Chapter 3 Geometric Design of Highwayssss

2.
Geometric Design of Highways

Lecture Outline
Introduction
Design controls & criteria
Geometric Design Elements
Sight distance
Horizontal alignment
Vertical alignment
Cross sectional elements of a highway
2
2.1. Introduction
• Geometric design is the stage of road design
process where the dimension & layouts of
roads are related to the needs of drivers &
vehicle operation.
• Is used to determine the safe, efficient, &
economic operation of highway.
3
Introduction (cont…)
 Factors to be considered in Geometric Design:
Long service year
Avoid faulty designs which may need large costs of
rectify
Consistent design with the standard
Road signs & intersection lightings should be included
Safety elements should be included
Initial construction & operation costs should be
considered
4
2.2. Design Controls & Criteria
• The choice of design controls & criteria is influenced by :
Functional classification of the road

Nature of the terrain
Traffic volume expected on the road
Composition of the traffic
Design vehicle
Design speed
Pavement type
Soil type and climate
Construction technology
Safety
Density & character of the adjoining land use
Economic & environmental considerations
5
Design Controls & Criteria (cont…)
A. Road Functional Classification & Numbering
Five functional classes exist, according to ERA
1. Trunk Roads (class 1)- centers of international importance &
roads terminating @ international boundaries are linked with
Addis Ababa by trunk roads.
 eg. A3(Addis-Gondar road)
 Have a present AADT  1000

2. Link Roads (Class II)- connects centers of national or
international importance (principal towns & urban centers)
 eg. B22 (weldiya- Debre Tabor- Wereta)
 have 1 year AADT of 300-1000
st 6
3. Main Access Roads (Class III) – connects centers of
provincial important places between each other
 Have a prefix “C”
 Have 1st year AADT between 150-300 but can range
from 25-1000
4. Collector Roads ( Class IV) – connects locally important
centers to each other, to a more important center, or to
higher class roads
 Are numbered with “D” prefix
 Have 1st year AADT between 25-300
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5. Feeder Roads ( Class V) – connects minor centers such
as market centers & local locations
 Are numbered with “E” prefix
 Have 1st year AADT less than 150
 Roads of highest classes (trunk & link) majorly provide
mobility while lower class roads provide access.
 Intermediate classes provide both mobility & access

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B. Nature of the Terrain
o Traverse terrain through which the road passes
determines the geometric design elements of a
road
Terrain type Description Transverse
slope
Few obstacles to the construction of roads, continuously
Flat unrestricted horizontal & vertical alignment. ≤ 3%
Slopes rise & fall moderately, steep slopes are occasional,

Rolling 3– 25%
some restriction H & V alignment.
Terrain imposes definite restriction, involves long steep
Mountainous 25-50%
grades & limited sight distance
Escarpment Switchback roadway sections are common ≥ 50%
9
Flat Terrain
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Rolling Terrain
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Mountainous Terrain
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Escarpment Terrain
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C. Traffic
o Volume & composition of traffic affects road

design standard (design speed, width, alignment)
o Using functional classification & design traffic

flow (AADT), design class, or standard will be
selected.
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Selection procedure for appropriate geometric
standards
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PCU values for non- 4- wheeled motorized vehicles
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D. Design Vehicle
 The size of the largest vehicle that is expected to use
the road dictates many aspects of the geometric design.
 Largest vehicles must be able to pass each other safely
and to negotiate all aspects of the horizontal and
vertical alignment.
 Thus the vehicle characteristics and dimensions
affecting design include power o weight ratio, minimum
turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle
height and width.
 In Ethiopia four different design vehicles have been
used.
17
Design vehicle for each road class
18
Design vehicle characteristics
19
Design Vehicle
Overhang Min.
Design Overall (m) Wheel Design
(m)
Design Vehicle Vehicle base Turning
Designation Height Width Lengt Front Rear (m) Radius
h (m)
4x4 Utility
DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Vehicle
Single Unit
DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Truck
Single Unit Bus DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
4.8+8.
Semi-Trailer
DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4= 13.7
Combination
13.2
20
E. Design Speed
o Speed is an index which links road function, traffic
flow & terrain to the design parameters of sight
distance and curvature.
o Affects the geometric design parameters of a
highway such as lane & shoulder width, horizontal
radius, super elevation, sight distance & gradient.
21
F. Density and Character of Adjoining Land Use
 Have an impact mainly on design speed selection
 Eg. Urban and semi -urban areas have lower traffic
speeds
 Traffic speeds are influenced by
 Presence of other vehicles traveling in & across the
through lanes
 Physical & right- of- way constraints
 Pedestrian safety considerations
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2.3 Geometric Design Elements
2.3.1 Sight Distance
2.3 Geometric Design Elements
2.3.1. Sight Distance
 Is the distance visible to the driver of a passenger car
 For safety reason, appropriate sight distances should be
provided.
 There are four types of sight distances
a) Stopping sight distance [SSD]
b) Decision sight distance [DSD]
c) Passing sight distance [PSD]
d) Intersection sight distance [ISD]
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Sight Distance (cont…)
a) Stopping sight distance
 the distance with which the driver can control the operation of the
vehicle which is travelling at the design speed (i.e. to avoid striking
of unexpected object/person on the travel way)
 Has two components
d - the distance moved from the instant the object is

