Perception/Reaction time depends on
• Characteristics of driver
• Characteristics of obstacle
• Speed of vehicle
• Distance between vehicle and object
• Characteristics of vehicle
Basis for Design Value

• Design value should satisfy requirements of nearly
all drivers under most operating conditions
• Required time is generally higher under normal
conditions than under alerted conditions
• A time of 2.5 sec exceeds the 90th percentile of
reaction time for all drivers
• For extremely complex conditions, 2.5 sec may not
be adequate
Speed of Vehicle
Higher the speed, higher will be the required SSD
Efficiency of brakes
100% braking efficiency is not desired
Frictional resistance between road and tires

Coefficient of friction depends on
• Speed of vehicle
• Type and condition of pavement
• Type and condition of tyres
• Brake efficiency
Design value: 0.35 to 0.40 depending on speed
Calculation of Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance = Lag Distance +
Braking Distance
Lag Distance
• Distance covered during the reaction time
• Lag Distance = vt (if v in m/sec)
or 0.278 Vt (if V in km/h)
Braking Distance
• Distance covered by a vehicle to come to stop
after application of brakes
IRC
Work done = Kinetic energy F = fW
W
Kinetic energy = ½ mv = Wv /2g
2 2
Work done = Frictional force x braking distance

= F x L = fWL
Equating work done in stopping and kinetic energy
L = v2/2gf
L = Braking distance, m
v = Speed of vehicle, m/sec
f = Coefficient of friction (longitudinal)
g = Acceleration due to gravity, 9.8m/Sec2
If the speed of vehicle is expressed in km/h then
L = V2/254f
Braking Distance
= vt + v2/2gf
or
0.278 Vt + V2/254f
AASHTO
• Approximately 90% drivers decelerate at rates
greater than 3.4 m/sec2
• Such decelerations are within drivers’ capability to
maintain steering control during braking on wet
surfaces
• Most vehicle braking systems and tyre-pavement
friction levels are capable of providing a
deceleration rate of at least 3.4 m/sec2
• A constant deceleration rate of 3.4 m/sec2 is

suggested for the calculation of braking distance
• Suggested deceleration rate corresponds to a
value of coefficient of friction of about 0.35
• Braking Distance = 0.039 V2/a
(by replacing ‘f’ with a/9.81 in V2/254f)
Stopping Sight Distance = 0.278 Vt + 0.039 V2/a
V in Km/h, t in sec and a in m/sec2

Effect of Grade sα
C o
S inα F = fW
W
IRC α
osα
W W C
Work done = (W sinα + fW Cosα)L or (WN +fW)L

Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2 = Wv2/2g
¾ L = v2/2g(f+N)
f = Coefficient of friction (longitudinal)
N = Percentage of Grade divided by 100
L = V2/ (254 (f+N))

Braking Distance
= vt + v2/(2g(f+N))
or
0.278 Vt + V2/(254 (f+N))

AASHTO
S inα = W a/g
W α F
C osα
W W
Work done = (W sinα + Wa/g)L or (WN + Wa/g)L
Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2 = Wv2/2g
¾ L = v2/(2g(a/g + N))
a = Deceleration rate, m/sec2
N = Percentage of Grade divided by 100
L = V2/ (254 (a/9.8 + N))

Braking Distance
= vt + v2/(2g(a/9.8 + N))
or
0.278 Vt + V2/(254 (a/9.8 + N))

Variation for Trucks

• Recommended SSDs do not explicitly consider
design for truck operations
• Trucks (larger and heavier units) need longer SSD
than Passenger Cars
• Balancing Factor: Higher position of seat in the
vehicle (truck)
• Separate SSDs for Trucks are generally not used
• Provide more SSDs where horizontal sight
restrictions occur at the end of long downgrades
Example
• Speeds are : 90 km/h and 50 km/h
• Vehicles from opposite direction
• Single lane road
• Coefficient of friction: 0.76
• Brake efficiency : 50 %
Minimum SD required to avoid a head-on collision?
f = 0.5*0.76 = 0.38
LD1 = 0.278 x 90 x 2.5 = 62.55 m
LD1 = 0.278 x 50 x 2.5 = 34.75 m
BD1 = 902/(254 x 0.38) = 83.92 m

BD2 = 502/(254 x 0.38) = 25.90 m
SSD1 = LD1 + BD1 = 62.55 m + 83.92 m = 146.47 m
SSD2 = LD2 + BD2 = 34.75 m + 25.90 m = 60.65 m
Therefore, minimum SD required
= SSD1 + SSD2 = 146.47 m + 60.65 m
= 207.12
Decision Sight Distance

