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Module 3 Geometric Design for Highways and Railways

Introduction
Geometric design of highways and railways refers to their dimensional and spatial
characteristics. Highways and railways vary in shape, elevation, size, etc. depending on
their purpose and location. Geometry also defines the position of a highway with
reference to the objects around it.

Topic Outcomes
At the end of this module, the student will be able to:
1. Design and analyze a vertical curve
2. Design and analyze a horizontal curve
3. Consider the importance of balance between geometry and safety in designing
highway curves
This module will be divided into different topics to ensure that the outcomes will be
attained:
1. Vertical alignment
2. Horizontal alignment
3. Super elevation

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Topic 1: Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment means the elevation of different points along a roadway.

Elevations are designed to provide an acceptable level of driver safety, driver comfort,
and proper drainage. The main concern in designing the vertical alignment of roads is by
establishing a transition of roadway elevations between to grades. This transition is
achieved by means of a vertical curve.
Vertical curves are classified into crest vertical curves and sag vertical curves.
Figure 3.1.1 shows the two curves.

Figure 3.1.1. Crest and sag vertical curves (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering, S. S. Washburn)

G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or m/m; referred to also as the initial

tangent grade
G2 = final roadway grade in percent or m/m
A = absolute value of the difference in grades (initial minus final)
L = length of curve in meters measured in a constant elevation horizontal
plane
PVC = point of the vertical curve (initial point of the curve)
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final grades)
*Note: in a symmetrical vertical curve, PVI is located at L/2
PVT = point of vertical tangent (final point of the curve)

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It is important to know that in connecting roadway grades, a parabolic curve is

found to be suitable because it provides a constant change of slope. The general form of
the parabolic equation is
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (Eq. 3.1.1)
where
y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of the vertical curve (PVC),
in meters
x = distance from the beginning of the curve, in meters
c = elevation of PVC (since at PVC, x = 0)

In defining b, we will be taking the first derivative of y, that is

(Eq. 3.1.2)

At PVC, x = 0 so

(Eq. 3.1.3)

In defining a, the second derivative of y will now be taken, that is

(Eq. 3.1.4)

The second derivative of a parabolic function can also be defined as the rate of
change of slope of the tangent line, so it can be written in terms of G1, G2, and L, that is

(Eq. 3.1.5)
Combining Eq. 3.1.4 and Eq. 3.1.5

(Eq. 3.1.6)

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Example 3.1

A 200-m symmetrical vertical curve must be designed such that its initial and final grades
are -5% and +4.5% respectively. If PVC is located at STA 1 + 11.5 with an elevation of
50m, determine the stationing and elevation of PVI, PVT, and the lowest point of the
curve. 1 station = 20 meters.
Given:
G1 = 2%
G2 = -1.5%
PVC @ STA 0 + 120
Elev PVC = 50m
Required:
Elevation and location of PVI
Elevation and location of PVT
Elevation and location of the lowest point
Solution:
Location of PVT: STA 11 + 11.5
Location of PVI: STA 6 + 11.5 (symmetrical)

Recall eq. 3.1.1,

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Solving for a

Solving for b
𝑏 = 𝐺1 = −0.05
Substituting the values of a and b to the general formula
𝑦 = 0.0002375𝑥 2 − 0.05𝑥 + 50
@PVT, where x = 200, y = 49.50
Thus, the elevation of PVT is
Elev PVT = 49.50 m

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@PVI, where x = 100, y = 49.738

Thus, the elevation of PVI is
Elev PVI = 47.375 m

Since the grades are of different signs, the location of the lowest point is defined
by x where dy/dx = 0

𝑥 = 105.263

Lowest point is located at STA 6 + 16.763

@ x = 105.263, y = 47.3684
Elev Lowest Point = 47.368 m

Final Answers:
Location of PVT: STA 11 + 11.5, Elev PVT = 49.50 m
Location of PVI: STA 6 + 11.5, Elev PVI = 47.375 m
Lowest point is located at STA 6 + 16.763, Elev Lowest Point = 47.368 m

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Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

In designing a highway curve, it is important to consider not only its geometry but
also its safety. Stopping Sight Distance can be defined as the minimum distance a vehicle
can travel starting from the driver seeing an obstruction, reacting to it, hitting the brakes,
and the vehicle coming to a full stop. It is a factor of the driver’s reaction time, vehicle’s
speed, roadway grade, and road and tire friction. Eq. 3.1.7 shows the formula used to
calculate SSD

(Eq. 3.1.7)

where,
SSD = stopping sight distance, in meters
v = vehicle’s speed, in meters per second
t = driver’s reaction time, in seconds
f = coefficient of friction
G = roadway grade
g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2

Take note that the first term corresponds to the reaction distance and the second term
corresponds to the braking distance.