1
sighted to the moment the brakes are applied (perception &

brake reaction time, referred to as the total reaction time)
d2- the distance while braking (the braking distance)
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Stopping sight distance Vt
d1  vt 
d1 = total reaction distance(m) 3 .6
2
d2 = breaking distance (m) v
d2 
V =initial vehicle speed (km/h) 2( a  Gg )
v = ditto but (m/s) 2
V
G = gradient (%) positive uphill 
a
2  3 .6  9 . 81 (  G )
2
& negative downhill
g
f=a/g=a/9.81 = coefficient of
2
longitudinal friction V

t= reaction time [2.5sec] 254 ( f G )
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Stopping sight distance
SSD= d1+d2
2
V
SSD  0 . 278 Prt V 
254  f G 
d1 = total reaction distance(m)

d2 = breaking distance (m)
SSD = stopping sight distance in meters.
V =initial vehicle speed (km/h)
G = gradient (%) positive uphill & negative downhill
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction
prt= perception reaction time [2.5sec]
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Decision sight distance
 Is the distance needed for a driver to detect and perceive

an obstacle or information , and select an appropriate
maneuver.
 Is important when a driver approaches a traffic control

device, or posted information signs.
 DSD for change in speed, path, or direction on rural,

DSD
suburban, and urban road V 
is given by: t
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Where t ranges b/n [10.2sec,14.5sec] –AASHTO
Passing sight distance
is the minimum sight distance on two way single
roadway roads that must be available to enable
the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle
safely w/o interfering with the speed of an
oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
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Assumptions in computing safe PSD
 The overtaken vehicle travels @ a uniform speed
 The passing vehicle is required to follow @ the same speed
until there is an opportunity to pass
 The driver of the passing vehicle requires a certain period
of time to start his maneuver
 The passing vehicle accelerates during the passing
maneuver and its average speed during its occupancy of
the left lane is greater than that of the overtaken vehicle
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PSD min
 d 1 d 2d 3  d 4 d1-distance traveled during preliminary
where ,
delay time
at 1
d1  0 . 278 t1 (V 1  m  ) d2- distance traveled by passing vehicle on
2
d2  0 . 278 V 2 T 2 the left lane
d3  Table d3- distance b/n passing vehicle @ the end
d 
2
d2
of the maneuver & the opposing vehicle
4
3 d4- distance covered by the opposing

vehicle
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d1-distance traveled during preliminary delay time
t1 – time of initial maneuver in seconds,
a - average acceleration in km/h/s,

V1 - is average speed of passing vehicle in km/h,
m - is the difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle in

km/h.
d2- distance traveled by passing vehicle on the left lane
V2 - is average speed of passing vehicle in km/h,
t2 - is time passing vehicle occupies left lane in sec.
d3-11/30/2022
distance b/n passing vehicle @ the end of the maneuver & the
5:26 PM 33
opposing vehicle
Resulting stopping and passing sight distances,
according to the above relations are given in table
below.
Reduced
Design Speed Passing Sight
Coefficient of Stopping Sight Passing Sight
Distance (m)
(km/h) Friction (f) Distance (m) Distance for
from formulae
design (m)
20 .42 20 160 50
30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
50 .35 55 345 175
60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425
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• Clearance distance (d3) for different
ambient speeds
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Intersection sight distance
 A motorist attempting to enter or cross a highway from a

stopped condition should be able to observe traffic at a
distance that will allow safe movement.
 The driver approaching the intersection on the through road

should have a clear view of the intersection including any
vehicles stopped, waiting to cross, or turning.
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Control of Sight Distance
 Sight distance is dependent on
 Driver’s eye height above the road surface
 Object height above the road surface
 the height and lateral position of sight obstructions within the driver’s line of
sight
 These have an effect on the design of horizontal & vertical curve.
 The ff values should be used for the determination of sight lines.
 Driver’s eye height = 1.05m
 Object height for SSD= 0.2m
 Object height for PSD = 1.30m
 Object
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5:26 PM for DSD = 0.00m 37
 The above values are for simple utility vehicle, and hence different values are used for
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SD on Horizontal Curves:
 Sight obstructions has to be removed to obtain the required SSD on
horizontal curves.
 Thus, minimum radii or curve lengths for highways with horizontal
curves are determined based on required stopping sight distance.
39
Examples:
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Examples(cont)
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2.3.2 Horizontal Alignments
2.3.2 Horizontal Alignments
 It consists of a series of intersecting tangents & circular
curves with or without transition curves
 Should be designed to the highest standard consistent

with the topography
 Be chosen carefully to provide good drainage &

minimize earthworks
 Should be designed to achieve a uniform operating

speed
43
Horizontal Alignments (Cont…)
Straights (Tangents)
 Short straights between curves in the same
direction should not be used because of the
broken back effect
 where a reasonable tangent length is not
attainable, the use of long transitions or
compound curvature should be considered
44
Guidelines concerning the length of straights :
Straights should not have lengths > (20*V) meters,

where V is the design speed in km/h.
Straights between circular curves turning in the same

direction should have lengths >(6*V) meters,
Straights between the end and the beginning of un-

transitioned reverse circular curves should have
lengths greater than two-thirds of the total super
elevation run-off
45
Types of Circular Curves
Due to different terrain conditions, different
types of curves are used.
(1) Simple horizontal curve(2) Broken back curve (3) Compound curve
46
(a) With tangent (b) Without tangent

