See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/357676924

A SEARCH FOR A NEW TALL BUILDING TYPOLOGY: STRUCTURAL HYBRIDS

Conference Paper · September 2021

CITATIONS READS

12 623

1 author:

H. Emre Ilgin
Tampere University
68 PUBLICATIONS 863 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by H. Emre Ilgin on 08 January 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

A SEARCH FOR A NEW TALL BUILDING TYPOLOGY: STRUCTURAL
HYBRIDS Politics/ Policies/
Laws/ Regulations/
Hüseyin Emre ILGIN1 Ethics
Human/ Behavior
1
Middle East Technical University, Turkey
hemreilgin@gmail.com Technology/
Material/
Sustainability
Philosophy/
ABSTRACT Theory/ History/
As a contemporary trend, increasing demand for iconic towers, challenging Discourse
competition for the most extraordinary skyscraper among great Criticism/ Method
metropolises, and the never-ending race for constructing the tallest have
Identity/ Culture/
begun to define the state-of-the-art of today’s tall building architecture. In Tradition
this uphill struggle, they have generally become a vertical monotonous
duplication of a piece of land to make the ground they are erected financially Urban/ City/
Landscape/ Rural
as valuable as possible. However, this effort has mostly led to numerous
unspectacular homogenous towers all over the world as a product of Design
isolationist architecture. Overall, despite nearly 140 years of development, Interior Design
the architectural design of tall building has not reached the desired level
particularly in terms of integration into the urban context and structural Conservation/
design. In this paper, the author proposes a classification for contemporary Transformation/
Re-use
tall building typology in the context of hybrids. This study mainly focuses on
spatial quality and structural design integration of hybrids to raise architects’ Education
consciousness of structure as an essential element of architecture. Arts/ Aesthetics
Moreover, this paper scrutinizes several representative spatial hybrid
projects having the standards of spatial quality. These critical analyses are
expected to aid in the rethinking and development of tall building typology
with enhanced spatial quality.
Key Words: Tall Building; Building Typology; Spatial Quality; Structural
Design Integration; Functional, Spatial and Structural Hybrids.

95
INTRODUCTION
Like the Greek temples or the Gothic cathedrals that were the foremost
building types of their ages, tall buildings have become iconic structures of
industrial societies. At the beginning of the 20th century, tall buildings were
generally designed as offices and achieved an important position as a
‘distinguished space’ in the history of American urban architecture (Ilgın,
2021). These buildings emerged as a response to the rapidly growing urban
population, intending to meet the demand for office units to be positioned
as closely as possible to one another. Their typology has been continuously
evolving from mono-function office towers at those times to 1960s simple
multi-function buildings with the emergence of hybridization concept as an
architectural response to the social and economic changes of the era.
In the masonry construction technique that was employed before the
development of rigid frame systems, load-bearing masonry walls were used
structurally. They had high levels of fire resistance; while they reduced the
net usable area because of their excess dead loads and wide cross-sections
(Gunel and Ilgın, 2014a). At the end of the 19th century, beginning with the
discovery of the elevator and beam-column framing system with structural
metal, the construction of tall buildings gained momentum as an American
building type thanks to advances particularly in new structural systems,
structural materials, and mechanical systems; this continues to drive the
race for height in tall buildings that are spreading across the world as one
of the most important symbols of today’s cities (Gunel and Ilgın, 2014b).
A typical tall building could be divided into three main parts: top/head, main
body/tower, base. This tripartite design approach originating in the late 19th
century, best exemplified in Chrysler Building (New York, 1930) suggests
that a tall building should have a distinct top (crown), middle (shaft), and
base (podium) (Al-Kodmany and Ali, 2016; Ilgın, 2018; Ilgın et al., 2021).
Even though the ‘main body’ configuration is the most critical in determining
the quality of interaction between the building and environmental conditions,
and in perceiving of building scale in tripartite concept (Ali and Armstrong,
1995), this part has been generally not more than a repetition of stacked
floors allocated to financially desired functions.
Tall buildings have been designed with the aid of structural analysis and
advanced computer technologies with outstandingly daring architectural
and structural design solutions that are rarely found in their predecessors.
However, contemporary tall buildings have mostly been turning into a group
of progressively self-referential, inward-focused, and vertical stratified
objects without cultural and/or social references to their surroundings
(Koolhaas, 2008; Scheeren, 2014; Henn and Fleischmann, 2015; Safarik,
2016).
In addition to this fact, the continuation of a growing tendency to exaggerate
aesthetics and style in the design of today’s tall buildings sometimes could
result in less and even no attention to structural integrity. This brings about
not more than a repetition of the same structural configuration at floor plans,
which unavoidably limits the structural design role in solving the issue rather
than the synthesis with architectural design.

