Chapter 3 : GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY AND STREETS

At the end of the topic, students should be able to:

 Calculate and produce road alignment design. (CO1,C03-PO1, PO4)
 Understand and provide sketch of road section (include drainage and facilities). (CO1-
PO1,PO4)
 Understand on the provision provide sketches of at-grade and grade-separated
interchanges. (CO1-PO1,PO4)

Major Elements of Road Geometry

• Sight distances, • Vertical alignment,

• Horizontal alignment, • Cross-section, etc.

Why Must We Follow The Standard Code Of Practice In The Design?:

• To ensure uniformity in the design,

• To ensure smooth and safe traffic movements, and
• To assist engineers in designing the engineering details of the road sections.

Aspects Considered in Road Design

• Function – to serve as inland linkage between locations for moving people and goods.
• Safety – roadways must be designed with safety characteristics.
• Comfort – road features must be designed and built for comfort riding quality.
• Economic – in terms of construction and vehicle’s operating costs.
• Aesthetic – roadways must be built as an element of the environment; its design must
include aesthetical values to suit the existing environment.

Criteria That Govern The Geometry Design

1) Terrain – Influences the design of both horizontal and vertical alignments. Earthworks and construction n costs usually
depend on the vertical alignment and terrain.
Road terrain is divided into 3 types, i.e:
(i) Level – if the average slope of the contour is less than 3%
(ii) Rolling – if slope in the range of 3-25%.
(iii) Mountainous – if slope greater than 25%.
2) Design Speed – The highest speed which can be safely achieved for design and physical characteristic that will
affect the vehicle operation.
3) Design Traffic Volume & Ingress/Egress Control –
The ADT stated in Table 1 may be taken as an estimate of traffic at the end of the design life of the road to build.
The ingress/egress control (Table 1) depens on the requirements and its suitability with the type of the road to build.
4) Design Vehicle – Weight, size, and operational characteristics of a vehicle determine the design of the
basic elements of a road section, i.e., radius of road bends, pavement width, uphill and downhill gradients, etc.
Standards for design vehicle are stipulated in Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86.
 3.1 Sight Distance Concept – Stopping and Overtaking Sight Distance

Sight distance is length of road ahead which all objects are visible by the driver while driving. The
distance is influenced by factors such as:
• Driver’s perception & reaction time,
• Deceleration & acceleration rates,
• Friction between tyre and road surface,
-Height of the driver’s eyes & objects on the road, etc
• The designer must provide sight distance of sufficient length in which drivers can control the speed of the
vehicles so as to avoid striking an unexpected obstacle on the travelled way.
• 2-lane undivided roads should have sufficient sight distance to enable drivers to overtake vehicles without
hazard.
• Two sight distance situation considered:
1. Stopping sight distance
2. Passing sight distance

Criteria Measuring Sight Distance

• Height of driver’s eye
The eyes of the average driver in a passenger vehicle are considered to be 1.07m (3.5ft) above the road surface.
• Height of the object
A height of object of 150mm is assumed for measuring stopping sight distance and the height of object for
passing sight distance is 1.32m (4.25ft) both measure from the road surface

TOPIC 3.1.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)

• A distance acquired by a driver driving at a specified speed, to stop his vehicle safely once he notices any
obstruction or warning on the road.
• For safety, all highways must be designed for minimum stopping sight distance (SSD).
Minimum stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:
i. PERCEPTION-REACTION DISTANCE the distance traversed by a vehicle from the instant the driver
sights an object for which a stop is necessary, to the instant the brakes are applied, d₁
ii. BRAKING DISTANCE  the distance required to stop the vehicle after the brake application begins, d₂

PERCEPTION -REACTION DISTANCE = Distance travelled during perception time (d1):

BRAKING DISTANCE = Distance travelled during braking (d2):
Is the time taken by the driver to actuate the brake pedal, after realizing the need to brake, until the brakes
start to take effect.
 3.1.2 OVERTAKING/ PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD)

A minimum distance acquired by a driver to get off his lane and speed up to overtake the car in front, on a 2-lane (2-way)
road and then get back into the actual lane safely, without any interference to the oncoming vehicle of opposite lane.
OSD= D1+D2+D3+D4

TOPIC 3.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

• Horizontal alignment is an important feature in road design which enhances smooth driving & safety among motorists.
• Inappropriate alignment may:
1. Cause accidents – motorists are not able to properly maneuver their vehicles/are not aware of the need to change
speed.
2. Reduce capacity – motorists may travel at low speeds, hence reducing the capacity of the road.