(4) Reverse Curve
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Simple Horizontal Curves
PC – point of curvature
PI – point of
intersection
PT – point of tangency
Δ – central angle
R – radius of curve
Stations of PC, PI, and PT:
PC = PI – T
P T = PC + Lc
48
Formulas for Simple Horizontal Curves
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Example
The intersection angle of a
1432.4m radius simple
circular curve is 55°25`, and
the PC is located at station
23 + 844.75. Determine
 the length of the curve,
 the station of the PT,
 the deflection angles at
100m chord lengths for
setting out the curve at
whole stations from the
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PC.
Solution:
• Length of circular curve, Lc
• Chainage of tangent points
• The distance between the PC and the first full

station (length of odd chord) is:
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Solution:
• Determine setting out data using Theodolite
method for the circular curve at 100m intervals.
• The first deflection angle to station 23 + 900 is:
Note that the deflection angle to PT is half the intersection angle

Δ of the tangents. This relationship serves as a check of the
computation. The other deflection angles are computed in Table
below.5:26 PM
11/30/2022 52
Table: Computations of Deflection Angles
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Compound Curves
R1 and R2 = radius of simple curves forming the compound

curve
Δ1 and Δ2 = intersection angles of simple curves
t1 11/30/2022
and t2 5:26
= PMtangent lengths of simple curves 54
T1 and T2 = tangent lengths of compound curves

Reverse Curves
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Transition Curves
Advantages of Transition Curves
 Along high-speed roadways with sharp curvature,

transition curves may be needed to prevent drivers from
encroaching into adjoining lanes
 provide a natural and easier to follow path for drivers

such that the centrifugal force increases or decreases
gradually as a vehicle enters or leaves a circular curves
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Advantages of Transition Curves
 Provides a convenient desirable distance for super
elevation runoff
 Facilitates gradual change in width of pavement (full
widening to start at circular curve)
 Enhances the aesthetic appearance of a highway b/c their
use avoids noticeable breaks at the beginning and end of
circular curves
 Euler spiral (clothoid)- commonly used transition curve
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Layout of a Transition Curves
ls/2
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Computations for a Transition Curves
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Computations for a Transition Curves
Some of the important properties of the spirals are given
below:
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Length of Transition Curves (Ls )
Is determined based on two criteria:
i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should not
cause discomfort to drivers.
ii. The rate of change of super elevation (super elevation

application ratio). Ls is equal to super elevation runoff
length.
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Setting out of Transition Curves
Let P be any station on the spiral;
   L2/2RLs where L is length b/n TS & P along the spiral.
 x  L (Length along the curve is equal to that along the

tangent).
 y  x3/6RLs ( convenient equation

y for setting out).
   x2/6RLs ,     /3 
P
x
TS
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Example
It is required to join two straights having a total
deflection angle of 40° to a circular curve of
300m radius with spiral transition curves of 90m
length at each end. If station (or chainage) of PI
is 6 + 000. Determine all the necessary data to
setting out the transition curve at 10m intervals
and the circular curve at 20m intervals;
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Solution:
The necessary data to setting out the transition curve
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Solution:
 Chainage of tangent points
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Solution:
 Determine setting out data using Theodolite method for
the transition curve at 10m intervals and the circular
curve at 20m intervals.
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Solution:
Setting out of the first transition curve:
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Solution:
Setting out of circular curve:
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Solution:
Setting out of the second transition curve:
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SD on Horizontal Curves: Sight distance a measured
along centreline of inside
 Sight obstructions has to be Centre line of Road lane
removed to obtain the

required SSD on horizontal
M
curves. A Sight line O
 Thus, minimum radii or
Ra
curve lengths for highways
di
us
with horizontal curves are
determined based on
required stopping sight
A slight correction for lane width is required for R as R is
distance.
mostly measured to the centerline of the roads.
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Case 1. S < Lc Case 2. S > Lc
  28 . 65 SD   2 SD  Lc 
M  R 1  cos   M  Lc 
  R  8R
Where: M is the offset to be cleared R is curve radius

SD is sight distance Lc is curve length
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Example
A horizontal curve with a radius of 250m connects the
tangents of a two-lane highway that has a posted speed limit
of 60 km/hr. If the highway is level (zero gradient), determine
the horizontal sightline offset (HSO) that a large billboard
can be placed from the centerline of the inside lane of the
curve, without reducing the required SSD. Assume
SSD < L , Perception-reaction time (P ) is 2.5 sec,
C rt
and f = 0.35.
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Solution:
• Determine the SSD required for the design
conditions:
• Determine the horizontal sightline offset (HSO),

M
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Super elevation
 Vehicles moving along a curved path are subjected to an
outward reactive force (centrifugal force)
 This force will be balanced by side friction developed b/n

the tyres and pavement
 To avoid both sliding and overturning of vehicles on a

curved path, super elevating the outer edge is necessary, in
addition to the developed side friction
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Stability on Super-elevated Surface (Forces &
Equilibrium)
Resolving the Forces // and | to the
road
(// to the road) 2