96
Because of this apparent disengagement, as a common trend for tall
building design, there has been an inflexible homogeneity in the structural Politics/ Policies/
Laws/ Regulations/
arrangement of each floor disregarding functional needs and user Ethics
requirements through the height of the building. These above-mentioned
approaches could enable a building to stand upright, however, Human/ Behavior
unfortunately, they cannot solve the integration problems about the Technology/
architectural potential of the structure. Material/
This paper mainly focuses on examining the structure’s space-defining and Sustainability
ordering roles, which throws light on areas of structures ‘speaking’ and even Philosophy/
‘shouting’ in their architectural contexts. Besides this leading mission, in Theory/ History/
terms of humanizing the towers, spatial hybrids having the effort of assuring Discourse
their spatial quality and sustainability with representative examples, and Criticism/ Method
functional hybrids at a generic level will be examined.
Identity/ Culture/
Thus, the architects of contemporary tall buildings must be aware of the Tradition
facts above and need to analyze for the generation of alternative tall building Urban/ City/
typologies, where structure contributes architecturally, other than in its Landscape/ Rural
primary load-bearing role. The structure orders plans, creates spatial
Design
hierarchy, presents visual diversity and makes the space more dynamic.
Interior Design
Conservation/
HYBRIDS Transformation/
Re-use
Hybrids have begun to be recognized as a new architectural prototype - but
Education
not yet in all their aspects of functional, spatial, and structural potentials - in
contemporary tall building typology. In this paper, taking into consideration Arts/ Aesthetics
the studies in the literature (e.g., Jacobs, 1961; Fenton, 1985; Rowley,
1996; Salingaros, 1998; Talen and Knap, 2003; Holl, 2011; Per et al., 2014;
Schumacher, 2014; Ravindranath and Menon, 2018; Bagley, 2018) the
following classification proposed by the author for the contemporary tall
building typology for hybrids:
● Functional hybrids
● Spatial hybrids
● Structural hybrids

Functional hybrids
In the light of the researches in the literature (Fenton, 1985; Salingaros,
1998; Holl, 2011; Per et al., 2014; Ravindranath and Menon, 2018), from a
functional point of view, it can be said that tall building typology has been
continuously evolving from single-use mega towers of early modernism to
today’s multi-function hybrids as a response to the dynamic nature of social
and economic changes in their era.
In this context, function is one of the most important architectural design
considerations in tall building typological development. Tall buildings are
mostly designed to meet the occupancy needs which are determined
according to the functional requirements. As a main dominant factor that

97
directly affects other design factors, function is of primary concern which
requires to be assessed at the early stages of the architectural design.
Generally, the functional types of tall buildings could be divided into two
categories: single-use and multi-function (mixed-use). Multi-function tall
buildings first appeared in the mid-1960s, and Marina City Complex
(Chicago, 1964) (Figure 1) is the first multi-function tall building with the
concept of ‘city-within-a-city’ (Kim, 2004). The 61-storey, 179m high Marina
City Complex in Chicago (USA) was designed by Bertrand Goldberg &
Associates. It is a reinforced concrete residential complex with a shear
walled frame system.