• Horizontal alignment is needed when two straight roads (tangents) intersect.

TRANSITION CURVE OR SPIRAL CURVE

• Transition curves are place between
tangents & circular curves or between
two adjacent circular curves having
substantially different radii.
• It was provided to adjoin between a
straight road with the circular curve of  In such cases, the insertion of transition
a road. Transition curve is not needed
if:-
 Calculated length is short
 Calculated shift is small
 External angle is small
 Superelevation is not needed (low speed)
Reason for transition curve:
 To allow gradual built up to centrifugal
force until reach maximum as enter
circular curve.
 To allow gradual introduction of
superelevation.
 To allow gradual alteration of steering.
 To provide a smooth transition from
straight to a sharp curve, & to
facilitate a reasonable deceleration
rate.
 When vehicles enter or leave a circular
horizontal curve, the gain or loss of
centrifugal force cannot be effected
instantaneously,
considering safety and comfort.
curves between tangents and circular
curves warrants consideration.
A properly designed transition curve provides
the following advantages:
- A natural, easy to follow path for
drivers such that the centrifugal
force increases and decreases
gradually as a vehicle enters and
leaves a circular curve
- A convenient desirable arrangement
for superelevation runoff
- Flexibility in the widening of sharp
curves
- Enhancement in the appearance of the
highway.

FOUR IMPORTANAT CRITERIA OF DESIGNING HORIZONTAL CURVE

DESIGN SPEED HIGHWAY, V SUPERELEVATION , e

SAFETY OF LATERAL FRICTION, f CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, P
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, P

• CENTRIFUGAL FORCE,P is a force that causes an object moving in a circular path to move out and away from
the center of its path
• Centrifugal force, P acting on vehicle has two effects:
i) tendency to overturns ii) Tendency to skid laterally
• When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards through the
center of gravity of the vehicle.

SUPERELEVATION , e

• Superelevation is used
to minimise the effect
of centrifugal force on
driver/passenger for
comfort and maximise
the adhesion of the
tyre to the road when
cornering.
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force to reduce the tendency
of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of pavement is raised
with respect to the inner edge, which is known as superelevation, e
• The max rates of e usable are controlled by several factors such as climatic
conditions, terrain conditions and frequency of very slow moving vehicles,
vehicles speed. Max rate of 0.10 is used for rural and 0.06 for urban

• The importance of superelevation in the geometric design of highway:

 To allow for a gradual built-up of centrifugal force.
 To allow for a gradual streering of wheel. E.g., change of direction.
 Enable vehicle to travel at moderate speed along the curve.
 To counterbalance the centrifugal force developed during cornering.

OUTER
• In order to counteract effect
of centrifugal to reduce the
tendency of the vehicle to
SIDE
overturn or skid, the outer
edge of the pavement is
INNER
raised with the respect to
the inner edge. SIDE
TOPIC 3.3 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

• Straight line connected by vertical curve with the objective:

- To give a gradual change from one tangent grade to another without neglecting the drivers
comfort.
- To avoid humps
- To provide safe sight distance for vehicles to stop and manouver.

MAIN COMPONENTS

i) Uphill and downhill slope (gradient) ii) Summit curve

• A good slope/gradient is when a vehicle can • Main criteria - :
be controlled well in the condition of high gear - provision of minimum slipping sight distance
for uphill slope and without having to brake - adequate drainage
for downhill slope. - comfortable in operation
• Vehicle performance (especially HGV) depends - pleasant appearance
on the slope condition and length. Types of vertical curve:
• HGV speed will be affected if the uphill I. Crest Vertical Curves (uphill then follow by
gradient is too slope and long. downhill)
• Critical slope length is the maximum length of II. Sag Vertical Curves (downhill then follow
uphill slope that HGV can go through without by
losing much speed. uphill)

iii) Minimum length for the comfort criterion

• Vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve, both gravitational and centrifugal forces
act in combination, resulting in greater effect than crest curve.
• Comfort ride difficult to measure due to factors i.e weight carried, body
suspension, tyre friction, etc.
• A Comfortable ride will be provided if the radial acceleration <1ft/sec 2.

