By

Chrismary Salasa

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 DEDICATION

This handbook, compulsory honors is dedicated to all Master guides in training senior youths,
ambassadors, pathfinders and leaders.

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 INTRODUCTION

It is training programmed by Seventh-day Adventist Youth Department which enables a person to earn a
living and becomes self reliant. The honors that are offered are specialized fields of study that
encompass almost all aspects of life. It prepares one’s life in the modern world without being out-dated.

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CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: CHAIRMANSHIP

CHAPTER 2: CAMPCRAFT

CHAPTER 3: CHRISTIAN SALESMANSHIP

CHAPTER 4: CHRISTIAN STORYTELLING

CHAPTER 5: FIRST-AID

CHAPTER 6: KNOT –TYING

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 CHAPTER 1

CHAIRMANSHIP

Chairmanship is the art of leading out in decision-making. Whoever is to preside at a meeting or

any gathering is usually called the chairman. The chairman is usually with the secretary whose duty is to
keep records and minutes of the meeting.
QUALITIES OF A CHRISTIAN CHAIRMAN
1. Proverbs 8: 20
2. Must have the love of God, love for people and the church.
3. Must be a man/woman of vision.
4. Must be humble not pompous, boastful and arrogant.
5. Must be patient.
6. Must not fear confrontations, must be a man of courage.
7. Must be honest in all things, a man of integrity.
8. Must know his tools and area of deliberations.
What every chairman ought to know;
a. Know his destination (John 14: 6).
b. Must allow one subject at a time.
c. Must ensure full and free debate.
d. Must know that every member has equal rights to others.
e. Must ensure that the will of the majority is carried out and the will of the minority preserved.
1. FOUR DIFFERENT FORMS OF CHURCH GOVERNMENT:-
a. Independent form – one in which final authority is vested in the local congregation in all
things e.g. Congregational and Baptist churches.
b. Democratic form – one in which all ministers are equal with equal voice and participation in
government, together with laymen e.g. SDA, Presbyterian and the Apostolic Churches.
c. Episcopal form – One in which authority increases from lower ranking to higher ranking
ministries e.g. Episcopal and Anglican churches.
d. Papal form- One totally controlled by the Pope as the highest authority. Junior ranks like
Cardinals, Bishops, Priests etc are subject to the Pope e.g. Roman Catholics Church.
2. COMPARISON OF THE MANAGEMENT OF GOD’S PEOPLE DURING THE FOLLOWING PERIODS:-
Church of the Wilderness – They are under a theocratic government under God who led them
through Moses his prophet, people followed whatever they were told.

Church of the Apostles – They were led by the Holy Spirit and the teachings of the apostles,
however, they were organized with elders and deacons. Sensitive issues were tackled in
general church councils. People followed the instructions of the apostles, prophets and
church councils. Resolutions were arrived at by consensus.
Church of the Remnant: - They are controlled by the General Conference and church manual
and church policies between General Conference sessions and the rest have to follow
whatever is decided at such meetings. Periodically, sessions are also held at Division, Union,
Conference and field levels. Both ministers and laymen take part in decision making.

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LADDER OF PROCEEDINGS
a. Recognize the chair – A desiring member to speak must recognise or seek
attention from the chair by lifting up his/her hand.

b. Address the presiding officer – The member must address the chairman by
mentioning the title of the presiding officer, e.g. Mr. Chairman, Mr. President etc.

c. Present the Motion – The person on the floor must introduce the motion by
saying “I move that or propose that not “I make a motion.” Any business placed
before the meeting for action must be presented as a motion. Every motion must
be seconded by another person. In the case of a committee report, the person
chairing the committee or the secretary of that committee usually presents the
report and concludes its reading by addressing the chair and , “I move that this
report be adopted”

d. Seconding the Motion – This is when the chairperson asks for anyone agreeing
with the motion in order or it to be discussed. A second of a motion has a right to
change his mind and vote otherwise. The report is usually seconded when
someone else says, “I second the motion.” If no one seconds the motion, the
chair should inquire by saying, “Is there a second?” and then wait until someone
responds. If there is no response, the chair may choose to ignore the motion, or
say, “since there is no second, there is no motion before us.” The way is then
open for any other motion to be made.