Figure 1. Marina City Complex, Chicago, 1964 (source: Wikipedia,

attribution: Diego Delso)
As the first planned development project in Chicago, Goldberg’s Marina City
Complex with visually striking corncob form was the tallest residential in
1964. Unlike any project before, it was a unique combination of residential,
commercial, and recreational into the concept of ‘city-within-a-city’. Since
each floor has a different type of residential unit, no two similar floors are
repetitively stacked on one another. On the other hand, it seems that there
is no effort to generate the public spaces allowing social interaction and
shared activities on typical floors, which gives the building potential to space
articulation as in the case of spatial hybrids.

98
While office, hotel, residential are considered major functions;
commercial/retail, parking, and observatory are considered as Politics/ Policies/
Laws/ Regulations/
supplementary functions in tall building design. Multi-function tall buildings Ethics
can be classified into several types according to their complexity: office with
hotel; office with residential; office, hotel and residential (Kim and Elnimeiri, Human/ Behavior
2004). The combination of these functions usually requires a complex Technology/
building core and circulation (Park, 2005). Material/
Today, as the third type, functional hybrids come forefront of contemporary Sustainability
tall building typology. These hybrids could be designed in either single-use Philosophy/
or multi-function with minor volumetric articulations but without caring for Theory/ History/
spatial quality within the context of architectural diversity. Discourse
Criticism/ Method
To create desired spatial quality, as a further step in the development of tall
building typology, spatial hybrids have begun to take place in the design Identity/ Culture/
scene as defined in the next section. Tradition
Urban/ City/
Landscape/ Rural
Spatial hybrids Design
Spatial hybrids can be described as tall buildings with either single-use or Interior Design
multi-function offer an alternative major spatial configuration to the vertical Conservation/
stacking of functional units. Their design is based on an effort to produce Transformation/
architectural diversity in the vertical direction according to different user Re-use
needs rather than the repetition of typical or similar floor plans. During the
Education
generation process of the space formation, several design criteria could be
taken into consideration for example transportation integration with multi- Arts/ Aesthetics
level access; shared green and social spaces at height; cultural,
environmental, and social integration (Koolhaas, 2008; Per et al., 2014;
Scheeren, 2014; Safarik, 2016; Ravindranath and Menon, 2018). According
to Holl (2011), “(Spatial) hybrids are (tall) buildings which the mixed-use
gene in its gene code, that revitalizes the urban scene and saves space”.
As profit-oriented projects, tall buildings usually provide limited green and
social spaces for their users both at the ground and at height (Koolhaas,
2008; Scheeren, 2014). To overcome this low-level access of shared public
facilities and bring the structure closer to human scale for creating a kind of
street in the sky, several architectural features such as sky gardens, sky
bridges, or sky decks could be employed in spatial hybrids (Wood, 2003;
Robinson and Wood, 2014).
The Interlace (Singapore, 2013) and MahaNakhon (Bangkok, 2016) are
among the most remarkable examples of spatial hybrids. However, even in
these spectacular examples, it is seen that structure disrupts function
somehow, where load-bearing vertical elements frustrate the users since
the greater priority was given to meet other architectural objectives rather
than develops to deepen an understanding of structural and architectural
interactions.
Analysis of The Interlace
The 24-storey, 89m high The Interlace (Figure 2) in Singapore was
designed by Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) & Ole Scheeren. It