SSD may be inadequate
• Complex or instantaneous decisions
• Information is difficult to perceive
• unexpected or unusual maneuvers
Error in either information reception, decision

making or control actions at critical locations
• Interchange and intersection locations
(unexpected or unusual maneuvers)
• Changes in cross section such as toll plazas and
lane drops, and areas of concentrated demand
(visual noise from competing sources of
information)
Provide DSD at critical locations or shift critical
decision points to locations where DSD is available
– otherwise use suitable traffic control devices
Decision sight distance to

• detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-
perceive information source or hazard in a
roadway environment that may be visually
cluttered
• recognize the hazard or its potential threat
• select an appropriate speed and path
• initiate and complete the maneuver safely and
efficiently
Different DSD values are recommended

• Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road
• Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road
• Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction
change on rural road
• Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction
change on suburban road
• Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction
change on urban road
• Avoidance maneuvers A and B: Pre-maneuver time
is increased and the braking distance is added to
the pre-maneuver component.
DSD = 0.278 Vt + 0.039 V2/a
(t = pre-maneuver time)
• Avoidance maneuvers C, D and E: Pre-maneuver

time is increased and the braking distance
component is replaced with a maneuver distance
based on maneuver times that decrease with
increasing speed
DSD = 0.278 Vt
(t = total pre-maneuver and maneuver time)
Lesson 4
Overtaking Sight Distance,
Intermediate Sight Distance and
Headlight Sight Distance
Dr. Bhargab Maitra

India
• Appreciate the need for providing Overtaking

Sight Distance (OSD), Intermediate Sight Distance
(ISD) and Headlight Sight Distance (HSD)
• Identify influencing factors and understand the

basis for suggesting design values for OSD
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

• Minimum sight distance that should be available
to a driver for overtaking another vehicle safely
• Restrictions for passing opportunities affect the

Level of Service for highways (two-lane, two-way)
as the MOEs used are percent time spent
following and average travel speed
Overtaking Maneuver
• Overtaking vehicle follows the slow vehicle for
some time
• Finds a favorable condition for overtaking
• Pulls out, overtakes and returns back to original
lane before meeting an oncoming vehicle
Assumptions
• A single vehicle overtaking a single vehicle
• Overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed
• Overtaking vehicle follows the vehicle ahead for a

short while
• Overtaking vehicle then accelerates rapidly, pulls
out and occupies the opposing lane, overtakes
slower vehicle and returns to original lane
• Vehicle travels from opposite direction at the same
speed as the overtaking vehicle
• Difference between average speed of overtaking
and overtaken vehicle is 15 km/h (AASHTO)
• Speed of overtaken vehicle is 16 km/h lesser than
Design speed of the road (IRC)
Criterion for Measurement

IRC AASHTO
Height of driver’s eye above road 1.2m 1.08m
Height of the object above road 1.2m 1.08m
Estimation of OSD: Approach-1
A1 A2 B1 B2 A3 C1
s b s
d1 d2 d3
C2
Speed of overtaking / opposing vehicle = v m/sec
Speed of overtaken vehicle = vb m/sec
Calculation of d1
d1= vbt ; t = reaction time (2.0 sec)
A1 A2 B1 B2 A3 C1
s b s
d1 d2 d3
C2
Calculation of d2
d2 = b+2s = (vbT + aT2/2)
Now, b = vbT Therefore, 2s = aT2/2
or, T = sqrt(4s/a)
s = 0.7vb+6 (empirical formula)
T = Total time required for overtaking maneuver, sec
a = Maximum overtaking acceleration, m/sec2
A1 A2 B1 B2 A3 C1
s b s
d1 d2 d3
C2
Calculation of d3
d3 = vT
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
Example
• Design Speed: 80 km/h
• Maximum overtaking acceleration a = 0.72 m/sec2
• Reaction time = 2.0 sec
Minimum safe OSD required?
Vb = 80 – 16 = 64 km/h = 17.79 m/sec

d1 = 0.278Vb t = 0.278 x 64 x 2 = 35.58 m
s = 0.7vb+ 6 = 0.7x17.78+6 = 18.45m
T = sqrt ( 4x18.45/0.72) = 10.124sec
d2 = 0.278Vb T +2s= 0.278 x 64 x 10.124+2x18.45
= 217.02 m
d3 = 0.278V T = 0.278 x 80 x 10.124