e. State the motion – The chairman here clarifies the motion to the house.

f. Discuss - This is the stage were members air their views on the proposed motion.
After the motion to adopt the report has been made and seconded, the chair
person says, “The report is now before you for discussion.” Then anyone who
wants to speak about the report is free to do so, after addressing the chair and
being recognized.

g. Vote - At this stage every member is supposing to side for either of the motions
by raising hands, secret ballot, acclamation or any other acceptable means of
voting. E.g. The chair calls for a vote by saying, “All who are in favor of this
motion, say ‘Aye”’, whereupon those who favor it speak out, “Aye.” The
chairperson then says, “all who are opposed say, “No.”’Aye means Yes and No
means not agreeing.
Calling the Question – This is to tell the chair to put a motion to a vote. If the discussion
is too prolonged, the matter may be brought to focus by anyone who wishes to speak out
and say, “Question on the motion.” This means that the one speaking desires the
discussion to end and the motion to be put to a vote. The chairperson then says, “The
question is called. All who are in favor of closing discussion say ‘Aye’. It is not a right to
‘put the question,’ that is, to put the motion to vote, when someone calls, “Question.”
Discussion may go on after the question is called. When the question is called, it is a sign

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that some want to have the discussion come to an end, especially if a number of people
call, “Question”. The chair should recognize that it is time to cut off the debate and call
for a vote. If in his or her judgment it is time to vote, and no one calls “Question,” the
chairperson should ask, “Are you ready for the question?” In response one or more
should say, ‘Question.’

SKELETON OF LADDER OF PROCEEDINGS

Recognise the chair

Address the Presiding Officer

Present the Motion

Second the Motion

State the Motion

Discuss the Motion

Vote

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Guidelines of whom to speak
- Preference must be given to the proposer of the motion
- A member who has not spoken has prior claim over one who has already discussed.
- A member who raises his hand first.
- Alternate between those for and against.
Order of business
A list of items to be discussed in a meeting must be presented and adopted immediately after
the devotion and prayer.
This list of items is called an Agenda.
Below is a skeleton of an AY Executive agenda;
- Call the meeting to order
- Opening song and prayer
- Devotion
- Roll Call
-Season of prayers – (optional)
- Reading of the Agenda
- Adoption of Agenda
- Reading of the Previous Minutes
- Correction and adoption of minutes
- Matters arising from the minutes
- Items of the day
- Reports
- Any other business (call for item before you start)
- Announcements
- Adjournment
- Closing prayer
Duties of a chairperson;
a. To follow the agenda and avoid all elements of digression.
b. To see to it that no one monopolizes the talks.
c. To see to it that the agenda is ready before the meeting commences. To involve the
members in the preparation of the agenda.
d. To review the minutes of the previous meeting together with the secretary to ensure that
previous resolutions have been or are in the process of being implemented.
e. To ensure that the quorum is made before authorizing the meeting to start.
f. To give turns to members to contribute one at a time.
g. To control the meeting by preventing interjections and noise in the deliberations.
h. To be impartial in the giving of turns to various speakers.
i. To call for motions from the floor and to ensure that they are seconded and discussed on
before voting.
j. To be sensitive with regard to time by starting on time and ending the meeting on time.
Duties of a secretary;
a. To take minutes at every meeting.
b. To keep the minutes of all meetings and other essential records in a proper file.
c. To cooperate with the chair person.
d. To ensure that only resolutions voted on by the majority or by consensus are stated as the
meeting’s resolutions.

