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The phosphocholine head group ensures high hydration numbers and fast exchange rates. Therefore,
state-of-the-art reports on the use of red blood cell membranes (RBCMs) as the IO NPs carriers are
presented. Techniques like VSM (vibrating sample magnetometer) and SQUID (superconducting
quantum interference device) magnetometry are used to measure the net magnetization. Comments
are not moderated before they are posted, but they can be removed. In Recent decades, MNPs have
made a greater contribution to nanomedicines due to their unique characteristics. However, several
contributions have to be taken into account when discussing the magnetic properties of magnetic
NPs. The most extensively studied NPs in the nanomedicine field because of their magnetic features
and super biocompatibility. PEGylation of magneto-liposomes ensures longer circulation time
(stealth effect) and thus higher accumulation in tumour tissues. Among different methods, thermal
decomposition is considered the best method so far for producing NPs of controlled size and
morphology ( Faraji et al., 2010 ). Conditions like pH, types of solvent and surfactant, ionic strength,
agitation, reaction time, and stirring rate are important consideration for selection of synthesis
methods. The working principle is very simple; the raw materials are enclosed in a small hollow
cylindrical jar containing many steel balls as a grinding medium. The list of benefits and applications
of nanotechnology is growing rapidly. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number
of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. This method is very simple in controlling the composition,
shape, and size of MNPs. Due to various kinds of multidrug-resistant strains, emergence and the
unavailability of new antibiotics will cause a serious threat. The detection of foodborne pathogens
often requires simple and rapid techniques beyond the standard methods which are not comply with
routine analysis in food technology. The magnetism of NPs is measured with several techniques that
vary in providing the quality of information and sensitivity. Furthermore, in the nanoregime, due to
increased surface-to-volume ratios, surface anisotropy also becomes significant. For example, most
of the synthetic NPs are recognized and eliminated as a foreign substance by the immune system.
Thus, the size and shape of MNPs are much controllable and highly depends on the type of
surfactant, solvents used under different reaction conditions ( Xie et al., 2018 ). Keeping in mind the
current interest in MNPs, this review is constructed by summarizing the present and past studies with
recent developments in the synthesis of MNPs with their respective advantages and disadvantages.
This comprehensive review not only provides the mechanistic insight into the synthesis,
functionalization, and application of MNPs but also outlines the limits and potential prospects.
Additionally, it plays an important role in enhancing liposomal hydration states and consequently r 2
values; therefore, it is essential to be included in the liposomal composition. It can detect the amount
of element up to 100 ppb (parts per billion) ( Ida et al., 2005; Al-Eshaikh and Kadachi, 2016 ). The
thermal decomposition method is preferred for attaining NPs of a smaller size as compared to the
coprecipitation method. The images taken by TEM show no considerable changes in the size or
morphology of the particles released either from IONP 10 -EDTA and IONP 20 -EDTA samples.
List of phospholipids mentioned in the paper with their full chemical names. The instruments
Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) and Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry (AAS) are also used to determine the elemental composition in NPs. To overcome
this issue, a design of a biomimetic, cell-membrane-based nanocarrier for contrast agents is proposed.
The contrast ability of a contrast agent can be quantitatively characterized by its longitudinal
relaxivity ( r 1 ) or transversal relaxivity ( r 2 ). This article is an open access article distributed under
the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( ). Please note that
many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.
In addition, SPMNPs loaded with drugs improved the chemotherapeutic effect upon triggering with
external AMF. Important contribution to the magnetic anisotropy energy is derived from the crystal
structure of a material, e.g., cubic, tetragonal and hexagonal. Moreover, the NPs self-assembled or
formed a cluster in an acidic tumor environment and prevented re-entry into circulation, retained
inside the tumor for a long-time, thus enhancing imaging resolution in MRI signaling ( Figure 2C ).
