INTERSECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
In definition, an intersection or a junction is the general area where two or more roads meet
or cross each other. In design and construction, the following factors are taken into
consideration:
i) Safety and operational comfort.
ii) Adequate capacity.
iii) Economy in use and construction.
Safety and Operational Comfort: An intersection is considered safe when it is perceptible,
comprehensible and maneuverable. For perception the intersection should be sited so that the
major road approaches are readily visible by the provision of visibility splays which ensure
unobstructed sight lines to the left and right along the major road. The angle of intersection of
the major and minor roads should be between 70 and 110 degrees and early widening of the
junction approaches is essential.
By comprehension, it is meant that, the right of way should follow naturally and logically
from the junction layout. It is important to provide optical guidance by the use of clearly
visible kerbs, traffic islands, road markings, road signs and other relevant road
furniture.
Maneuverability means all traffic lanes should be of adequate width, the edges should clearly
be marked and traffic islands and kerbs should not conflict with natural vehicle paths.
Adequate Capacity: The purpose is to ensure that, adequate capacity, the frequency of gaps
should be of sufficient duration to permit vehicle from minor roads to cross with or merge
with major road flow without unnecessary stops.
Economy in Use & Construction: An economical junction, generally results from a
minimization of the construction, maintenance and operational costs. Delay, loss of lives or
personal injuries and damage to vehicles may justify a more expensive junction when
alternatives are found necessary.
2. CLASSIFICATION
Intersections are either at grade (same level) or grade separation (different levels). Fig 1, 2,
& 3. At grade intersections are classified according to:
i. Number of intersecting road ways.
ii. Angles at which they intersect.
iii. Shape they form when constructed i.e. plain, flared and channelized.
They may also be classified as controlled or uncontrolled depending on regulatory devices used.
Controlled intersections are regulated by traffic signals, traffic signs or by police. These devices
provide orderly movement and provide better level of service.
In uncontrolled intersections no regulatory devices are used and the driver must follow the right
of way rule. The two roads are more or less of equal importance and there is no established
priority.
For grade separated intersections this type of structure is simply a bridge or series of bridges
which enable the traffic stream on the intersecting road to cross over each other without any
vehicle conflicts taking place. In this way, overall traffic safety and efficiency of movement is
increased by concentrating the turning traffic at a few locations where adequate ramp facilities
can be built.
These may be classified as:
a) 3 – way interchange i.e. a “T” intersection: If one of the intersecting approaches of 3 legs
is a prolongation of approach of another and if the third leg intersects this prolongation at
an angle of 75 – 105 degrees.
b) 4-way intersection – This is termed as diamond or scissors, consisting of a single bridge
and four one – way slip roads.
c) Cloverleaf – This is a 4 – way single structure having no terminal right turns at grade. It
has an advantage of being very uncomplicated to use, while the 8 turning movements are
accomplished with no direct vehicle conflict.
d) Multiple interchanges is where the intersection has more than four approaches.

3. DESIGN (Purpose)
The basic principles of intersection design are:
1. Reduction of conflict points
The number of conflict points can be reduced by prohibiting certain movements e.g
channelization or by reducing the number of approaches.
2. Separate conflict points:
When intersections are too close together (crossing), they result in dangerous
conditions. They may be separated by staggering.
3. Control the relative speed:
Small difference in speed, upto 25 kph and convergence angles of more than 30
degrees between paths of vehicles increase the safety of the intersection. Crossing
maneuvers that involve high speeds, should be made at approximately right angles to
allow the driver better judgement. High speeds can be reduced by using control
devices e.g. traffic islands, speed change lanes and traffic signs.
4. Reduce area of conflict.
Channelization and re – alignment can be used to reduce the large area of
uncontrolled pavement.
 5. Intersection spacing
Optimum spacing of intersections on a road should be taken into consideration for
safety and delay. The number of intersections on a road should be as few as possible,
in view of the traffic pattern and access to adjacent roads and areas. On high-volume
high-speed roads, the spacing should not be less than 350 – 550 m apart.
The following are important elements of intersection design:
1. Sight distance
a) Stopping sight distance: Using the approach speeds of the particular leg, stopping sight
distance on each leg should be provided so that the drivers are able to see the intersection
markings, islands, etc to enable them to decide whether to stop, change speed or continue
driving to avoid collision. Stopping sight distance is made of two elements i.e. perception –
reaction distance and braking distance
Perception – Reaction distance
This is the distance travelled after the driver sees the object and before applying brakes.
Braking distance
This is the distance travelled after the driver applies brakes and before stopping.
Perception – Reaction distance can be calculated from the expression:.
RC = V x 1000 / (60x60) . t = 0.28vt
Where:
Where t = perception reaction time
v = speed in kph
t varies from 0.5 secs to 3.4 secs
Braking distance (BD):
BD = (0.28v)2 / (2 x 9.8 0.4) = 0.01v2

Note:
Upgrade, BD = V2 / 2g(f ± n)
Where n = grade in %
Downgrade, BD = V2 / 2g(f – n)
(b) Passing sight distance
For analysis of passing sight distance, the overall distance is divided into 3 parts.
1. Perception – Reaction distance i.e. that the distance travelled by the vehicle intending
to overtake a slow vehicle before moving to the opposing lane (d1).
2. Distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle when in the opposing lane (d2).
3. Distance travelled by the third vehicle in the opposing lane when the overtaking vehicle
occupies the lane (d3).
For calculating these distances certain assumptions are made:
For distance d1:
The vehicle A, moving at the design speed is forced to reduce its speed to that of slow moving
vehicle B and follows B until there is an opportunity for safe overtaking operation.
If V is the speed of vehicle B in m/s and t is the reaction time of vehicle A in secs.
Then,
d1= V x t
Usually, the value of t is taken as 2 secs.
For distance d2:
Vehicle A starts accelerating, shifts to adjoining lane and comes back to original lane ahead of
vehicle B. This shows that there are 3 parts i.e. (i) when changing lane to the opposing lane (s),
(ii) when moving parallel to vehicle B and (iii) when changing lane to original lane (s).
So the total distance
d2 = 2S + b (m)
Where b= V x t (speed of vehicle B x time taken by vehicle A).
This time depends on the speed of vehicle B and acceleration of overtaking vehicle A
(S = (0.7V + 6) m)
⸫ d2 = Vt +2s (m)
D3 = the distance by vehicle C moving at design speed Vm/sec during the overtaking operation
of vehicle A
⸫ d3 = Vt (m)
The overtaking or passing sight distance = d1+ d2+ d3.
2. Radii of curves
The minimum radii of intersection curves is governed by speed of operation (design speed) and
the turning pattern of design vehicle.

3. Right turns
From the capacity and safety point of view, right turns should be adequately provided.