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e. In every set of minutes, to include the names of those that attended those absent with
apology, and those absent without apology.
f. To inform the members to prepare for each subsequent meeting.
g. Dealing with correspondence both incoming and outgoing on behalf of the organization.
h. Reminding of the chair person of certain tasks that need to be tackled as discussed in the
previous meeting. This needs to be done before the next meeting.
Duties of a committee member;
a. To be active in deliberations.
b. To be regular and prompt in the attendance of meetings.
c. To avoid interjections and patiently wait for one’s turned to speak.
d. To follow the laid down procedures of every meeting.
e. To avoid monopolizing discussions through lengthy speeches.
f. To address the chair person in deliberations and only speak through the chair.
g. To keep all details of deliberations confidential and never divulge anything to outsiders
not even your closest ones.
h. To follow the principle of collective responsibility i.e. to adhere to whatever has been
resolved in the meetings even if you were against during your discussions.
i. To show due respect to other members during deliberations and follow the spirit of ‘give
and take’.
j. If your resolution is a recommendation to a higher body, not to switch camps when you
finally present that recommendation to the higher body.
Types of committees
1. Standing committee – it is a permanent committee with a long span. Is also one
appointed or elected to administer or execute the work of an organization for a
period specified by the organization. e.g. the Conference or Field Executive
Committee, Church Board, General Conference, Division, Union Committee. Also
School Board, Prefects’ Council, Staff Council, Parliament, etc. It is thereafter
expected to function without instruction, though the executive committee may,
whenever desired, refer pertinent matters to it for action. This committee is usually
established by the executive committee at the time the new officers have their first
meeting, but they may be appointed at anytime there is a need. In some instances
they may be appointed by the AY Society in a business session, though this is not
usually the case.
2. Sub- Committee (Special Committee) - This is a short-term committee chosen to
fulfill a specific task .This is sometimes called an

3. ad hoc committee e.g. Nominating Committee. This committee is expected to report

their findings to the body that appointed them, unless power to act is voted at the
time they are established. If power to act is voted, terms of reference, that is,
reference to the authority given that committee should be clearly outlined in the
motion that grants the power. It dissolves when the assignment is over.

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Methods of choosing a Nominating Committee;
- By electing a special Committee to recommend names for the committee.
- By authorizing the Church Board with few extra members to recommend names for the
committee.
- By choosing the Nominating Committee members directly from the floor.

Officers of the Church Board;

Elders, Head Deacon, Head Deaconess, Treasurer, Church Clerk, Temperance Leader,
Stewardship Leader, Adventist Youth Leader, Sabbath School supt, Music Director, Ambassador
Director, Pathfinder Director, Adventurer Director , Dorcas Leader, Master Guide Club Director,
AMO Leader, Health Leader , Regious and liberty Leader, Trust and Service Leader, Coy Leaders,
publishing Leader, PM Leader, VOP Leader ,Family Life, Communication Leader, Interest
Coordinator, the Pastor, elected independent. members.
Chairmanship Language
1. Calling the meeting to order – Attracting the attention of the house in order to be silent and
orderly for the meeting to start.
2. Call to order- Bringing the speaker back to a topic being discussed if he talks out of topic.
3. Calling the question – A request to bring an item being discussed to a vote.
4. Quorum – Number of members authorized to be present in a meeting in order to make the
meeting‘s proceedings legal. It is the number or proportion of the organization membership
that is required to do business. Any organization may fix its own quorum as less or more. A
quorum is not necessarily the majority of members, but the number of members that the
organization determines as adequate for business transactions to be legal.
5. Seconding – Conquering with the thought or idea
6. Table the Motion – This is suspending discussion due to insufficient information.
7. Point of order – A request to correct a speaker and have him speak becomingly or
acceptably. Ruling upon order, the chairperson is sometimes called upon to decide whether
a motion or some person talking while a motion is being discussed is “out of order’. This
means, in the case of a motion, which according to parliamentarian law, that particular
motion is not permitted at that time. One reason, for example, is that another motion may
be on the floor for discussion. In the case of discussion of a motion, it means that the person
who is discussing it is not talking to the point, but is discussing something else. Anyone
wishing to make this point of order rises and says, for example; ‘Mr. Chairman, I rise to a
point of order.’ The chair person then says, ‘Please state your point of order.’ The member
replies; I think this motion is out of order, because…and gives the reason, or says, ‘I think the
gentleman is not talking to the question. The chair person then makes a judgment and says,
the chair rules that the motion is in order or not in order. Or the point is well taken. The
person who has the floor will please confine his remarks to the question under discussion. Of
course, the chairperson, in order to be able to rule upon points of order, must be familiar
with parliamentary law.
8. Adjourn – To end the meeting or break for a later time.
9. Gavel – This is a small wooden hammer used to call a meeting.
10. Majority – When more people side for the motion at voting.
11. Dilatory motion – This is useless or meaningless motion.