99
is a reinforced concrete residential complex with a shear walled frame
system. The Interlace was recognized as the winner of the ‘Urban Habitat
Award’ and a ‘Best Tall Building Asia & Australasia Finalist’ in the 2014
Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) Awards Program.
As one of the largest residential projects in Singapore with 170.000m2 built
floor area, The Interlace also called a vertical village, is a 1040-unit
apartment complex consisting of 31 apartment blocks with extraordinary
planning, each 6-story tall and 70m long, stacked in hexagonal
arrangements around 8 large-scale, permeable courtyards, into which multi-
story openings through the massing allow the light and air to weave
(Interlace, 2021).
The Interlace produces not only the public spaces allowing social interaction
and shared activities but also the private spaces providing individuality. In
community life, these public amenities offer leisure and recreational facilities
as outdoor activities. Owing to the landscaping strategy, the project
embedded within the natural surrounding is attempted to generate.
This interlacing space project tries to produce an architectural prototype for
the spatial hybrids thanks to architecturally well-oriented apartment blocks
within the context of ‘space formation’ as an alternative to monotonous
vertical stacking of residential units (Figure 2) (Davison, 2014; Scheeren,
2014; Safarik, 2016; Ravindranath and Menon, 2018). In this complex,
hexagonal planning of 31 apartment blocks in a horizontal direction mainly
generates public spaces and recreational areas.
As a result of shared socially interactive spaces with a village-like
interconnection, this innovative approach of ‘turning vertical isolation into
horizontal integration’ is based on complicated interrelation between
private-public spaces and their neighboring natural environment with their
distinct spatial identities.

100
 Politics/ Policies/
Laws/ Regulations/
Ethics
Human/ Behavior

Technology/
Material/
Sustainability
Philosophy/
Theory/ History/
Discourse
Criticism/ Method
Identity/ Culture/
Tradition
Urban/ City/
Landscape/ Rural
Design
Interior Design
Conservation/
Transformation/
Figure 2. The Interlace, Singapore, 2013 (source: Wikipedia) and typical Re-use
floor plan
Education
Therefore, thanks to all the above-mentioned positive features, The Arts/ Aesthetics
Interlace might be an outstanding example of spatial hybrids. However,
interior planning was adversely affected by structural disruptions. As seen
below in the typical floor plan of this complex (Figure 2), the arrangement of
structural elements - shear walls and (mega) columns - is not well integrated
with the architectural plan and so flexibility in interior space use is limited to
a certain degree due to strict structural configuration.
In other words, it seems that structural elements interrupt function, where
structure disturbs the users as greater importance was attached to satisfy
other architectural objectives. For example, particularly, mega columns in
terms of not only their locations but also their size make use of space difficult
and affect the transition between different spaces negatively. Large-sized
structural members might tend to overwhelm occupants. Moreover, there is
a repetition of the same structural configuration at floor plans, which
inevitably limits the structural design role in terms of unpredictable user
needs particularly over the long-term period.
Overall, even though The Interlace offers an alternative spatial configuration
to vertical extrapolation of a single plan as a stunning example of spatial
hybrids, structural design integrity has not been taken as an essential
architectural design parameter.
Analysis of MahaNakhon
The 75-storey, 314m high MahaNakhon (Figure 3) in Bangkok was
designed by Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) & Ole Scheeren. It

101
is a reinforced concrete multi-function tower with an outriggered frame
system. The name ‘MahaNakhon’ is derived from Thai meaning ‘great
metropolis’. To solve the significant problem about the height of the tower,
the design team deconstructs the form of the tower by pixelation as a
globally recognized design, which supplied increased height, unique
residence layouts with different floor plans, connection to the street, organic
form, and mix of indoor/outdoor space (Beck, 2016). As the tower dissolves
toward the ground, its scale at the base is further modulated to form a multi-
level topography of occupiable volumes and cascading indoor and outdoor
terraces, rather than the typical podium, allowing for greater connections
between the building and its surroundings.

Figure 3. MahaNakhon, Bangkok, 2016 (source: Wikipedia) and typical

floor plan
As in the case of The Interlace, this project tries to create an architectural
prototype for the spatial hybrids due to carefully carved 3D pixelated form
within the context of the urban realm as an alternative to repetitious vertical
stacking of multi-functional units (Techakraisri, 2015; Techakraisri, 2016).
Mass-breaking form of MahaNakhon with unique architectural pixels circling
the tower’s full height generates many different indoor and outdoor spaces,
setbacks, and various balconies in response to user preferences, and
actively engages the city and urban fabric; while the structural solution is to
maintain an economic and repetitive form where possible rather than to
enrich the architecture by creating opportunities for ‘space-making’.
In other words, major design and engineering challenges resulting from the
unique architectural form and the slender nature of the structure is tried to
overcome by a conventional structural design approach, where structure
satisfies only its primary load-bearing role rather than contribute
architecturally and to generate aesthetic and functional richness for
architectural design (Figure 3).
In addition to the facts above, there must be a structural logic searching for
how structure enlivens and articulates interior spaces and contributes to
building functionality to become a structural hybrid. However, as in the case