TOPIC 3.4 ROAD CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENT

SLIDE 78-79

TOPIC 3.5 PROVISION FOR CYCLIST AND PEDESTRIANS

Bicycle and pedestrian lane ;
- That part of highway
specifically reserved for the
exclusive use of bicycle riders
Bicycle lanes can be described Design speed for bicycle lane
by striping, signing or according to ASSHTO is 20
pavement marking. These mi/hr for paved paths
lanes should always be one-
way with traffic. Minimum
width under ideal condition is
4ft-5ft
TOPIC 3.6 Intersection Design - At Grade and Grade Separated Intersection

• Intersection are important part of a road system.

• Their capacity controls the volume of traffic within the network.
• The term intersection refer to both intersections and junctions – where two or more
roads cross or meet.

Types of Conflict

Four basic types of intersection conflicting The number of conflict points depends on:
maneuvers: - Number of approaches
- Diverging - Number of lane on each approach
Occur when vehicles leave the traffic stream - Type of signal control
- Extent of channelization
- Merging, - Movement permitted
Occur when vehicles enter a traffic stream

- Crossing
Occur when they cross paths directly

- Weaving
Occur when vehicles cross paths by first merging
and then diverging. In-direct conflict - at
roundabout only

SOLUTIONS FOR TRAFFIC CONFLICT

Time-sharing solutions. Space-sharing solutions. Grade separation solutions.

-To allow right-of-way to
particular movements for
particular times.
-Example: traffic signal control
intersection
-To convert crossing -Eliminate the crossing conflict by
conflicts into weaving placing the conflicting traffic
conflict. streams at different elevations at
Exampl-e: roundabout their point of intersection.
-Example: flyover, underpass,
interchange
 Factors Influencing the Intersection Design (i-iv)

i) Traffic volume & characteristics iii) Economics,

- Design peak hour volume. Variation should be justify by
- Needs of commercial vehicles should be considered. commensurate benefit to traffic.
- Operating speeds and turning path requirement, type of traffic
control.
- Pedestrian, buses requirement.

ii) Topography and environment, iv) Human factors

-Alignment and grade of approach roads, -Drivers tend to act according to habit,
-Need for drainage, -Tend to follow natural path of movement,
-Extent of interference with public utilities, proper access and
- May become confused when surprised

3.6.1 AT GRADE INTERSECTION (AT SAME LEVEL)

• An at-grade intersection is a junction at which two or more transport axes cross at the
same level (or grade).
• With areas of high or fast traffic, an at-grade intersection normally requires a traffic
control device such as a stop sign or traffic light or railway signal to manage conflicting
traffic

GENERAL CATEGORIES OF AT GRADE INTERSECTION

1. UNCONTROLLED JUNCTION
- No established priority visibility should be provided on the principle that a driver
approaching the intersections
- Before reaching intersection, driver must be able to see the hazard and stop the vehicle
2. PRIORITY JUNCTION
• With the help of warning signs, guide signs and etc. it is able to provide some level of
control at an intersection. Give way control, two-way stop control, and all-way stop
control are some examples
3. SPACE SHARING JUNCTION
• Example; channelization and traffic rotaries/roundabout
• Channelization: The traffic is separated to flow through definite paths by raising a
portion of the road in the middle usually called as islands distinguished by road
markings.
 • Traffic rotaries: It is a form of intersection control in which the traffic is made to flow
along one direction around a traffic island. The essential principle of this control is to
convert all the severe conflicts like through and right turn conflicts into milder conflicts
like merging, weaving and diverging
4. TIME SHARING JUNCTION
Control using traffic signal is based on time sharing approach. At a given time, with the help of
appropriate signals, certain traffic movements are restricted where as certain other movements
are permitted to pass through the intersection