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Types of Motions
A motion is a piece of information or statement brought to the house, seconded, discussed and
voted. These motions include the following;
1. Main motion – It’s an original motion raised by a member.
2. Subsidiary motion – Motion raised from the main motion, in other words, motion raised
after the main motion already being discussed.
3. Privileged motion – Motion which does not need debate, Secondment e.g. Adjourn.
4. Amendment- This is a change to an already existing motion. A motion to amend must be
voted upon and settled before the main motion can be voted upon.
5. Amendment to amendment – This is a change to an already amendment motion. must be
seconded
Methods of voting;
a. Secret ballot – Voting secretly so that no one knows whom you have voted for.
b. By bell call – Names are called out and people vote for each name.
c. By standing – Those in favor stand, those who remain seated are the ones against.
d. By raising the hand – Votes are shown by raising hands for or against, hands are then
counted for each side and the winning side is announced.
e. By acclamation – Those in favor say, ‘Aye’. Those against say, ‘no’. Also called VIVA
VOICE.
As a church member, one has a privilege of being sent to a committee or session of a
local Conference, Field, Union, Division, and General Conference.

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 CHAPTER 2

CAMP CRAFT

Camp craft is the art of camping. It is an Honor taken by the AY teaching those basic requirements for
any camp. Camp craft is an adventure which is taken in the wilderness.
Camping is an activity in which people live temporarily in the outdoors. History is filled with examples of
soldiers camping out, as at Valley Forge during the American Revolution (1775- 1783), and of nomadic
peoples throughout the world who move their campsites from place to place. But today camping is
primarily a recreational activity. Camping provides an opportunity to experience nature first and
Campers participate in fishing, hunting, swimming, plant study, bird and wildlife watching, and nature
photography. Just as importantly, camping helps people escape the stress of city life. It provides
physical benefits when it involves hiking to, from, and around a campsite, and many outdoor
enthusiasts believe that camping instills confidence in youngsters and offers older campers’ opportunity
to challenge themselves in unfamiliar surroundings. Recent improvements in camping gear and a
growing number of organizations that teach people wilderness safety have made it easier to spend
several days outdoor.
Genesis of Camping;
Camping started around 1850 and the first people were hunters and fisherman and explorers in 1902
camping stated in English and 1907 scouts started camping in America.
Reasons for camping;
1. For spiritual growth
2. Developing love among young Christians
3. Overcoming unreasonable fears
4. Teaching people to live in harmony with Nature
Types of Camping
1. Retreat Camp – This is a type of camping were people do on a specific topics or Revival in
nature. e.g. prayer and fasting, (Survival, Wilderness, Hilly Terrine). It does not have specific
number of days. It can run from 01 day to 30 days.
2. Comporee Camping – It is the types of camping were activities are involved e.g. commando
craw, sack lace, monkey craw, crocodile craw, needle race, drum filling, river crossing etc. people
camp maybe for a week and it is usually done after two years.
3. Camp Meeting – This is the types of camping were families go into the camps once a year.
4. Hiking and picnic –
5. Canoe Trip –

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Explain how and why weather, season, and water supply are considered when choosing a campsite.
Explain what care to take with regard to safe water, sanitary facilities, and emergencies.

To help remember the things that are important to camp site selection, remember the six W’s:

Wind- Find areas that are protected from the wind. This requires knowing or guessing at the normal
wind direction (hint look at the direction trees are leaning and the current wind direction)

Water- Fresh water should be available for drinking, beware of drainage areas, flooding and other water
related hazards. Marshy areas can have a high mosquito population that can make camping
miserable.

Weather- Knowledge of the weather patterns of an area can help you decide the best location for the
camp site.

Wild things- Beware of signs of large mammals such as bear, wolves, and mountain lions. Also watch
out for the small wild things such as snakes, spiders, ticks, biting flies and mosquitoes.