102
of The Interlace, large-sized structural members show the tendency to
overwhelm occupants, and repetition of the same structural configuration at Politics/ Policies/
Laws/ Regulations/
floor plans unavoidably limits the structural design role in terms of variable Ethics
user needs over a long-term period in MahaNakhon (Figure 3).
Human/ Behavior
Overall, the inference from the limitations of these case studies regarding
the lack of harmony between architecture and structure is the main driving Technology/
force behind the emergence of structural hybrids as a further step in the Material/
development of tall building typology. Sustainability
Philosophy/
Theory/ History/
Discourse
Structural hybrids
Criticism/ Method
Structure can have the potential of maximizing functional flexibility or
disrupting it depending on its integration both with the design concept and Identity/ Culture/
Tradition
the functional requirements of the building (Charleson, 2015). According to
Schumacher (2014), “The adaptation of structural morphologies to the force Urban/ City/
distribution within a structural system offers a fantastic opportunity for Landscape/ Rural
architectural articulation. In turn, the more complex architectural orders Design
proposed within contemporary architecture are reflected and potentially
Interior Design
accentuated by sophisticated, adaptive structures.”
Conservation/
Structure has a profound influence on the building functionality since it could Transformation/
both define and limit the activities within the building according to the degree Re-use
of its physical presence both in plan and section. At that point, structural
Education
design integrity in tall buildings has also begun to come to the forefront to
explore how structure contributes to and enhances building functionality. Arts/ Aesthetics

In this respect, structural hybrids can be described as tall buildings utilizing

structure as a spatial organizer, namely structurally adaptive architectural
design, without scarifying spatial quality in architectural planning as in the
case of spatial hybrids. In other words, they represent the building clusters
which are much more than that with various functions put on top of each
other with repetition of the same structural configuration for all the floor
plans.
The realization of these hybrids necessitates a strengthened collaboration
particularly between innovative architectural and structural designers. The
utilization of structural form-finding logics disciplines the spatial
morphologies in ways that are beneficial for the task of articulation including
the elaboration of an organized spatial language. For example, the
structural engineering logic of adjusting member sizes in proportion to
stresses might be employed as an architectural strategy of articulation or
the internal ordering of large spaces could be facilitated by the legitimate
differentiation of the structural system (Schumacher, 2014).
Even though the design principles mentioned above have been generally
putting into practice for low-rise buildings and there has no built example for
high-rise ones yet, “structural hybrid” within the context of ‘structure as
architecture’ will be a promising vision for the architects of tall buildings soon
thanks to its agenda to address the issues about structure either created

103
the architecture or contributed a sense of excitement to it by defining space
and modulating surfaces.
Overall, there might yet be no tall building project that pleases all these
above-mentioned conditions nevertheless there are only a few examples
gently caring about their spatial quality but still including missing parts in
terms of integration between architectural planning and structural design
flexibility as in the case of The Interlace and MahaNakhon. The limitation of
these buildings regarding unjoined architectural and structural features is
the focal driving force behind the generation of structural hybrids, where
structure contributes architecturally, rather than in its principal load-bearing
role, it supports other dimensions of aesthetic and functional richness to
designs by becoming an inseparable part of the architecture, which
produces architecture itself, its quality and excitement.

