Highway Geometric

Alignment and Design

Basic Physical Elements of a Highway
• Carriageway
• Central Reservation or median strip
• Shoulders (including verges)
• Side slopes and drains
Main Carriageway
• The chosen carriageway depends on a number of factors, most
notably the volume of traffic using the highway, the quality of service
expected from the installation and the selected design speed.
• In most situations a lane width of 3.65m is used, making a standard
divided or undivided 2-lane carriageway 7.3m wide in total.
Central Reservation
• A median strip or central reservation divides all motorways/dual
carriageways.
• Its main function is to make driving safer for the motorist by limiting
locations where vehicles can turn right (on dual carriageways),
completely separating the traffic travelling in opposing directions and
providing a space where vehicles can recover their position if for
some reason they have unintentionally left the carriageway.
Hard Strips/Verges
• On single carriageway roads (normal and wide), a 1m wide hardstrip
and a 2.5m wide grassed verge is employed on the section of roadway
immediately adjacent to the main carriageway on each side.
• The proper geometric design of a highway ensures that drivers use
the facility with safety and comfort. The process achieves this by
selecting appropriate vertical and horizontal curvature along with
physical features of the road such as sight distances and super
elevation.
• The ultimate aim of the procedure is a highway that is both justifiable
in economic terms and appropriate to the local environment.
Design Controls and Criteria
• The geometric form of a road consists of a number of geometric design elements. Appropriate
standards and combinations of these elements should be determined on the basis of the
following controls and criteria:
• Design Vehicle and Vehicle Characteristics
• Terrain
• Driver Performance
• Performance of Pedestrians and Other RoadUsers
• Speed
• Present and Future Traffic Volume
• Capacity
• Safety
• Design Criteria
• The designer should consider all these controls and criteria, in order
to arrive at final design which is in balance with the physical and
social environment, which meets future traffic requirements and
which encourages consistency and uniformity of operation. In this
way it is possible to eliminate at the design stage any environmental
and operational problems which would otherwise increase accident
potential and other detrimental effects and incur costs for remedial
measures in the future.
• Both the physical characteristics including turning capabilities of vehicles and the
proportions of variously sized vehicles using the road are positive controls in
geometric design. Therefore, it is necessary to examine all vehicle types, select
general class groupings, and establish representatively sized vehicles within each
class for design use. Vehicle characteristics affecting design include power to
weight ratio, minimum turning radius, travel path during a turn, vehicle height
and width. The main road elements affected are gradient, road widening in
horizontal curves and junction design. In the design of a road facility, the largest
design vehicle likely to use that facility with considerable frequency or a
design vehicle with special characteristics that must be taken into account in
dimensioning the facility is used to determine the design of such critical features
as radii at intersections and radii of horizontal curves of roads.
Minimum Turning Radius
• Minimum turning radii for the outer side of the vehicle are given in
table below. It is stressed that these radii are appropriate only to
crawl speeds.
Sight Distances
Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway that the driver
can see in both the horizontal and vertical planes. Two types of sight
distance are detailed:
• stopping distance and
• overtaking distance.
Stopping Sight Distance
This is defined as the minimum sight distance required by the driver in
order to be able to stop the car before it hits an object on the highway.
It is of primary importance to the safe working of a highway.
Table below indicates the stopping sight distances for the different
design speeds.
Stopping sight distance is to be measured from a driver’s eye height of
between 1.05m and 2m above the surface of the highway to an object
height of between 0.26m and 2m above it. These values ensure that
drivers of low-level cars can see small objects on the carriageway
ahead.
• The vast majority (>95%) of driver heights will be greater than 1.05m
while, at the upper range, 2m is set as the typical eye height for the
driver of a large heavy goods vehicle.
• With regard to object heights, the range 0.26m to 2m is taken as