Wood- Adequate wood should be available for a campfire, and no dead wood above sleeping area.
Survey the trees to make sure that they will not fall on you in strong winds.

Willingness- Make sure the owner of the property is willing for you to camp on it. Make sure you have
the proper permits for camping areas.

Safe Water
• When camping in an area that does not have running water and toilets, you must either bring
water with you, or bring along the means for purifying water you collect when you arrive.
• Do not assume that because a stream or lake looks clean that it is OK to drink. In general, it is
not, and drinking it without treating it carries a high risk of causing diarrhea or vomiting.
• When camping in an area that does have running water, make sure that it is OK for drinking. If
you see a sign that says "Non-potable Water," that means that it is NOT OK to drink. Rather,
non-potable water is only suitable for flushing toilets and washing hands.
• Do not brush your teeth, cook with, or drink non-potable water without purifying it first.
Sanitation
• If camping at a facility that has toilets, use them. If camping in the wilderness, you will have to either
build a latrine or use cat holes. Do "your business" at least 200 feet away from any source of water (such
as a spring, river, or lake), and at least 100 feet away from your camp. Dig a shallow hole three to four
inches deep (7-10 cm) and go there. Then bury it (and any toilet paper). At this depth, there are a lot of
bacteria's in the soil to quickly compost your waste. Digging deeper will make it take longer.
• Just because you are camping does not mean you are at liberty to skip personal hygiene. Wash your
hands before you eat and after you answer "nature's call." Brush your teeth before you go to bed and
after breakfast. Wash your face and clean your fingernails.
• Keep your kitchen clean too, and wash your dishes as soon as you finish eating. Dishes should be
washed with potable water.

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Emergency Readiness
• You should never go camping without a first aid kit. Be prepared for any emergencies that may arise.
Know where you can find help from the police and where the nearest hospital is before you need to use
their services. Many remote areas and camp grounds do not have good cell phone service, so do not rely
on your cell phone to get you out of trouble.
• Every Pathfinder and staff member should carry a medical release form with them at all times during a
campout, so that if an emergency arises, medical personnel will have proper authorization to begin
treatment. These forms should be signed and dated in the recent past - no more than a few months ago.
Additionally, all staff should carry medical release forms for all the Pathfinders under their charge at all
times during a campout.

Prepare a list of clothing you would need for an overnight camp in warm and cold weather.

Warm Weather Clothing

Keep in mind that the weather can change suddenly though. Just because it is warm when you begin your
outing does not mean it will be warm the whole time. If there is a chance that the weather will turn cold,
take along some cold weather gear as well. Check an almanac to see how cold it can get during the time
you are planning to be out.
Here is a list of clothing appropriate for a warm-weather outing.
• Thick socks
• Jeans
• Light Shirt (short sleeve)
• Light Shirt (long sleeve)
• Hat with a wide brim
• Boots

Cold Weather Clothing Remember to dress in layers. This will allow you to control your temperature
better. In cold weather, you do not want to sweat, because that will soak your clothing and chill you. If
you find yourself working up a sweat, remove a layer of clothing, or open a zipper. Rely on wool rather
than on cotton, because wool stays warm even when wet. There is a popular saying among experienced
outdoorsmen that "Cotton kills." This is because when cotton gets wet, it steals the body's heat which
can lead to hypothermia and death. Your outer layer should be wind-proof, as this greatly increases the
warmth of your clothing. Here is a list:

• Thermal Underwear
• Light shirts (polyester or some other synthetic)
• Heavy Shirts
• Wool Sweater
• Wind Breaker
• Fleece Pants (synthetic)
• Nylon Pants (as the outside layer) or snow pants
• Overcoat
• Wool Socks
• Boots
• Warm Hat

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Sleepwear For comfortable sleeping and for modesty on overnight trips, bring pajamas or a sweat suit.
In many places where it is warm during the day it gets cold at night, so be prepared.

Know and practice the safety rules in camping.