The images we get through these instruments give us an idea about their shape and size from which
their diameter can be calculated. Moreover, because of the high signal-to-background ratio MNPs
can be used as magnetic probes to detect the analytes in biological samples ( Xie et al., 2011 ). The
MNPs are made up of magnetic-origin elements including iron, cobalt, and nickel, as well as their
oxides ( Mornet et al., 2006 ). Since superparamagnetic particles can only be magnetized by an
external magnetic field, hence there is no potential magnetization in the absence of an external
magnetic field ( Majetich and Jin, 1999 ). Schematic representation of a three-sphere model for a
magnetic nanoparticle (NP). The generation of three-dimensional oxide networks limits its efficiency
in the production of dispersed NPs ( Hasany et al., 2012 ). Other disadvantages of this method is to
require prolong reaction time and involve toxic organic solvents. Conflict of Interest The authors
declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships
that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. These cookies ensure basic functionalities
and security features of the website, anonymously. The chapters written by the leading experts cover
different subareas of the science and technology related to various magnetic nanospecies—providing
broad coverage of this multifaceted area and its applications. Journal of Theoretical and Applied
Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER). Mossbauer spectroscopy obtains data regarding bonding,
structural, magnetic characters, and determination of oxidation state. In Recent decades, MNPs have
made a greater contribution to nanomedicines due to their unique characteristics. However, AAS
cannot determine elemental composition when the NPs are in solid form and need to be dissolved in
acids or bases before use. Despite these challenges, the use of biomimetic nanosystems is a unique
and exciting strategy for targeting tumor, and it is also a new paradigm of thinking. Detection of
bacteria by the colorimetric method has been widely improved by the integration of MNPs. A
Review on the Optimal Design of Magnetic Nanoparticle-Based T 2 MRI Contrast Agents. These
approaches used for cleaning water can reduce the power and energy consumption, use of chemicals,
and residual wastes. Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors
of MDPI journals from around the world. PEGylation of magneto-liposomes ensures longer
circulation time (stealth effect) and thus higher accumulation in tumour tissues. Thus, the use of
coatings that may exclude water from the NPs vicinity, hinder water diffusion or extremely prolong
the water residency can cause a reduction in r 2. Monocomponent were used as seeds to prepare
MNPs through a seed-mediated process. Liposomes are spherical vesicles consisting of a thin
phospholipid bilayer. Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA). Some of the
instruments used for their characterization are Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Energy Dispersive
X-ray Diffraction (EDXD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-
IR) Spectroscopy, UV Spectrophotometer, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and
Mossbauer Spectroscopy (MS) ( Galloway et al., 2015 ). Size and Surface Morphology Changes in
the size and morphology of MNPs can change their physicochemical properties. Previously, a
polymeric micelle structure was designed by functionalizing superparamagnetic La0.7Sr0.3MnO 3
nanoparticles (SPMNPs) with an oleic acid-polyethylene glycol (PEG) with a high loading capacity
for anticancer cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) to deliver into cancer cells ( Thorat et al., 2017 ).
Authors reported that SPMNPs not only enhanced the drug delivery but also increased cancer cells
by magnetic hyperthermia-based synergistic mechanism. Owing to ease in functionalization,
biosafety, and particularly magnetic properties MNPs have many advantages in biomedicine,
including diagnostic imaging, cancer therapy, and drug delivery, etc. These electromagnetic energy-
triggered nanomaterials have been widely used for photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy,
sonodynamic therapy, or radiotherapy, and magnetic hyperthermia to cause immunogenic cell death.
Influence of coating thickness on r 1 and r 2 relaxivity values. Schematic illustration of two types of
magneto-liposomes: ( a ) hydrophobic NPs in a bilayer of magneto-liposomes; ( b ) hydrophilic
magnetic NPs in the core of magneto-liposomes.
Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD). We provide insights into how to decouple
physical properties of these MNCs to achieve an ultrahigh sensitivity. Therefore, functional groups
providing a highly hydrated surface are beneficial to amplify MR signals. Copyright 2017, American
chemical Society ( Thorat et al., 2017 ) (B) Representation of the mechanism of improved EPR
effect and accumulation of ultrafine iron oxide nanoparticles (uIONPs) inside tumor with a bright-
to-dark T 1 -T 2 MRI contrast transition. To make the quality of water better it’s very important to
design and develop efficient technologies. Application of MNPs The MNPs in the past decade have
gained great attention because of their promising results in various fields. This energy tends to keep
the magnetization in a particular crystallographic orientation, which is called easy axis. The NPs
produced through this method are not monodispersed ( Kawamura et al., 2015 ). Chemical Methods
The chemical synthesis methods consist of different bottom-up approaches. Magneto-liposomes were
presented as an example of such optimal nanostructures. The Fe 5 C 2 NPs of 20 nm size produced
through this way had an amorphous shell. Detection of bacteria by the colorimetric method has been
widely improved by the integration of MNPs. While in bottom-up approach, the well-dispersed and
fine nano-scaled tiny particles can be obtained than the top-down approach. Controlled surface
engineering for the design of multi-functional MNPs is vital for achieving desired application.
Moreover, because of the high signal-to-background ratio MNPs can be used as magnetic probes to
detect the analytes in biological samples ( Xie et al., 2011 ). The MNPs are made up of magnetic-
origin elements including iron, cobalt, and nickel, as well as their oxides ( Mornet et al., 2006 ).
Since superparamagnetic particles can only be magnetized by an external magnetic field, hence there
is no potential magnetization in the absence of an external magnetic field ( Majetich and Jin, 1999 ).
Importantly, because the preparation of RBCMs involves the use of biological materials, strict
handling protocols and rigorous blood group matching are required to maximize compatibility and
avoid the risk of immunogenicity and contamination. This review is designed to report information
regarding different classification of MNPs based on different elemental compositions and metals
followed by their characterization and applications in the fields of energy, biomedicine, biosensing,
environmental, agriculture, and catalysis, cancer. The MNPs have great importance and are widely
used in targeted drug delivery. In other words, not only surface should be highly hydrated, but the
relaxed water molecules should be quickly replaced by the bulk water molecules. List of all studies
using magneto-liposomes for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) applications with a summary of
their experimental data (sizes of IO NPs and their locations in liposomes, liposomal formulation,
concentration ranges used for the determination of r 2, maximum r 2 values and in vivo conditions).
The exchange-coupled nanocomposites of Nd 2 Fe 14 B-based were investigated to increase (BH)
max ( Yu et al., 2014 ). In similar way nanocomposites of SmCo 5 -based were also prepared ( Hou
et al., 2007a ). As discussed earlier, for obtaining mono and multicomponent MNPs the most
effective approach is chemical synthesis. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society ( Lu et al.,
2019 ). Challenges and Future Perspectives MNPs are being applied in different fields such as
biomedical, environmental, agriculture, and catalysis and biosensing. Find support for a specific
problem in the support section of our website. This comprehensive review not only provides the
mechanistic insight into the synthesis, functionalization, and application of MNPs but also outlines
the limits and potential prospects. Thermal Decomposition Method In this method, organometallic
precursors are used to produce monodispersed NPs under extreme temperature. The MNPs can
provide numerous active sites for the reactants to be converted into products. First, the toxic
bactericidal free radicals degraded biofilm matrix and killed bacteria. In a bacterial biofilm, water-
filled channels and openings exist to facilitate the efficient diffusion of nutrients, autoinducers, and
waste products ( Wilking et al., 2013 ). For example, flagella-driven movement enables motile
bacillus swimmers to dig water-filled channels. Here, we design monodisperse Neel and Brownian
relaxing magnetic nanocubes (MNCs) of different sizes and compositions. A Review on the Optimal
Design of Magnetic Nanoparticle-Based T 2 MRI Contrast Agents. Schematic representation of a
three-sphere model for a magnetic nanoparticle (NP).