encompassing all potential hazards on the road.
• Checks should be carried out in both the horizontal and vertical
planes. This required envelope of visibility is shown.
Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance
The distance itself can be subdivided into three constituent parts:
• The perception distance – length of highway travelled while driver
perceives hazard
• The reaction distance – length of highway travelled during the period of
time taken by the driver to apply the brakes and for the brakes to function
• The braking distance – length of highway travelled while the vehicle
actually comes to a halt.
The combined perception and reaction time, t, can vary widely depending
on the driver. However, a value of 2 seconds is taken as being appropriate
for safe and comfortable design.
Perception Reaction Time
The length of highway travelled during the perception-reaction time is
calculated from the formula:
• Perception-reaction distance (m) = 0.278tV
where
V = initial speed (km/hr)
t = combined perception and reaction time (s)
Braking Distance
A rate of deceleration of 0.25 g is generally used for highway design.
This value can be achieved on normally-textured surfaces in wet
conditions without causing discomfort to the driver and passengers.
Braking distance (m) = v2/2w
where
v = initial speed (m/s)
w = rate of deceleration (m/s2)
Overtaking Sight Distance
• Overtaking sight distance is of central importance to the efficient
working of a given section of highway. Overtaking sight distance only
applies to single carriageways. There is no full overtaking sight
distance (FOSD) for a highway with a design speed of 120km/hr since
this design speed is not suitable for a single carriageway road.
• Full overtaking sight distances are much larger in value than stopping
sight distances. Therefore, economic realities dictate that they can
only be complied with in relatively flat terrain where alignments, both
vertical and horizontal, allow the design of a relatively straight and
level highway.
Full overtaking sight distances for different
design speeds
Full overtaking sight distance is measured from vehicle to vehicle (the
hazard or object in this case is another car) between points 1.05m and
2.00m above the centre of the carriageway. The resulting envelope of
visibility for this set of circumstances is shown below
Full overtaking sight distance is made up of three components: d1, d2 and d3.
• d1 = Distance travelled by the vehicle in question while driver in the
overtaking vehicle completes the passing manoeuvre (Overtaking Time)
• d2 = Distance between the overtaking and opposing vehicles at the point in
time at which the overtaking vehicle returns to its designated lane (Safety
Time)
• d3 = Distance travelled by the opposing vehicle within the above mentioned
‘perception-reaction’ and ‘overtaking’ times (Closing Time).
In order to establish the values for full overtaking sight distance, it is
assumed that the driver making the overtaking manoeuvre commences
it at two design speed steps below the designated design speed of the
section of highway in question. The overtaking vehicle then accelerates
to the designated design speed.
During this time frame, the approaching vehicle is assumed to travel
towards the overtaking vehicle at the designated design speed. d2 is
assumed to be 20% of d3.
These assumptions yield the following equation:
FOSD = 2.05tV
• where
V = design speed (m/s)
t = time taken to complete the entire overtaking manoeuvre (s)
• The value of t is generally taken as 10 seconds, as it has been
established that it is less than this figure in 85% of observed cases.
If we go back to the three basic components of FOSD, d1,d2, and d3,we can derive a very
similar value:
d1 = 10 seconds travelling at an average speed of 70km/hr (19.4m/s)
= 10 x 19.4m
= 194m
d3 = Opposing vehicle travels 10 x 23.6m
= 236m
d2 = d3/5
= 47.2m
FOSD = 194 + 236 + 47.2
= 477.2m
Horizontal alignment
Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition
of the highway in a horizontal plane. A horizontal alignment consists, in
its most basic form, of a horizontal arc and two transition curves
forming a curve which joins two straights. In certain situations the
transition curve may have zero length.
• The design procedure itself must commence with fixing the position
of the two straight lines which the curve will join together. The basic
parameter relating these two lines is the intersection angle. Figure
below indicates a typical horizontal alignment.
Typical Horizontal Alignment
• Minimum permitted horizontal radii (R) depend on the design speed
(v) and the superelevation (e) of the carriageway, which has a
maximum allowable value of 7% , with designs in most cases using a
value of 5%.