CONCLUSION
As a result of increased urban population and associated pressure of urban
land and built environment, ever-increasing number and density of vertical
cities, namely tall buildings, have been gaining more and more important in
terms of searching for contemporary building typologies, where most of
them internationally follow the standard template of the rectilinear, air-
conditioned, western ‘box’ with lack of spatial quality. Unfortunately, this
approach results in the generation of a frightening homogeneity in tall
building design across global urban centers, namely the creation of a ‘one
size fits all’.
Tall building design usually has begun to exaggerate aesthetics or reach
the most feasible space planning from a financial point of view while paying
less attention to structure, where issues relating to the structure are
characteristically addressed after articulation of architectural form - which
unavoidably limits the structural design role to solving the problem rather
than integrating the structural system into the architectural space planning.
Most of the tall buildings seem to have been designed as vertical extrusions
of an efficient but monotonous floor plan without taking into consideration
structural design flexibility rather than as a direct product of a close and
meaningful collaboration between the architect and the structural designer.
As a general approach, an architect and a structural designer read a
structure quite differently owing to their different professional interests and
concerns. An architect concentrates on how structure affects the
surrounding space, whereas a structural designer most likely perceives
structure as simplifying a load path. However, it is a fact that as an
indispensable component of architecture, the structure should be integrated
with and involved in the making of architecture.
In other words, structure could be used to define space, articulate
circulation, suggest movement, or develop modulations (Charleson, 2015).
In this way, it turns into indistinguishably connected to the very elements
which generate architecture with its quality and excitement. Nevertheless,

104
in the structural design of tall buildings, all the structural elements are
constructed repetitively throughout the building height by ensuring required Politics/ Policies/
Laws/ Regulations/
optimization in cross-sectional sizes from bottom to top according to the Ethics
structural calculations and related codes & standards by disregarding the
above-mentioned addressed issues. Human/ Behavior

In this context, hybrids have begun to be recognized as a new architectural Technology/

prototype - but not yet in all their aspects of functional, spatial, and structural Material/
potentials. In other words, there might thus far be no tall building project that Sustainability
satisfies all these potentials and there is a limited number of tall buildings Philosophy/
just gently caring about their spatial quality as in the case of The Interlace Theory/ History/
and MahaNakhon. As the most developed type of hybrids in terms of spatial Discourse
quality enriched by the structure itself, structural hybrids have a great Criticism/ Method
potential to shape the future of tall building typology, where the structure
Identity/ Culture/
enlivens and articulates spatial quality. Tradition
Urban/ City/
Landscape/ Rural
REFERENCES
Design
Al-Kodmany, K. and Ali, M.M. (2016). An Overview of Structural and
Interior Design
Aesthetic Developments in Tall Buildings Using Exterior Bracing and
Diagrid Systems, International Journal of High-Rise Buildings 5 (4): Conservation/
pp.271-291. Transformation/
Re-use
Ali, M.M. and Armstrong, P.J. (1995) Architecture of Tall Buildings, Council
Education
on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat Committee 30, McGraw-Hill,
Inc., New York. Arts/ Aesthetics

Bagley, F. (2018). The Mixed- Use Supertall and Hybridization of Program,

International Journal of High-Rise Buildings, Vol.7, No.1, pp.65-73,
March.
Beck, K. (2016). MahaNakhon Thailand's Tallest Tower, CTBUH 2016
China Conference.
Charleson, A. (2015). Structure as Architecture, Routledge, 2nd edition,
New York, USA.
CTBUH. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Illinois Institute of
Technology, S.R. Crown Hall, 3360 South State Street, Chicago,
Illinois, USA. Retrieved from www.ctbuh.org.
Davison, N. (2014) China’s Obsession with Vertical Cities, The Guardian,
October.
Fenton, J. (1985). Pamphlet Architecture 11: Hybrid Buildings, Princeton
Architectural Press.
Gunel, M.H. and Ilgın, H.E. (2014a). Tall Buildings: Structural Systems and
Aerodynamic Forms, London and New York: Routledge.
Gunel, M.H. and Ilgın, H.E. (2014b). Yüksek Binalar: Taşıyıcı Sistem ve
Aerodinamik Form, METU, Publication of Faculty of Architecture,
Ankara, December. (ISBN: 978-975-429-278-7) (2nd edition)