Fire Safety
• Locate the fire in a safe place. It should be clear for 10 feet (3 meters) all around, with no overhanging
branches.
• Do not use accelerants, such as lighter fluid, gasoline, kerosene, etc. Learn to light a fire without these.
• Put the fire out completely before leaving it. If it's too hot to put your hands in the ashes, it's not
sufficiently out. Douse it down with water, turn the coals with a shovel, and be sure to extinguish every
coal and ember.
• Do not build a fire on top of flammable material such as grass or leaves. Cut away the sod (keep it moist
so it stays alive, and replace it before your leave), and clear away the duff and litter.
• Keep fire extinguishing supplies handy and near the fire. A bucket of water or sand, or a fire extinguisher
are recommended.
Axe Safety
• Before chopping any wood, take a gentle practice swing to check that the axe will not catch on anything
(such as an overhead branch).
• Consider what will happen if you miss whatever you are chopping at - will you accidentally hit a finger? A
foot? A bystander? Leave plenty of margin for error.
• Make sure the axe head is firmly attached to the axe handle. If it is loose, you may tighten it by wetting
the handle, by driving a hardwood wedge into the handle through the eye of the blade, or by rapping the
axe handle vertically on a hard surface.
• Keep bystanders away by one arms length plus two axe-lengths.
• When handing someone an axe, present the handle to them rather than the blade.
• Walk with the blade facing away from you.
• Sheathe the axe when it is not in use.
• Always maintain firm footing when using or carrying an axe.
• Stop when you are tired and rest. Tired people are more prone to accidents and mistakes.

Poison Ivy
Poison Oak

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Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac all cause a rash when oils from the plant come into contact
with the skin. The contact does not have to be direct - it can be transfered from the plant to another
item, and then to the skin. Tools, pets, and clothing can all transfer the oil from the plant to the skin.
The best defense against this rash is to be able to recognize these plants, stay alert, and avoid contact. If
you do come into contact with any of them, the first thing you should do is immediately wash the
affected area with soap and water. This will, in many cases, prevent the rash from developing. If contact
went undetected and a rash does develop, apply Calamine lotion or a cortizone cream to the affected
area. If the rash develops on the face or genitals, seek medical attention.

SHOW YOUR ABILITY TO USE A CAMP KNIFE BY DEMONSTRATING OR EXPLAINING SAFETY RULES FOR
ITS USE AND MAKING SHAVINGS FOR TINDER.

• Keep your blades sharp. A dull knife is difficult to push through wood, requiring additional force.
When the wood finally gives, the blade keeps going.
• Always push the blade away from you, and constantly consider where the blade will go.
• Keep your fingers clear of the blade at all times.
• When splitting wood with a knife, do not hammer on the back of the blade. This weakens the
attachment to the handle and deforms the blade.
• Close a pocket knife when it's not in use or when you are carrying it.
• Keep all blades away from heat. Heat will remove the temper, softening the blade. A soft blade
will not hold an edge, making it nearly impossible to keep it sharp.

PREPARE FOR AN OVERNIGHT CAMP WITH A GROUP BY MAKING A LIST OF PERSONAL ITEMS AND
GROUP ITEMS THAT WILL BE NEEDED.

Personal Items

Warm Weather Clothing

• Keep in mind that the weather can change suddenly though. Just because it is warm when you begin your
outing does not mean it will be warm the whole time. If there is a chance that the weather will turn cold,
take along some cold weather gear as well. Check an almanac to see how cold it can get during the time
you are planning to be out.
Here is a list of clothing appropriate for a warm-weather outing.

• Thick socksJeans
• Light Shirt (short sleeve)
• Light Shirt (long sleeve)
• Hat with a wide brim
• Boots

Cold Weather Clothing Remember to dress in layers. This will allow you to control your temperature
better. In cold weather, you do not want to sweat, because that will soak your clothing and chill you. If
you find yourself working up a sweat, remove a layer of clothing, or open a zipper. Rely on wool rather
than on cotton, because wool stays warm even when wet. There is a popular saying among experienced
outdoorsmen that "Cotton kills." This is because when cotton gets wet, it steals the body's heat which

CHRISMARY
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can lead to hypothermia and death. Your outer layer should be wind-proof, as this greatly increases the
warmth of your clothing.