Wv
F  WSin   Cos 
gR
e
1
( | to the road)
Wv
2
WCos   Sin   N
gR
Frictional force, F= fN
Where:
f= Side friction factor
11/30/2022 5:26 PM N = Normal force 75
Combining the above equations:
2
Wv
fN  Cos   WSin 
gR
Wv 2  Wv 2
f  Sin   WCos   Cos   WSin 
 gR  gR
 v 2   v2 
Sin    1  Cos    f
 gR   gR 
2
v
 f
gR
Tan  2 fv
2
fv
1 But the term gR has a very small value
gR
and could be ignored for all practical
purposes. Check using typical values like
11/30/2022 5:26 PM
V=50km/hr; 76
f = 0.16; and R=100m.
v
2
Where:
tan   f e V = Velocity (Km/hr), design Speed
gR
R = Radius of curvature (m)
2 2 2
v V 3 . 6  V e = Rate of change of super elevation
e f    (m/m)
gR 9 . 81 R 127 R
f = Side friction factor (dimensionless)
 Normally, f is given, e is also known when the location of the

designed highway is known. The rest is to determine V when R
is known, or determine R when V is given.
 Therefore, the minimum curve radius Equation is:
2
V
R min 
127  e max  f max 
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Attainment of Super elevation
 The transition from a tangent to a curved super
elevated section must be accompanied without any
appreciable reduction in speed (Video)
So that, comfort and safety of occupants of the
travelling vehicle is ensured.
 The normal cambered surface on the straight reach
of the road is changed into a super elevated surface
in two stages :
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First Stage : The outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is
level (Tangent Runout Length).
Second Stage : Attain the full super-elevation (Superelevation runoff

Length).
Three methods may be adopted to attain the full super-elevation
a) The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway
(commonly used)
b) The surface of the road is rotated about

the inner edge
c) The surface of the road is rotated about

the outer edge
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Superelevation Transition Length
 Is the distance required for accomplishing
the transition from a normal crown section
to a fully super elevated section
 Is a function of the design speed and rate of

superelevation
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Superelevation Transition on Simple Curve (Tangent - Circular)
• The superelevation runoff is considered to be that length
beyond the tangent run out
• Empirical methods are employed to locate the
superelevation runoff length with respect to the point of
curvature (PC)
• Current design practice is to place approximately two-thirds
of the runoff on the tangent approach and one-third on the
curve
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Superelevation Transition on Simple Curve (Tangent - Circular)
84
11/30/2022 5:26 PM
Superelevation Transition on Spiral Curve (Tangent – Spiral -
Circular)
• In alignment design with spirals, the superelevation runoff is
effected over the whole of the transition curve
• The length of runoff is the spiral length with the tangent to
spiral (TS) at the beginning and the spiral to curve (SC) at the
end
• The change in cross slope begins by removing the adverse
cross slope from the lane or lanes on the outside of the curve
on a length of tangent just ahead of TS (the tangent run out)
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Superelevation Transition on Spiral Curve (Tangent – Spiral -
Circular)
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Superelevation Application Ratio
Superelevation runoff length of highway needed to
accomplish the change in cross slope from a normal
crown section to a fully superelevated section (or, vice
versa)
• The rate of raising the outer edge above the centre line
depends on design speed: SC e=6%
Design Speed D
Ratio V:H
(kph) Δg
80 1:200 Ls
64 1:175
TS
48 1:150
32 1:125 Edge Centre Line
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Widening of Curves
 There is a tendency to drive a curved path longer than the
actual curve, shifting the vehicle laterally to the right on
right-turning curves and to the left on left-turning curves
creating a need for additional pavement width
 The amount of widening needed varies with
 The width of the pavement on tangent
 The design speed
 The curve radius or degree of curvature
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The widening required can be calculated from
2
nB V
We  
2R 10 R
Where:
We= total widening (m)
B = wheel base of DV (m)
R = radius of curve (m) R2
V = design speed (Km/ L
R1
hr) f W
n = number of lanes
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Widening is also required for design Standards DC8 through
DC4 at high fills for the psychological comfort of drivers
Table: Curve and Fill Widening With Radius of Curve
Radius of Curve Curve Fill Widening
Curve Widening Widening Two
Single lane (m) Lane (m) Height of Fill (m) Amount (m)
>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3.0 0.0
120-250 0.0 0.6 3.0-6.0 0.3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6.0-9.0 0.6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9.0 0.9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9.0 0.9
<20
11/30/2022 5:26 PM
Refer Section 8.10 Switchbacks [ ERA manual 2013] 90
2.3.3 Vertical Alignments
Vertical Alignment
Introduction
 Once the horizontal alignment has been determined, the
vertical alignment of the section of highway in question can
be addressed
 The vertical alignment is composed of a series of straight-
line gradients connected by curves, normally parabolic in
form
 The most desirable design is one with long vertical curves
between grade tangents that provides smooth riding
qualities and good visibility with the minimum amount of
earth work.
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Vertical Alignment (Cont…)
Types of Vertical Curves
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Grades
Grades is a measure of the inclination, or slope, of the roadway
• It is defined as the rise over the run
• Grade affects speed, capacity and cost of operation
 Maximum Gradients
Greatly affects both the serviceability and cost of the road
• Vehicle operations on gradients are complex and depend on a
number of factors:
• severity and length of gradient;
• level and composition of traffic; and
• the number of overtaking opportunities on the gradient
and in its vicinity.
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Desirable Maximum Gradients [D] were set to assure user