Example 3.2
A vehicle is travelling at 35 kilometers per hour. Its driver is about to hit a 2-meter high
wall 30 meters away if he did not react accordingly. Assuming the coefficient of friction
between the road and tires is 0.35 and the driver steps on the brakes 2 seconds after
seeing the obstruction, will he hit the wall? The road is perfectly horizontal.
Given:
v = 35 kph = 9.72 m/s
t = 2 seconds
f = 0.35
G=0
Required:
If SSD > 30, will the vehicle hit the wall?

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Solution:
𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔(𝑓 ± 𝐺)
(9.72)2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = (9.72)(2) +
2(9.81)(0.35)
𝑆𝑆𝐷 =33.20
Since SSD = 33.20 m > 30 m, the driver will hit the wall.

SSD and Crest Vertical Curve

Figure 3.1.2. SSD and crest vertical curve (Image taken from ascelibrary.com)

The equations used in designing a crest vertical curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L

(Eq. 3.1.8)
Assuming SSD > L

(Eq. 3.1.9)
where,
Lm = minimum length of crest curve, in meters

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S = stopping sight distance, in meters

H1 = driver’s eye level above roadway surface, in meters
H2 = height of obstruction above roadway surface, in meters
A = absolute value of the difference in grades, in percentage

Example 3.3
Determine the length of the vertical curve with a stopping sight distance of 230
meters. Its initial and final grades are +1.75% and -2.05% respectively. The driver’s eye
level above the roadway surface is 150 centimeters and the height of obstruction is 100
centimeters.
Given:
S = 230 m
G1 = +1.75%
G2 = -2.05%
H1 = 150 cm = 1.5 m
H2 = 100 cm = 1.0 m
Required:
L
Solution:
Solve for A
𝐴 = |−2.05 − 1.75| = 3.80

Next, we assume that S < L

𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿= 2
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2 )
(3.80)(2302 )
𝐿= 2
200(√1.5 + √1.0)
𝐿 =203.07
Since 230 > 203.07, our assumption was wrong. We now move on to the next equation
where S > L

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2
200(√𝐻1 + √𝐻2 )
𝐿𝑚 = 2𝑆 −
𝐴
2
200(√1.5 + √1.0)
𝐿𝑚 = 2(230) −
3.80
𝐿𝑚 =199.5 m

The statement S > L holds true in this case, so the length of the vertical curve is
199.5m.

SSD and Sag Vertical Curve

Figure 3.1.3. SSD and sag vertical curve (Image taken from thetruthaboutcars.com)

The equations used in designing a sag vertical curve are as follows:

Assuming SSD < L

(Eq. 3.1.10)
Assuming SSD > L

(Eq. 3.1.11)

where, Lm = minimum length of sag curve, in meters

S = stopping sight distance, in meters
H = height of headlight above roadway, in meters

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α = inclined angle of headlight beam, in degrees

A = absolute value of the difference in grades, in percentage

Example 3.4
A vertical curve is to be designed with a stopping sight distance of 310 m. Its initial and
final grades are -1.2% and +2.1% respectively. The average height of the headlights of
the vehicles that will pass through this road is 60 centimeters and α is set at 1°. Determine
the length of the curve.
Given:
SSD = 310 m
G1 = -3.2%
G2 = +2.1%
H = 60 cm = 0.6 m
α = 1°
Required:
L
Solution:
Solve for A
𝐴 = |2.1 − (−3.2)| = 5.3
Next, we assume that S < L
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿𝑚 =
200(𝐻 + 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)

(5.3)(310)2
𝐿𝑚 =
200(0.6 + 310𝑡𝑎𝑛(1°))

𝐿 = 423.66
The statement S < L holds true in this case, thus L = 423.66 m.

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Topic 2: Horizontal Alignment

In its simplest description, horizontal alignment of a roadway is all about road
corners/cornering. Horizontal curves provide a directional transition between two straight
sections of a roadway. The main concern in designing a horizontal curve is considering
the cornering capabilities of the vehicle.
In connecting two straight roads, the most common is using a simple circular curve.
Other options may be reverse curves, compound curves, and spiral curves. Reverse
curves are just two simple circular curves that turn in opposite directions. Compound
curves are circular curves in succession. Spiral curves have continuously changing
radius.

Simple Circular Horizontal Curve

Figure 3.2.1 Elements of a simple circular curve (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S. Washburn)

In designing a simple circular curve, the following factors are considered:

R = radius of the curve, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in
meters
Δ = central angle of the curve, in degrees
T = tangent length, in meters
E = external distance, in meters
M = middle ordinate, in meters

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PC = point of curve (beginning point of the horizontal curve)

PI = point of tangent intersection
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the horizontal curve)
L = length of curve, in meters

Another consideration is the degree of curve, D, which is the central angle subtended by
one station (20m).