= 225.16 m
OSD = d1+d2+d3
= 35.58 + 217.02 + 225.16 m
= 477.76m
Estimation of OSD: Approach-2 (IRC)
• Total of 9 to 14 seconds for the completion of
overtaking maneuver by a vehicle closing at
design speed
• Add 2/3rd additional time to account for opposing
vehicle
Speed Time (sec) Recommended
(km/ h) Overtaking Opposing Total OSD (m)
vehicle vehicle
40 9 6 15 165
100 14 9 23 640
Approach-3 (AASHTO)
d2/3 d3
A B
C
d1 d2 d4
Calculation of d1
d1= 0.278 t1 (V-m+at1/2)
t1 = time of initial maneuver, sec
a = average acceleration, km/h/sec
V = Average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passing and passed
vehicle, km/h
Speed Range (km/h)

50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110
a 2.25 2.37
t1 3.6 4.3
Calculation of d2
d2= 0.278 Vt2
d2/3 d3
A B
C
d1 d2 d4
Speed Range (km/h)

50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110
t2 9.3 10.7
Calculation of d3
d2/3 d3
A B
C
d1 d2 d4
Speed Range (km/h)

50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110
d3 (m) 30 75
Calculation of d4 d4= 2/3rd of d2
d2/3 d3
A B
C
d1 d2 d4
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Likely and logical relation between the average
passing speed and the highway design speed to
express the minimum OSD needed for design
purpose.
The speed of passed vehicle is taken as average

running speed at a traffic volume near capacity
The speed of passing vehicle is assumed to be 15
km/h greater
Design Assumed Speed OSD (m)

Speed (km/h)
(km/h) Overtaken Overtaking Calculated Rounded
Vehicle vehicle
80 65 80 538 540
90 73 88 613 615
Effect of Grade on OSD
Downgrades
• overtaking vehicle can accelerate rapidly - less
time of overtaking
• overtaken vehicle can also accelerate easily –
racing contest situation
Upgrades
• More sight distance is required due to reduced
acceleration of the overtaking vehicle and likely
speeding up of opposing vehicle
• Compensated by the loss in speed of overtaken
vehicle which is frequently a heavy truck
Generally no Grade adjustment on OSD
Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)

• Sections where providing OSD is impractical for
reasons of economics or otherwise ISD is
provided
• ISD = 2 x SSD
• ISD provides reasonable opportunities to drivers
to overtake with caution
Headlight Sight Distance (HSD)

• In valley curve, during night travel design must
ensure that the roadway ahead is illuminated by
vehicle headlights for a sufficient length
• Minimum value of HSD provided is equal to SSD
from safety consideration

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Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Geometric Design of Highways

Dr. Bhargab Maitra

Specific Instructional objectives

• Appreciate the need for Geometric design

• Layout and dimensions of visible features of

• Optimum efficiency and maximum safety at

• Improvement of design standard at a later

Urban Roads Rural Roads

• Functional classification and roads in reality

Elements of Geometric Design

Design Control and Criteria

• Selected value should satisfy requirements of

• Cumulative distribution of speed has a

Speed (km ph)

Design Speed (km/h)

• Single unit truck

Design Hourly Volume

No of hours in one year with traffic

Environmental and other factors

• Aesthetics and landscaping

Geometric Design of Highways

Dr. Bhargab Maitra

Specific Instructional objectives

• Identify different cross section elements,

Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder

Paved traveled width – Carries vehicular traffic

Single Lane Carriageway

0.5m 2.5m 1.0m 2.5m 0.5m

Two Lane Carriageway

• Provides space for stopped vehicle

Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder

Road Plain and Rolling terrain Mountainous and Steep

Culverts (up to 6.0m span)-normal roadway width

Bridges (greater than 6.0m span)- clearway

Right of Way (ROW)/ Land Width

Shoulder Carriageway Shoulder

• Land secured and preserved for road purpose

• Should be adequate to accommodate all the cross

• Should provide space for future upgradation

Road Plain and Rolling terrain Mountainous and

WBM and gravel road

Thin bituminous pavement

Straight line Shape

Providing camber in the field

• A flatter slope - conducive for erosion control but

Lateral and vertical clearances

• Generally required – ROB, Underpass locations

• Lateral clearance- Distance between the extreme

• Vertical clearance- Height above the highest point

Vertical or sloping member along the edge of a

• Desirable for urban roads

Barrier Semi barrier Mountable

• Painted guard stone

W-Beam Guard Rail Guard Stone

V-Shape Trapezoidal shape

• Sub-surface drainage- Drainage of underground

Truck Lay-bye Foot-path

Geometric Design of Highways

Dr. Bhargab Maitra

Specific Instructional objectives

• Appreciate the need for providing Stopping Sight

Stopping Sight Distance- Length of road required