comfort and to avoid severe reductions in the design speed
If the occasional terrain is encountered that requires excessive
earthworks to reduce the vertical alignment to the desirable
standard an absolute maximum gradient[ A] can be used
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 95
Maximum Gradients at Switch Backs
• Where switchback curves are unavoidable , there is a need
to reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point
through the curve
• The maximum allowable gradient through switchback curve
is 4 percent for road standards DC8-DC5, and 6 percent for
DC4-DC1.
Minimum Gradients
• Under the usual case, the minimum gradient is 0.5%
• However, flat and level gradients on uncurbed paved
highways are acceptable when the cross slope and
carriageway elevation above the surrounding ground is
adequate to drain the surface laterally.
• With curbed highways or streets, longitudinal gradients
should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 96
Critical Length of Gradient
 It is considered to be the maximum length of a designated upgrade
upon which a loaded truck can operate without unreasonable
reduction in speed.
 It is defined as the point at which a truck reaches a certain speed or
the point at which it has lost a certain amount of speed.
 It depends on the gradient of the approach and it decreases as the
gradient increases
 Where it is necessary to exceed the critical length of gradient on
heavily trafficked roads, it is desirable to provide either with safe
passing distances on the rise, or a climbing lane for heavy vehicles.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 97
Climbing Lanes
 It is an auxiliary lane added outside the continuous lanes and has
the effect of reducing congestion in the through lanes by
removing slower moving vehicles from the traffic stream.
 A climbing lane is an effective means of reducing the impact of a
steep gradient.
 It also enhances road safety by reducing the speed differential in
the through lane
 The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road
standard, speed and traffic volume.
 Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic
volumes are greater than 400 ADT, i.e., for trunk and link roads
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 98
20 km/h speed reduction is expected for a truck.
They must be clearly marked and, where possible, should end on level or
downhill sections where speed differences between different classes of vehicles
are lowest to allow safe and efficient merging maneuvers.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 99
Vertical Curves
 Most vertical curves are equal-tangent curves.
 In highway design, the grades of the disjointed segments of roadway

should be known before starting any vertical curve calculations
 The first step in the design of a vertical curve is the calculation of the
curve length.
 Design Criteria to be considered in selecting length of the curve are:
 Sight distance
 Riding comfort which depends on rate of radial acceleration
 Drainage Control
 Aesthetics
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 100
Length of Crest Vertical Curves
 Crest vertical curves are curves that connect inclined
sections of roadway
 SSD is usually the controlling sight distance in determining
the length of crest curves; sometimes PSD is also the case.
 There are two possible scenarios that could control the
design length:
• the SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve,
and
• the SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 101

Minimum length of Crest Vertical Curve for (S > L) is given by:
Lmin = Minimum length of the crest vertical curve (m)
S = Sight distance (m)

A = The change in grades ( |G2-G1| as a percent)
H1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground (m)
H2 =5:26
11/30/2022 Height
PM of the object above the roadway (m) 102
Minimum length of Crest Vertical Curve for (S < L) is given by:
Lmin = Minimum length of the crest vertical curve (m)

H1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground (m)
H2 =5:26
11/30/2022 Height
PM of the object above the roadway (m) 103
Example
A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join a +3% grade
with a -2% grade at a section of a two-lane highway.
Determine the minimum length of the curve if the design
speed of the highway is 90 km/hr, S < L, and a perception-
reaction time of 2.5 sec. The
deceleration rate for braking (a) is 3.4 m /sec . Use
2
the values of height of eye above roadway surface is 1.07m

and height of object above roadway surface is 0.7m.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 104
Solution:
• To determine the SSD required for the design
conditions. (Since the grade changes constantly on
a vertical curve, the worst-case value for G of 3% is
used to determine the braking distance.)
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 105

Solution:
• Using the following Equation to obtain the
minimum length of vertical curve:
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 106

Length of Sag Vertical Curves
 Sag vertical curves are curves that connect descending grades,
forming a bowl or a sag
 The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is
controlled by the following five criteria:
a) SSD provided by the headlight,
b) comfort while driving on the curve,
c) general appearance of the curve,
d) adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve,
and
e) SSD provided at underpass structures
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 107

Minimum Length Based on SSD Criterion
 The headlight SSD requirement is based on the fact that
sight distance will be restricted during periods of darkness
(night time driving)
 Therefore the distance that can be seen by the driver is
controlled by the headlight beam.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 108

Minimum length of the curve is given by:
Lmin = Minimum length of the sag vertical curve (m)

β = Beam upward divergence (°) (normally assumed as 1°)
H = Height of the headlights (m) (normally assumed as 0.6m)
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 109
Minimum Length Based on Comfort Criterion
 The effect of comfort of driving in vertical direction is more
pronounced in sag curves than on crest vertical curves.
 Ridding is comfortable on sag curves when radial

acceleration does not exceed 0.3m/sec2.
 Minimum length of the curve is given by:

Lmin = Minimum length of the sag vertical curve
(m)
V = the design speed (km/hr)
A = the algebraic difference in grades (%)
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 110
a = the radial acceleration (m /sec2)
Minimum Length Based on Appearance Criterion
 The criterion for acceptable appearance is usually satisfied
by assuring that the minimum length of the sag curve is not
less than expressed by the following equation:
 Minimum length of the curve is given by:
A = the algebraic difference in grades (%)
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 111

Minimum Length Based on Drainage Criterion
 The drainage criterion for sag vertical curves must be considered
when the road is curbed.
 This criterion is different from the others in that there is a
maximum length requirement rather than a minimum length.
 The maximum length requirement to satisfy the drainage criterion
is that a minimum slope of 0.35 percent be provided within 50 ft
of the lowest point of the curve.
 The maximum length for this criterion is usually greater than the
minimum length for the other criteria for speeds up to 60 mi/h and
is usually equal for a speed of 70 mi/h.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 112

Minimum Length at Underpass Structures
 When sag curves occur at an under pass, the overhead
structure may shorten the sight distance.
 There fore, the minimum length of vertical curve which will

provide a specified sight distance for under pass structures
should also be considered.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 113

Minimum length of the curve is given by:

H1= the height of drivers eye above road;
H2 = object height (usually taken as the tail light height = 0.45m)
C = the clearance height on the relevant structure located on the