TYPE OF AT GRADE INTERSECTION

• 3 LEGS INTERSECTION (T OR Y)
• FOUR-LEGS INTERSECTION
• INTERSECTIONS WITH FIVE OR MORE LEGS
• ROTARY INTERSECTION OF TRAFFIC CIRCLE

The choice between an at-grade and grade-separated INTERSECTION

1. Safety
-By separating the grades of the intersecting roadways, accidents caused by crossing and turning movements can be
reduced.
2. Economy
-interchange is the most costly type of intersection. The combined cost of the structure, ramps, through roadways,
grading and landscaping of large areas, and possible adjustments in existing road-ways and utilities generally exceeds
the cost of an at-grade intersection.
-Maintenance Costs
-Each type of intersection has distinct maintenance costs. Interchanges have large pavement and variable slope areas,
the maintenance of the structure, signs, and landscaping, exceeds maintenance cost of at-grade intersection.
3. Traffic
-Interchanges are desirable at cross streets with heavy traffic volumes. The elimination of conflicts due to high crossing
volume greatly improves the movement of traffic.
4. Delay
-The duration of average delay experience by vehicular traffic
5. Aesthetics
-interchange is so important to the overall perception of an urban expressway and adjacent communities, it requires
careful attention to landscape and aesthetics design properties. Interchanges have a high level of visual interest
because of the structures and landforms involved.
 3.6.2 GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTION

• Grade separation is the process of aligning a junction of two or more transport axes at
different heights (grades)
• To avoid disrupting the traffic flow on other transit routes when they cross each other.
• Also known as interchange.
• Type of separation structure:
- Overpass
- Underpass

JUSTIFICATIONS OF GRADE-SEPARATED INTERSECTION

• On high type facilities such as expressways, highways.

• Topographical situations – logical to provide a grade separated structure rather than an at- grade intersection.
• At junctions where the traffic volume is heavy and the delays and loss caused justify economically the provision
of grade-separation.
• At locations which have a proven record of bad accident history when functioning as at-grade junction.
• Certain at-grade intersection which have reached the maximum capacity

PURPOSE

- To permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without interruption.

- As part of expressway system designed to carry volumes of traffic.
- To eliminate bottlenecks
- To prevent accident
- Where the topography is not suitable for other types of design
- Where high volumes to be catered
- Where the road benefit of reducing delays at-grade intersections

• GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTION • GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTION

WITHOUT INTERCHANGE WITH INTERCHANGE

• OVERPASS (over-bridge) THREE LEGS INTERCHANGE

-When two roads cross at a point, if the FOUR LEGS INTERCHANGE
road having major traffic is elevated to a MULTI-LEG INTERCHANGE
higher grade for further movement of
traffic, then such structures are called
overpass
• UNDERPASS
-if the major road is depressed to a lower
level to cross another by means of an
under bridge or tunnel, it is called under-
pass.

3.6.3 CHANNELIZATION
 • The direction of traffic flow at intersections to definite path, by means of traffic
markings, islands or others.
• An unchannelized intersection is the simplest type but is the most dangerous and
inefficient.

THE PURPOSE

Channelization serves the following purpose:

• Separation of conflicts
• Control of angle of conflict
• Control of speed
• Protection of traffic
• Protection of pedestrians
• Elimination of excessive intersectional area
• Blockage of prohibited movement
• Location of traffic control devices

THE PRINCIPLES

The design channelized intersection should also

be governed by the following principles:
i) Motorist should not be required to make more than one decision at a time.
ii) Sharp reverse curves and turning paths greater than 900 should be avoided.
iii) Merging and weaving area should be as long as possible, but other area of conflict between vehicles
should be reduced to minimum.
iv) Crossing traffic streams that do not weave or merge should intersect at 900 but a range of 60-1200 is
acceptable.
v) The intersecting angle of merging streams should be such that adequate sight distance is provided.
vi) Refuge areas for turning vehicles should not interfere with the movement of through vehicle.
vii) Prohibited turns should be block wherever possible.
viii) Decisions on the location of essential traffic control devices
should be a component of the design process.