Or

μ = fs = friction coefficient
Horizontal radii for different design speeds
and super-elevation, e
Geometric Properties
Horizontal curves occur at locations where two roadways intersect,
providing a gradual transition between the two. The intersection point
of the two roads is defined as the Point of Tangent Intersection (PI).
The location of the curve's start point is defined as the Point of Curve
(PC) while the location of the curve's end point is defined as the Point
of Tangent (PT). Both the PC and PT are a distance T from the PI, where
T is defined as Tangent Length. Tangent Length can be calculated by
finding the central angle of the curve, in degrees. This angle is equal to
the supplement of the interior angle between the two road tangents.
The external distance E, which is the smallest distance between the curve
and PI, can be found.
Similarly, the middle ordinate, M can be found. The middle ordinate is
the maximum distance between a line drawn between PC and PT and
the curve. It falls along the line between the curve's vertex and the PI.
Horizontal Curve
The presence of horizontal curve imparts centrifugal force which is a
reactive force acting outward on a vehicle negotiating it. Centrifugal
force depends on speed and radius of the horizontal curve and is
counteracted to a certain extent by transverse friction between the tyre
and pavement surface. On a curved road, this force tends to cause the
vehicle to overrun or to slide outward from the centre of road
curvature. For proper design of the curve, an understanding of the
forces acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary. Various
forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in the next slide.
They are the centrifugal force (P) acting outward, weight of the vehicle
(W) acting downward, and the reaction of the ground on the wheels (RA
and RB). The centrifugal force and the weight is assumed to be from the
centre of gravity which is at h units above the ground. Let the wheel
base be assumed as b units. The
• centrifugal force P in kg/m2 is given by
where W is the weight of the vehicle in kg, v is the speed of the vehicle
in m/sec, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/sec2 and R is the
radius of the curve in m.
The centrifugal force has two effects:
• A tendency to overturn the vehicle about the outer wheels and
• A tendency for transverse skidding.
• Taking moments of the forces with respect to the outer wheel when
the vehicle is just about to overturn,

• At the equilibrium over turning is possible when

• and for safety the following condition must satisfy:

• …………….(i)

• The second tendency of the vehicle is for transverse skidding. i.e.

When the centrifugal force P is greater than the maximum possible
transverse skid resistance due to friction between the pavement
surface and tyre.
• The transverse skid resistance (F) is given by:

where FA and FB are the frictional forces at tyres A and B, RA and RB are
the reactions at tyres A and B, f is the lateral coefficient of friction and
W is the weight of the vehicle.
This is counteracted by the centrifugal force (P), and equating:

At equilibrium, when skidding takes place

and for safety the following condition must satisfy:

…………….(ii)
• Equations (i) and (ii) give the stable condition for design. If equation
(i) is violated, the vehicle will overturn at the horizontal curve and if
equation (ii) is violated, the vehicle will skid at the horizontal curve.
Analysis of super-elevation
Super-elevation or cant or banking is the transverse slope provided at
horizontal curve to counteract the centrifugal force, by raising the outer
edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge, throughout the
length of the horizontal curve. When the outer edge is raised, a
component of the vehicle weight will be complimented in
counteracting the effect of centrifugal force. In order to find out how
much this raising should be, the following analysis may be done. The
forces acting on a vehicle while taking a horizontal curve with super-
elevation is shown in next slide.
• Forces acting on a vehicle on horizontal curve of radius R m at a speed
of v m/sec are:
• P the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the
center of gravity,
• W the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center of
gravity, and
• F the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along the
surface inward.
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the
pavement we get,

where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the

coefficient of friction, ϴ is the transverse slope due to super-elevation.
Dividing by W cosϴ, we get:
• But

• Hence
• This is an exact expression for super-elevation. But normally, f = 0.15
and ϴ < 7o, 1 – f tanϴ ≈ 1 and for small ϴ, tanϴ ≈ sinϴ = e