Here is a list:

• Thermal Underwear
• Light shirts (polyester or some other synthetic)
• Heavy Shirts
• Wool Sweater
• Wind Breaker
• Fleece Pants (synthetic)
• Nylon Pants (as the outside layer) or snow pants
• Overcoat
• Wool Socks
• Boots
• Warm Hat

Sleepwear For comfortable sleeping and for modesty on overnight trips, bring pajamas or a sweat suit.
In many places where it is warm during the day it gets cold at night, so be prepared.

Personal Gear

• Sleeping bag
• Foam ground pad or air mattress
• Flashlight
• Pocket knife
• Quarter roll of toilet paper
• Coins (for campground showers)
• Bible
• Camera
• Notepad and pencil
• Toiletries (Toothbrush, toothpaste, shampoo, etc.)

Group Gear

These are things that will be needed by the group. Usually, a Pathfinder club will purchase these items.

• First aid kits

• Medical release forms (signed by guardians)
• Sleeping tents - enough to separate the boys and girls.
• Kitchen tent/canopy
• Dining tent/canopy
• Camp stoves
o Fuel for the stoves
• Dishes
o Plates

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 o Cups
o Bowls
o Eating Utensils
o Mesh hosiery bags, clothes pins, and clothes line - the dishes go in the mesh bags after
washing them, and then the bags clip to the clothesline. This allows them to dry. Each
plate, cup, bowl, knife, fork, and spoon should be numbered with a permanent marker,
and each camper (including staff) should be assigned a number. This will make every
camper accountable for their own dishes.
• Cooking Supplies
o Pots and pans
o Spatula
o Ladle
o Serving/stirring spoons
o Salad bowls
o Can opener
o Knives
o Cutting board
• Fire Equipment
o Matches or lighter
o Firewood, kindling, tinder
o Fire Extinguisher
o Axe/saw/hatchet
o Shovel
• Storage tubs - These should be numbered, and an alphabetized list of the contents of each
should be attached. If the tubs are clear, the lists can be taped to the inside and read from the
outside. A master alphabetized list denoting in which tub an item belongs should also be kept in
the kitchen. This makes finding things a lot easier. It does require discipline though. Storage tubs
can double as dish sinks.
• Broom/dustpan
• Tarps
• Large water jugs
• Coolers and ice
• Food
• Tool kit
• Duct tape

Equipment needed for camping

This should include the following;
1. Clothing gear – Carry clothes like trousers, shirts, ties, jackets, pajamas, raincoat,
sweater, dress, etc.
2. Toilet gear – Materials like soap, tooth brush, tooth paste, comb, towel, washing basins.
3. Sleeping gear – Blankets, bed sheets, pillow, etc.
4. Eating gear – Carry eating utensils like plates, bowl, cup, knife, spoon,
5. Carry gear – Things like parks, bags etc.
6. Hobby gear – Like camera, films, binoculars etc

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 18
 7. Miscellaneous – Watch, compass, scout knife, map, worship aid, first-aid kit. Remember
also to carry tools like axe, shovel, nails, ropes etc. Lights like torch and fresh batteries,
extra fuel etc.
Selecting a Campsite
KIND OF TENTS
Most types of tents are based on simple geometric pattern like;
- Pyramid
- Cone
- Prism
- Square
Pitch your tent correctly – In camp you don’t ‘put up a tent’ but ‘you pitch a tent. You don’t take
it down but ‘you strike it down. It is easy to pitch a tent using the following types of knots;
- Clove hitch
- Taut line hitch
Other knots used in camps are;
- Square Knot
- Slip Knot
- Clove Hitch
- Bowline
- Fisherman Knot
- Timber Hitch
- Sheep shank
- Figure eight
Safety in Camp – The camp can be a safest place in the world if you keep it safe from the
moment you set out for camp until you return. Think and act so that as far as humanly possible
no accident or other unpleasant experience will spoil your fun e.g. when camping in wood, you
will naturally pitch your tent in a place where there is no danger, from a dead branch overhead
or dead tree nearby.
In case of an accident – The common accidents around camps are minor ones, things like a
wound from improper handling of a knife or axe, a burn from touching a hot pan or a burning
stick etc. The Red Cross recommends cleaning a wound by washing it with your aid kit. For a
small wound, a small adhesive bandage would do.
CAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHEN;
Swimming – Never go alone, never swim immediately after a meal, and don’t push people.
Don’t boat if you don’t know how to swim, put off shoes and heavy clothing and carry an anchor.
Diving – Don’t dive unless you are an expert, water should be clear, know the depth of water,
and be familiar with the water.
Building campfires – Clear an area about 3 meters in diameter, have a shovel or trenching tool
with you, build a small fire on the center, don’t play with fire, don’t leave fire un attended to,
put it off when finish.
Artificial Respiration – One of the worst nuisances in the outdoors is to pick a case of poisoning
from ivy, oak, sumac or buffalo beans. In case that happens do the following;
i. Clear the mouth of any foreign matter
ii. Place the person on his back and with both hands; lift the lower jaw from beneath so that
it is straight up.
iii. Hold the jaw in position with one hand