11/30/2022 5:26 PM 114
sag curve, generally taken in ideal circumstances at 5.7 m for
Example
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a -5%
grade to a +2% grade. Assume a = 4.15 m /sec , 2
Beam upward divergence (β) as 1°, Height of the headlights (H)

as 0.7m and perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec. If the design
speed is 70 km/hr, determine the minimum length of the curve
that will satisfy:
a) Headlight sight distance criteria
b) Comfort criteria
c) General appearance criteria

11/30/2022 5:26 PM 115
Solution:
• To determine the SSD required for the design
conditions. (Since the grade changes constantly on
a vertical curve, the worst-case value for G of -5%
is used to determine the braking distance.)
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 116

Solution:
Determine the minimum length of the curve that will satisfy:
a) Headlight Sight Distance Criteria
For S > L
Therefore,
For S < L
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 117

Solution:
b) Comfort Criterion
c) General Appearance Criterion
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 118

Elevation of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
 Vertical curves are characterized by the length L and
algebraic difference in grades A of corresponding grades G1 &
G2.
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 119

2
d y
 Rate of change of slope of parabolas is a constant; i.e.
2
r
dx
 Integrating twice and considering boundary conditions gives:
Proofs
• If Y is taken as the elevation of the curve at a point x along
the parabola, then:
2
d y
2
r
dx
• Integrating the above Equation:

dy
 rx  c1
dx
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 120

• Examining the boundary conditions:
• Hence,
g2  g1
g2  rL  g 1  r 
L
• Therefore:
dy  g 2  g1 
 x  g1
dx  L 
• Integrating the above Equation again:
 g2  g 1  x 2 
y     g 1 x  c 2 When x = 0;
 L  2  y = c2 = Elevation of
11/30/2022 5:26 PM 121
PVC
• Therefore elevations at any point on the curve located at any
distance x from PVC is given by:
 g 2  g1  2
y   x  g 1 x  Elevation of PVC
 2L 
Where g1 , g2 are grades of tangents
• If we are substitute G1 , G2 grades of tangents (%) in the
above Equation it will be:
G G1  2  G1 
y  2 x    x  Elevation of PVC
 200 L   100 
• When x = L/2, the external distance E from the point of vertical

intersection (PVI) to the curve is determined by substituting L/2 for
x in the above Equation.
G 2 G1 
E  L
 800 
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 122
The elevation and location of the highest or lowest point of a
vertical curve is used by the engineer to check constraints.
• The location of the highest or lowest point of a vertical
curve is determine using equation below:
LG
x high / low  1
G1 G 2
• The elevation Xcan = distance
high/lowbe obtained from
by BVC to the pointthe
substituting with the
expression Xhigh/low for x and highest or lowestusing
determine elevation on the curve.
equation
below:
G G1  2 G 
y high / low  2  x high / low   1  x high / low  Elevation of PVC
 200 L   100 
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 123
Design Procedure for Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
The design of a crest or sag vertical curve will generally
proceed in the following manner:
Step 1: Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy
sight distance requirements and other criteria for
sag curves (comfort, appearance, drainage).
Step 2: Determine from the layout plans the station and
elevation of the point where the grades intersect
(PVI).
Step 3: Compute the elevations of the beginning of vertical
curve, (BVC) and the end of vertical curve (EVC).
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 124

Step 4: Compute the offsets (Y), as the distance between
the tangent and the curve. Usually equal distances
(station) are used, beginning with the first whole
station after the BVC.
Step 5: Compute elevations on the curve for each station
as: elevation of the tangent (plus or minus) offset
from the tangent (Y). For crest curves the offset is
(-) and for sag curves the offset is (+).
Step 6: Compute the location and elevation of the highest
(crest) or lowest (sag) point on the curve.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 125

Example
A crest vertical curve joining a +3 percent and a -4
percent grade has a 600 m length. If the tangents
intersect at station (34 + 560) and at an elevation of 1250
m, determine the stations and elevations of the PVC and
PVT and the elevations of intermediate points on the
curve at the 50 m stations. Also, calculate the location
and elevation of highest point on the curve.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 126

Solution:
To determine elevations along the curve, it is necessary to get
the stations and elevations of PVC and PVT as follows:
• Station and elevation of PVC:
• Station and elevation of PVT:
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 127

Solution:
The elevations at 50 m intervals along the curve
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 128

Solution:
Location and elevation of highest point on the curve
• The location of the highest point on a vertical curve
from PVC is:
• The elevation can be obtained by substituting the value

of Xhighest for x and determine using equation below:
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 129

Alignment Mis-phasing
Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing
 Phasing of the vertical and horizontal curves of a road
implies their coordination so that the line of the road
appears to a driver to flow smoothly, avoiding the creation
of hazards and visual defects.
 This issue is important in the design of high-speed roads
on which a driver must be able to anticipate changes in
both horizontal and vertical alignment well within the safe
stopping distance.
 It becomes also more important with small radius curves.
 Defects may be purely visual (aesthetically displeasing) or
may endanger the safety of the user by concealing hazards
on the road ahead.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 130
Alignment Mis-phasing (Cont…)
Types of Mis-phasing and Corrective Action
 When the horizontal and vertical curves are
adequately separated or when they are coincident,
no phasing problem occurs and no corrective action
is required.
 Phasing is achieved either by separating the curves
or by adjusting their lengths such that vertical and
horizontal curves begin at a common station and
end at a common station.
 In some cases, depending on the curvature, it is
sufficient if only one end of each of the curves is at a
common station.
 Here below are the different cases of mis-phasing:
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 131
1. Vertical Curve Overlaps One
End of the Horizontal Curve
• Delayed perception of the change
of direction at the start of the
Horizontal curve (less SSD due to
Vertical curve)
• Hazardous
• Vehicles tend to increase speed
on the down gradient following
the highest point of the crest >>
unexpected change of direction
DANGEROUS
• Corrective measures- use the
three measures listed in the
previous slide
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 132