• where, e is the super elevation, f the coefficient of lateral friction 0.15,

v the speed of the vehicle in m/sec, R the radius of the curve in m and
g = 9.8m/sec2.
• If in addition we express velocity in kilometres per hour rather than
metres per second, and given that g equals 9.81m/s2
• Three specific cases that can arise from the above equation are as
follows:
Transition Curves
Transition curves are provided to ensure a smooth transition between
tangents and circular curve. They start at the tangents with radius equal
to infinity and join the circular curves with radius equal to that of the
circular curve.
The advantages of transition curves are to enable smooth turning
movement of vehicles between tangents and circular curves, provide
basis for application of super-elevation and for aesthetic purposes.
Transition curves are spirals (clothoidals), parabolic or cubic parabola.
Successive Curves
Three cases of successive curves are considered. These are:
A. Reverse Curves
When applying a reverse curve abrupt change of alignment should be avoided.
There should be a connecting tangent or a section of equal lengths including
spirals as shown to allow for change of super-elevation between the curves.
B. Broken Back curves
Broken back curves are not recommended due to the fact that drivers do not
normally expect successive curves bending in the same direction. However
where a need arises the circular curves shall be separated by a tangent of a
length not less than 150m. Where the curves bending in the same direction
are separated by a tangent of more than 500m they are not considered as
broken back curves.
C. Compound Curves
Compound curves are adjacent curves bending in the same direction
connected with tangent lines intersecting at a common point of
intersection and therefore there is no straight in-between the curves.
It is recommended that the radii of the adjoining curves should not be
very different. In order to make sure that the drivers do not experience
much difference as they pass through the two adjoining curves the larger
radius R1 should not be greater than 1.5 times the smaller radius R2 or
mathematically R1≤1.5R2:
Where R1 and R2 are the larger and the smaller radii respectively.
Hairpin Curves
The designer is sometimes forced to apply curves with very small radii
in mountainous terrain and escarpments. In that case the designer is
required to provide hairpin curves also known as switch back curves,
which will allow design vehicles to be able to pass around the curve
safely.
Vertical Alignment
Curves may be either circular or parabolic, with South African practice
favouring the latter. The practical difference between the two forms is
insignificant in terms of actual roadway levels along the centreline. The
parabola has the property of providing a constant rate of change of
gradient with distance, which is analogous to the horizontal circular
curve, which provides a constant rate of change of bearing.
The general equation of the parabola is y = ax2 + bx + c, from which it
follows that the gradient, dy/dx, at any point along the curve is
expressed as 2ax + b and the rate of change of gradient, d2y/dx2, is
2a.
Normal usage is to express the rate of change in terms of the distance
required to effect a unit change of gradient. This expression is referred
to as the K-value of the curve and is equal to 1/2a. It follows that the
length of a vertical curve can be conveniently expressed as being
• L=AxK
where L = curve length (m)
• A = algebraic difference between the gradients on either side of the
curve
• K = rate of change
General Controls for Vertical Alignment
A smooth grade line with gradual changes, which are consistent with
the class of the road and the character of the terrain, is preferable to an
alignment with numerous breaks and short lengths of grades and
curvature. A series of successive, relatively sharp crest and sag curves
creates a roller coaster or hidden dip profile which is aesthetically
unpleasant. Hidden dips can be a safety concern, although, at night,
the loom of approaching headlights may provide a visual clue about
oncoming vehicles. Such profiles occur on relatively straight horizontal
alignments where the road profile closely follows a rolling
natural ground line.
A broken-back grade line, which consists of two vertical curves in the
same direction with a short length of intervening tangent, is
aesthetically unacceptable, particularly in sags where a full view of the
profile is possible. A broken plank grade line, where two long grades
are connected by a short sag curve, is equally unacceptable. As a
general rule, the length of a curve (in metres) should not be shorter
than the design speed in km/h. In the case of freeways, the minimum
length should not be less than twice the design speed in km/h and, for
preference, should be 400 metres or longer to be in scale with the
horizontal curvature.
The vertical alignment design should not be carried out in isolation but
should be properly coordinated with the horizontal alignment.
In addition to the controls imposed on the grade line by the horizontal