Gold NPs prepared on a biological template from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius S-layer, were shown to
possess intrinsic magnetism caused by the electron exchange with the sulfur atoms of the template.
Gout, Urate, and Crystal Deposition Disease (GUCDD). Therefore, a review of magneto-liposomes
for MRI applications to elucidate the most appropriate phospholipid composition, and NPs location
for relaxivity enhancement will be given in the next section. 4. Magneto-Liposomes as T 2 Contrast
Agents Magneto-liposomes can have either hydrophobic NPs in a bilayer ( Figure 3 a) or hydrophilic
magnetic NPs in a liposomal core ( Figure 3 b). Theoretical calculation indicated that if the size is
smaller than twice the thickness of the hard-magnetic phase may have an effective exchange
coupling effect. The chemical synthesis of MNPs offers different approaches to produce NPs with
superparamagnetic features. This method is useful in the production of iron oxide MNPs and silica-
coated MNPs. Copyright 2019, American Chemical Society ( Lu et al., 2019 ). Challenges and
Future Perspectives MNPs are being applied in different fields such as biomedical, environmental,
agriculture, and catalysis and biosensing. The mixture is heated until the solvent is removed and the
solution is dried, which finally results in the formation of gel ( Hasany et al., 2012; Mohamed and
Mohamed, 2019 ). The application of modern techniques based on synchrotron radiation, in particular
X-ray spectroscopies, as well as an rf transverse susceptibility probe, built ad hoc, allowed the author
to investigate several classes of magnetic NPs with diverse applications. In the first part, it was
shown that the saturation magnetization of NPs has a crucial role in enhancing r 2 values, which can
be done either by increasing the particle size or via clustering. The underlying mechanism mainly
involves two phenomena. In Recent decades, MNPs have made a greater contribution to
nanomedicines due to their unique characteristics. Hemoglobin-functionalized copper ferrite nano-
particles (Hb-CFNPs) was designed with integration of combined catalytic and photothermal
property to synergistically eradicate pathogenic bacteria ( Liu et al., 2019 ). In addition, the intrinsic
magnetic property of Hb-CFNPs increased about 20 times photothermal efficiency through magnetic
hyperthermia via magnetic enrichment, which enhanced the bactericidal efficacy even at a lower
dose. The sol-gel method has its advantages of high purity and crystallinity, homogeneous
composition, and cost-effective because the process can be completed at room temperature. Bacterial
Theranostics Antimicrobial resistance has posed serious health concerns in both developing and
developed countries. As compared to conventional drug delivery, MNPs based drug administration
can minimize the doses of drugs and subsequently reduce the side effects. The list of benefits and
applications of nanotechnology is growing rapidly. The formulation of MNPs composed of several
materials showing varying physical and magnetic characteristics depending upon their usage in many
applications. With the advancement and to make multidisciplinary approaches it must be considered
to build regulatory institutions for the safe and effective use of nanotechnology. The benefits of this
method are its efficiency, ecofriendly, and clean process. The most extensively studied NPs in the
nanomedicine field because of their magnetic features and super biocompatibility. Since the
optimization of magnetic properties is not the main focus of this review paper, all the equations are
valid for spherical NPs, and correction factors for shape anisotropy are not taken into account.
Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research (JTAER). For T 2 contrast
agents, the inhomogeneity of a magnetic field created by a magnetic centre is responsible for the
MRI contrast, and its influence is extended to the second sphere. List of all studies using magneto-
liposomes for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) applications with a summary of their experimental
data (sizes of IO NPs and their locations in liposomes, liposomal formulation, concentration ranges
used for the determination of r 2, maximum r 2 values and in vivo conditions). There is an increased
production of biomass and chlorophyll in the case of IONP 20 -EDTA treatment. FT-IR spectroscopy
is also helpful to understand the functional groups of organic molecules. In this section, we
highlighted the key applications of MNPs in cancer theranostics (diagnosis and therapies) with
representative examples. Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.