2. Insufficient Separation between the Curves
• Appearance of a false reverse curve on the outside edge-line
at the beginning of the Horizontal curve (See d).
• Correction: increase the separation between the curves OR
make the curves concurrent (see a).
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 133

3. Both Ends of the Vertical
Curve Lie on the
Horizontal Curve
• If both ends of a crest curve
lie on a sharp horizontal curve,
the radius of the horizontal
curve may appear to the driver
to decrease abruptly over the
length of the crest curve.
• If the vertical curve is a sag
curve, the radius of the
horizontal curve may appear
to increase.
• The corrective action is to
make both ends of the curves
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 134
coincident
4. Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal
Curve
• If a vertical crest curve overlaps both ends of a sharp horizontal
curve, a hazard may be created because a vehicle has to undergo
a sudden change of direction during the passage of the vertical
curve while sight distance is reduced. The corrective action is to
make both ends of the curves coincident.
• If the horizontal curve is less sharp, a hazard may still be created if
the crest occurs off the horizontal curve. This is because the
change of direction at the beginning of the horizontal curve will
then occur on a downgrade (for traffic in one direction) where
vehicles may be increasing speed). The corrective action is to
make the curves coincident at one end so as to bring the crest on
to the horizontal curve.
• No action is necessary if a vertical curve that has no crest is
combined with a gentle horizontal curve.
• If the vertical curve is a sag curve, an illusory crest or dip,
depending
11/30/2022 5:27 PM on the “hand” of the horizontal curve will appear in the
135
road alignment.
2.4 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS
Cross Sectional Elements
 A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway,
shoulders or curbs, medians, drainage features, and
earthwork profiles
 Definitions
 Carriageway- the part of the road constructed for use
by moving traffic, including traffic lanes, auxiliary
lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes,
climbing lanes, and passing lanes.
 Roadway- consists of the carriageway and the
shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas
 Earthwork profiles- includes side slopes and back
slopes
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 137

Cross Sectional Elements (Cont…)
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 138

11/30/2022 5:27 PM 139

 For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements
may also include facilities for pedestrians, cyclists,
or other specialist user groups.
These include curbs, footpaths, and islands.
 It may also provide for parking lanes.
 For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also
include medians.
 Lane and shoulder widths should be adjusted to
traffic requirements and characteristics of the
terrain.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 140

 The cross-section may vary over a particular
route because these controlling factors.
 The basic requirements are, however, that
changes in cross-section standards shall be
uniform within each sub-section of the route and
that any changes of the cross-section shall be
effected gradually and logically over a transition
length.
 Abrupt or isolated changes in cross-
section standards lead to increased
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 141
hazards and reduced traffic capacity and

Cross section of a typical two-lane highway
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 142

11/30/2022 5:27 PM 143

11/30/2022 5:27 PM 144

Two Lane Town Section

11/30/2022 5:27 PM 145
Four Lane Town Section

11/30/2022 5:27 PM 146
Lane Widths
 Lane width or carriageway width has great influence on
safety and comfort.
 Selection of road width depends on the following factors:
 Classification of the road: The higher the class of road,
the higher the level of service expected and the wider
the road will need to be.
 Traffic: The heavy traffic volumes on a road the wider
traffic lanes needed
 Vehicle dimensions:
 Vehicle speed: As speeds increase, drivers have less
control of the lateral position of vehicles, reducing
clearances, and so wider traffic lanes are needed.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 147
 Lane widths of 3.65m are used for Design Classes
DS1 and DS2.
 The wider lane also provides desired clearances
between large commercial vehicles on two-way rural
highways.
 Narrower lanes are appropriate on lower volume
roads.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 148
 Standards for carriageway widths are shown in the
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 149

Shoulders
 A shoulder is the portion of the roadway
contiguous to the carriageway.
 Shoulder has the following purposes:
For the accommodation of stopped
vehicles; traditional and intermediate
non-motorized traffic, animals, and
pedestrians;
For emergency use; the recovery of
errant vehicles; and
Lateral support of the pavement
courses.
 Shoulder widths vs. design standards,
terrain type, and urban/rural
environment are presented in the ff
Table.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 150
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 151

Medians
 A median is the section of a divided highway that
separates the lanes in opposing directions.
The functions of a median include:
• Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
• Separating opposing traffic
• Providing stopping areas during emergencies
• Providing storage areas for left-turning and U-turning
vehicles
• Providing refuge for pedestrians
• Reducing the effect of headlight glare
• Providing temporary lanes and cross-overs during
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 152
maintenance operations
Medians can either be raised, flush, or depressed
Raised medians: are frequently used in urban arterial streets
because they facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at
intersections by using part of the median width for left-turn-
only lanes. Some disadvantages associated with raised
medians include possible loss of control of the vehicle by
the driver if the median is accidentally struck
Flush medians: are commonly used on urban arterials. They
can also be used on freeways, but with a median barrier. To
facilitate drainage of surface water, the flush median should
be crowned. The practice in urban areas of converting flush
medians into two-way left-turn lanes is common
Depressed medians: are generally used on freeways and are153
11/30/2022 5:27 PM
more effective in draining surface water. A side slope of 6:1