alignment, the drainage of the road may also have a major impact on
the vertical alignment. The top of a crest curve and the bottom of a sag
imply a zero gradient and the possibility of ponding on the road
surface.
Topography
Maximum acceptable gradients are dictated primarily by the
topography and the classification of the road. Topography is
described as being flat, rolling or mountainous.
Factors influencing selecting a maximum
gradient
• traffic operations, where high volumes would suggest a reduction in
maximum gradient in order to maintain an acceptable Level of Service;
• costs, being the whole-life cost of the road and not merely its initial
construction cost;
• property, where relatively flat gradients in a rugged environment may
result in high fills or deep cuts necessitating the acquisition of land
additional to the normal road reserve width;
• environmental considerations; and
• adjacent land use in heavily developed or urban areas
Maximum gradients on freeways should be in the range of three to four
per cent regardless of the topography being traversed. Lower order
roads have been constructed to gradients as steep as twenty per cent
but it is pointed out that compaction with a normal 12/14 tonne roller
is virtually impossible on a gradient steeper than about twelve per cent.
It is recommended that this be considered the absolute maximum
gradient that can be applied to any road.
The minimum gradient can, in theory, be level, i.e. zero per cent. This
could only be applied to rural roads where storm water would be
removed from the road surface by the camber and allowed to spill over
the edge of the shoulder. If used on a road that is kerbed, channel
grading would have to be employed.
Given the limits of accuracy to which kerbs and channels can be
constructed, the flattest gradient that should be considered is of the
order of 0,5 percent. It is recommended that, even without kerbing,
gradients should not be less than 0,5 per cent. If the grade is longer
than 500 metres, increasing the camber to 2,5 or 3,0 per cent should be
considered. The latter value of camber should only be considered in
areas subject to heavy rainfall because it may give rise to problems
related to steering and maintaining the
vehicle's position within its lane.
During the hours of daylight or on well-lit streets at night, sag curves do
not present any problems with regard to sight distance.
Where the only source of illumination is the vehicle's headlights, the
line of sight is replaced by a line commencing at headlight height, taken
as being 0,6 metres, and with a divergence angle of 1o relative to the
grade line at the position of the vehicle on the curve.
Sight distance on a sag curve
Stopping sight distance in a sag curve
Climbing Lanes
Where the critical lengths of gradients cannot be achieved
consideration needs to be given to application of climbing lanes. A
climbing lane is an auxiliary lane provided to remove the slow moving
trucks from the traffic stream climbing a gradient in order to improve
safety and the Level of Service.
Gradients
During the design of the vertical alignment it is important to ensure
that the gradients provided comply with maximum gradients for the
design speed.
(a) Limiting grades
Recommended maximum grades are shown. For low volume rural
roads with short lengths of grades (less than 150m) the value in the
Table can be increased by 1%.
Minimum grades on cut sections shall usually be 0.5% unless special
drainage treatments are provided.
(b) Critical Length of grades
Critical Length of grade is the maximum length of the designated up-
grade on which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable
reduction in speed. As such the length of all grades shall be limited to
the values given in Table below, for a 20 km/h reduction in speeds of
trucks (from the average running speed).
If the algebraic difference is appreciable, one quarter (1/4) of the
vertical curve length may be considered as part of the critical length of
grade.
(c) Climbing Lanes
Where the critical lengths of gradients cannot be achieved consideration
needs to be given to application of climbing lanes. A climbing lane is an
auxiliary lane provided to remove the slow moving trucks from the traffic
stream climbing a gradient in order to improve safety and the Level of Service.
Warrant for climbing lanes
Once the critical lengths of gradients are exceeded the designer should
consider the traffic, terrain and economic factors before deciding on whether
to introduce a climbing lane or not. A traffic volume of ADT ≥ 1500 shall
warrant for introduction of climbing lane when the critical length of
gradients is exceeded.
Design of climbing lanes
It is recommended that the width of the climbing lanes be the same as
the width of the adjacent lane. Shoulders should be tapered to allow
for escape of merging vehicle in case of hindrance to merging to the
main lane due to presence of traffic in the lane. Care should be taken to
ensure that climbing lanes do not merge in curves wherever possible.
The diagram provides guidance on design of climbing lanes.