The following equations are used in designing a simple circular curve:

Length of Tangent, T

(Eq. 3.2.1)
External Distance, E

(Eq. 3.2.2)
Middle Ordinate, M

(Eq. 3.2.3)
Length of Curve, L

(Eq. 3.2.4)
Degree of curve, D w/ 1 station = 20 meters

(Eq. 3.2.5)

Example 3.5
A horizontal curve is to be designed with PI located at STA 23 + 00. The radius of the
curve is 500 meters and the length of its tangent is 100 m. Determine the location of PT,
external distance, middle ordinate, and degree of curve. 1 station = 20 meters

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Given:
R = 500 meters
T = 100 meters
PI @ STA 23 + 00
Required:
Location of the PT, external distance, middle ordinate, degree of curve
Solution:
Use the formula for length of tangent to determine Δ
𝛥
𝑇 = 𝑅𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
𝛥
100 = 500𝑡𝑎𝑛
2
𝛥 = 22.62°
We can now solve for the length of the curve, L
𝜋𝑅𝛥
𝐿= 180

𝐿 = 197.40 𝑚
Location of PT is @ STA 32 + 17.40
Solving for external distance, E
𝛥
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑠𝑒𝑐 −𝑅
2
E = 9.90 m
Solving for middle ordinate, M
𝛥
𝑀 = 𝑅 − 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
M = 9.71 m

Solving for the degree of the curve, D

20𝛥
𝐷=
𝐿
D = 0.90°

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Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curves

Stopping sight distance is also considered in designing horizontal curves to provide
safety.

Figure 3.2.2 SSD and simple circular horizontal curve (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S.
Washburn)
where
R = radius measured to the centerline of the road, in meters
Rv = radius to the vehicle’s path, usually measured to the center of the
innermost lane, in meters
Δ = central angle of the curve, in degrees
Δs = angle subtended by an arc equal in length to the SSD
L = length of curve, in meters
Ms = middle ordinate necessary to provide adequate SSD, in meters
SSD = stopping sight distance, in meters
PC = point of curve (beginning point of the horizontal curve)
PT = point of tangent (ending point of the horizontal curve)

The equations used in computing the relationship of horizontal curves and SSD are:

(Eq. 3.2.6)

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rearranging the term,

(Eq. 3.2.7)

Using the equation of the middle ordinate (Eq. 3.2.3), we can come up with this formula
for Ms:

(Eq. 3.2.8)
Example 3.6
A 2-lane road curve has a radius of 450 meters. If the required stopping sight distance is
210 meters, what is the allowable distance of an obstruction from the edge of the road?
Each lane has a width of 3 meters.
Given:
R = 450 m
SSD = 210 meters
lane width = 3 meters
Required:
Allowable distance of an obstruction from the edge of the road
Solution:
First, solve for Rv
𝑅𝑣 = 450 − 1.5
Rv = 448.5 m
Solving for Ms

90(210)
𝑀𝑠 = 448.5 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ ])
𝜋(448.5)
Ms = 12.23 m
dallow = 12.23 - 1.5
dallow = 10.73 meters

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Topic 3: Superelevation

Banking Curve

Figure 3.2.1 Interaction of forces in a banking vehicle (Image courtesy of F.L. Mannering & S.S.
Washburn)
where
Rv = radius of curvature of the vehicle’s path, in meters
α = angle of inclination, in degrees
e = vertical rise in meters per 100 m of horizontal distance, also called
superelevation, usually expressed in percentage
W = weight of the vehicle, in Newtons
Wn = weight of the vehicle normal to the road surface, in Newtons
Wp = weight of the vehicle parallel to the road surface, in Newtons
Ff = side frictional force, in Newtons
Fc = centripetal force, in Newtons
Fcp = centripetal force parallel to the road surface, in Newtons
Fcn = centripetal force normal to the road surface, in Newtons

Using the concepts of mechanics, one can come up with the following equation:

(Eq. 3.3.1)
where,
fs = coefficient of side friction
g = gravitational constant 9.81 m/s2

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Example 3.7
A roadway is designed to have a maximum speed of 75 kilometers per hour. One of its
horizontal curves is designed to be simple circular having a radius of 195 meters. What
should be the angle the roadway makes with the horizontal so that the vehicles will not
overturn? The coefficient of side friction is set at 0.15.
Given:
v = 75 kph = 20.83 m/s
Rv = 1050 meters
fs = 0.15
Required:
The angle the roadway makes with the horizontal
Solution:
Solve for the value of superelevation, e

20.832
195 =
9.81(0.15 + 𝑒)
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟖 or 7.68%

The relationship of superelevation and the angle the roadway makes with the horizontal,
θ, is shown by the figure below

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑒/100
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 7.68/100
θ = 4.39°

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