Normal Cross Fall
 Also known as camber or crown.
 It should be sufficient to provide adequate surface
drainage whilst not being so great as to make steering
difficult.
 On unpaved roads,
 The minimum acceptable value of cross fall depends
on the need to carry surface water away from the
pavement structure effectively, and
 The maximum value depends on the need to avoid
erosion of materials
The normal
 11/30/2022 5:27 PM
cross fall should be 2.5 percent on paved154
roads and 4 percent on unpaved roads.
Typical two-lane highway with linear cross slopes
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 155

Side Slopes & Back Slopes
 Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the
roadway and to provide a reasonable opportunity for
recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.
 Three regions of the roadside are important when evaluating
the safety aspects:
 the top of the slope (hinge point),
 the side slope, and
 the toe of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with
level ground or with a back slope, forming a ditch).
 Rounding at the hinge point can significantly reduce the
hazard potential. Similarly, rounding at the toe of the slope is
also beneficial.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 156
Typical elements of a roadside (Side Slopes & Back
Slopes )
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 157

Side Slope
Back
Material Height of Slope Zone Description
Slope
Cut Fill
0.0 - 1.0m 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
Earth or Soil 1.0 - 2.0m 1:3 1:3 1:2 Non-recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height See Standard Details Critical
0.0 - 2.0m 1:6

Black Cotton Soil* - - Recoverable
Over 2.0m 1:4
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may

be defined as recoverable, non recoverable, or critical.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 158

Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic
may be defined as recoverable, non recoverable, or
critical.
 Recoverable slopes include all embankment slopes 1:
4 or flatter. Motorists who encroach on recoverable
slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them
enough to return to the roadway safely.
 A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is
traversable, but from which most motorists will be
unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily.
Embankments between 1:3 and 1:4 generally fall into
this category.
 A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to159
11/30/2022 5:27 PM
overturn. Slopes steeper than 1:3 generally fall into

Roadside Ditches
 Minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m in
mountainous and escarpment terrain, and 1.0m
elsewhere, using a “v-ditch” configuration.
 The side slope and back slope of ditches should
generally conform to the slopes given in the above Table.
 Side drains should be avoided in areas with expansive
clay soils such as black cotton soils.
 Where this is not possible, they shall be kept at a
minimum distance of 4-6m from the toe of the
embankment, dependent on functional classification
(6m for trunk roads)
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 160
Clear Zone
 The cleared width should be a minimum of 15 meters each
side from the edge of the roadway for the higher road
standards.
 For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced as
practical. It should extend beyond the toe of the slope.
 Lateral clearances between roadside objects and
obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 meters.
 Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall
be a minimum of 1.0m from the edge of the carriageway.
11/30/2022 5:27 PM 161

Chapter 3 Geometric Design of Highwayssss

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2.

Geometric Design of Highways

Functional classiﬁcation of the road

 Have a present AADT  1000

 Have 1st year AADT less than 150

 Roads of highest classes (trunk & link) majorly provide

mobility while lower class roads provide access.

 Intermediate classes provide both mobility & access

Slopes rise & fall moderately, steep slopes are occasional,

o Volume & composition of traﬃc affects road

o Using functional classiﬁcation & design traﬃc

d - the distance moved from the instant the object is

sighted to the moment the brakes are applied (perception &

d2- the distance while braking (the braking distance)

d1 = total reaction distance(m)

 Is the distance needed for a driver to detect and perceive

 Is important when a driver approaches a traﬃc control

 DSD for change in speed, path, or direction on rural,

3 d4- distance covered by the opposing

t1 – time of initial maneuver in seconds,

a - average acceleration in km/h/s,

m - is the difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle in

V2 - is average speed of passing vehicle in km/h,

t2 - is time passing vehicle occupies left lane in sec.

 A motorist attempting to enter or cross a highway from a

 The driver approaching the intersection on the through road

 Sight distance is dependent on

 Driver’s eye height above the road surface

 Object height above the road surface

 These have an effect on the design of horizontal & vertical curve.

 The ff values should be used for the determination of sight lines.

 Driver’s eye height = 1.05m

 Object height for SSD= 0.2m

 Object height for PSD = 1.30m

 Thus, minimum radii or curve lengths for highways with horizontal

curves are determined based on required stopping sight distance.

 Should be designed to the highest standard consistent

 Be chosen carefully to provide good drainage &

 Should be designed to achieve a uniform operating

Straights should not have lengths > (20*V) meters,

Straights between circular curves turning in the same

Straights between the end and the beginning of un-

(a) With tangent (b) Without tangent

• Chainage of tangent points

• The distance between the PC and the ﬁrst full

• The ﬁrst deﬂection angle to station 23 + 900 is:

Note that the deﬂection angle to PT is half the intersection angle

R1 and R2 = radius of simple curves forming the compound

T1 and T2 = tangent lengths of compound curves

 Along high-speed roadways with sharp curvature,

 provide a natural and easier to follow path for drivers

ii. The rate of change of super elevation (super elevation

   L2/2RLs where L is length b/n TS & P along the spiral.

 x  L (Length along the curve is equal to that along the

 y  x3/6RLs ( convenient equation

removed to obtain the

 Thus, minimum radii or

Where: M is the offset to be cleared R is curve radius

• Determine the horizontal sightline offset (HSO),

 This force will be balanced by side friction developed b/n

 To avoid both sliding and overturning of vehicles on a

(// to the road) 2

 Normally, f is given, e is also known when the location of the