Human development has been hindered by various kinds of problems such as cancer, pollution,
agriculture practices, and so on. Similarly, immobilization of heavy metals and radionuclides has
been treated via this method ( Adeleye et al., 2016; Ibrahim et al., 2016; Mondal et al., 2020 ).
Interestingly, the purification of water has been reported by applying MNPs especially targeting
bacteria, dye degradation, removal of organic species. Shape anisotropy originates from the
nanostructure’s demagnetizing field and depends on the shape of the nanostructure. The efficient
separation of biomolecules is mainly dependent on the diverse functional groups and a high
saturation magnetization value ( Fatima and Kim, 2017 ). Please note that many of the page
functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled. Owing to ease in application of
magnetic fields to remotely control the location of MNPs upon modification with bacteria targeting
molecules has been widely employed for bacterial enrichment, discrimination, and separation. It
includes the use of less harmful materials and procedures, and widely practiced in biomedical
applications ( Indira and Lakshmi, 2010 ). A regular mechanism and connection must be conducted
between the institutions and researchers to develop specific standards and platforms to escalate
clinical trials and pre-clinical studies in vivo. In other words, not only surface should be highly
hydrated, but the relaxed water molecules should be quickly replaced by the bulk water molecules.
There is an increased production of biomass and chlorophyll in the case of IONP 20 -EDTA
treatment. Monocomponent were used as seeds to prepare MNPs through a seed-mediated process.
The MNPs prepared by this method have high crystallinity, controlled size and well-defined shape.
The chapters written by the leading experts cover different subareas of the science and technology
related to various magnetic nanospecies—providing broad coverage of this multifaceted area and its
applications. Therefore, a review of magneto-liposomes for MRI applications to elucidate the most
appropriate phospholipid composition, and NPs location for relaxivity enhancement will be given in
the next section. 4. Magneto-Liposomes as T 2 Contrast Agents Magneto-liposomes can have either
hydrophobic NPs in a bilayer ( Figure 3 a) or hydrophilic magnetic NPs in a liposomal core ( Figure
3 b). Such novel kinds of MNPs have well-established structures and core-shell having good
magnetic properties. The magnetic SERS strip can be employed directly for real biological samples
without any sample pretreatment measures. Relaxivity is defined as proportionality constants
between the contrast-agent-induced increase of the corresponding relaxation rate and the MR
contrast agent concentration. This energy tends to keep the magnetization in a particular
crystallographic orientation, which is called easy axis. Techniques like VSM (vibrating sample
magnetometer) and SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device) magnetometry are used
to measure the net magnetization. MNPs can also be effectively functionalized with a variety of
biochemical substances for detecting protein, enzymes, nucleic acid, and cells ( Haun et al., 2010;
Tran et al., 2010; Suaifan et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2013 ). The interesting physicochemical
properties and stability of MNPs make them effective candidates for detection in both in vitro and in
vivo without disturbing biological interactions. Several kinds of organic pollutants are present in
drinking water, sewage effluents, seawater, and groundwater. N is 0; therefore, there is no shape
anisotropy present. However, we are limited by the superparamagnetic size limit, above which NPs
become ferromagnetic that limits their use for medical applications. The coating of the catalysts with
magnetic NPs have been used in different kind of catalysis and clean energy. The sol-gel method has
its advantages of high purity and crystallinity, homogeneous composition, and cost-effective because
the process can be completed at room temperature. Numerous kinds of microbes as well as toxic ions
from the agriculture and industrial waste discharge to water bodies. After a brief introduction to
nanomagnetism, the review focuses on recent developments in solution phase syntheses of
monodisperse MFe 2 O 4, Co, Fe, CoFe, FePt and SmCo 5 nanoparticles. Every method has its
limitation and its selection depends on many other factors like the yield of NPs, its morphology, size,
shape, and experimental cost. Her scientific interests are spintronics, magnetic materials and
synchrotron radiation techniques applied to magnetism studies. Different parameters are set for
obtaining the desired type of MNPs with intrinsic properties.