105
Henn, M. and Fleischmann, M. (2015). Novel High-rise Typologies –
Towards Vertical Urbanism, CTBUH 2015 New York Conference.
Ilgın, H.E. (2018). Potentials and Limitations of Supertall Building Structural
Systems: Guiding for Architects. PhD Dissertation, Department of
Architecture, Middle East Technical University, Ankara.
Ilgın, H.E. (2021). Space Efficiency in Supertall Office Buildings, Journal of
Architectural Engineering, Vol. 27, Issue 3.
Ilgın, H.E., Ay, B.O., Gunel, M.H. (2021). A Study on Main Architectural and
Structural Design Considerations of Contemporary Supertall
Buildings, Architectural Science Review, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 212-
224.
Holl, S. (2011). Prologue, This is Hybrid, Spain.
Interlace. (2021). Büro Ole Scheeren. Retrieved from https://buro-
os.com/projects/the-interlace.
Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Vintage
Books.
Kim, H. (2004). Space Efficiency in Mixed-use High-rise Building, PhD
dissertation, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago.
Kim, H. and Elnimeiri, M. (2004). Space Efficiency in Multi-Use Tall Building,
Tall Buildings in Historical Cities - Culture and Technology for
Sustainable Cities, October 10-13, Seoul, pp. 748-55.
Koolhaas, R. (2008). Challenging Preconceptions of the High-Rise
Typology, CTBUH 8th World Congress, pp. 54-58, Dubai.
Park, S.M. (2005). Tall Building Form Generation by Parametric Design
Process, PhD dissertation, Collage of Architecture, Illinois Institute
of Technology, Chicago.
Per, A.F., Mozas, J., Arpa, J. (2014) This is Hybrid: An Analysis of Mixed-
Use Buildings, A+t Architecture Publishers.
Ravindranath, S.S. and Menon, S.J. (2018). Exploring New Paradigms in
High-Density Vertical Hybrids, International Journal of High-Rise
Buildings, Vol.7, No.2, pp.111-125, June.
Robinson, J. and Wood, A. (2014). Beyond Icons: Developing Horizontally
in the Vertical Realm, Future Cities: Towards Sustainable Vertical
Urbanism, 2014 Shanghai Conference Proceedings, pp.81-88.
Rowley, A. (1996). Mixed-Use Development: Ambiguous Concept,
Simplistic Analysis and Wishful Thinking?, Planning Practice &
Research 11(1), pp.85-98.
Safarik, D. (2016). The Other Side of the Tall Buildings: The Urban Habitat,
CTBUH Journal, Issue 1, pp.20-25.
Salingaros, N.A. (1998). Theory of Urban Web, Journal of Urban Design
3(1), pp. 53-71.

106
 Scheeren, O. (2014). Space Formations, CTBUH 2014 Shanghai
Conference Proceedings, pp.67-74. Politics/ Policies/
Laws/ Regulations/
Schumacher, P. (2014). Tectonic Articulation: Making Engineering Logic Ethics
Speak, Architectural Design. Human/ Behavior
Talen, E. and Knaap, G. (2003). Legalizing Smart Growth: An Empirical Technology/
Study of Land Use Regulations in Illinois, Journal of Planning Material/
Education and Research 22, pp.345-359. Sustainability
Techakraisri, S. (2015). MahaNakhon: A Pixelated Punctuation Mark on the Philosophy/
Bangkok Skyline, CTBUH Conference Proceedings. Theory/ History/
Discourse
Techakraisri, S. (2016). Bangkok and the MahaNakhon Tower, CTBUH Criticism/ Method
Conference Proceedings.
Identity/ Culture/
Wood, A. (2003). Pavements in the Sky: Use of Skybridge in Tall Buildings, Tradition
Architectural Research Quarterly, pp.325-332.
Urban/ City/
Landscape/ Rural
Design
Interior Design
Conservation/
Transformation/
Re-use
Education
Arts/ Aesthetics

107

View publication stats