CHRISMARY
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 iv. Place your mouth over the mouth of the victim (close the nose) and breath into the
person with a steady action until the chest rises. As you start this action, move the free hand
to the abdomen and apply continuous, moderate the pressure to prevent the stomach from
becoming filled with air. Remove your mouth from the person and allow the lungs to empty.
Repeat this cycle keeping one hand beneath the jaw and the other hand pressing on the
stomach. Continue at the rate of 12-15 per minute.
TYPES OF FIRES
Pyramid – Used for light and heating
Cris-cross – Camp fire and warming
Hunters – Used for cooking and roasting
CAMP STRUCTURES
1. Toilets - Place them southwest
2. Kitchen – Northwest
3. Sleeping Quarters – Also northwest
4. Chapel – Should be at the center of the camp
5. Fire – Place them far west
6.

CAMP OFFICERS
- Camp Director
- Camp Chairman
- Camp Managers
- Camp Secretary
- Camp Treasurer
- Camp Chief Marshals
- Camp chief Counselor
- Camp physical Training Instructor
- Camp Chow Master
- Camp Chief Instructor
- Camp Education leader
- Camp Chaplain
- Camp Chorister
- Camp PRO
- Camp Doctor
- Time keeper
- Camp Security Team
- Camp Prayer Band Leader
- Camp Teachers
- Camp Marshals
- camp Instructor
- Camp First Aiders
- Camp Chows
- Camp Counselors
-

CHRISMARY
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 CHAPTER 3
CHRISTIAN SALESMANSHIP

INTRODUCTION
Regarding the circulation of our publications, Ellen G. White has these lines to share;
“More than one thousand will soon be converted in one day, most of whom will trace
their first convictions to be spreading of our publications” (Colporteur Ministry, P. 151).
“The press is a power; but if its products fall dead for want of men will execute plans to
widely circulate them, its power is lost. …….By judicious calculation they (Literature Evangelists)
can extend the light in the sale of books and pamphlets. They can send them into thousands of
families that now sit in the darkness of error” (Testimonies, vol. 4, p. 389).
“We must carry the publications to the people and urge them to accept, showing them
that they will receive much more than their money’s worth” (Testimonies, Vol. 4, p. 392).
DEFINATION OF TERMS
1. Sale – The transfer of title or ownership of property, goods, service or idea from one person
to another for a price.
2. Salesman – The person who brings about the above mentioned transfer.
3. Salesmanship – The ability to convince or persuade people to buy or barter goods, property,
idea or service according to what will best suit their needs.
Important factors in selling;
a. Producer – Publishing House
b. Product – Books and Magazines
c. Salesman – Literature Evangelist
d. Market – People
TYPES OF SELLING APPROACHES
1. Inappropriate Selling Practices
The following are inappropriate selling practices motivated by personal or selfish
interest, which a Christian Salesman should avoid.
a. The Liar – Promises fantastic guarantees which are not so.
b. Beggar – Uses begging as the way to selling
c. Flatterer – Keeps on flattering the prospect
d. Briber – Promotes kickback, representation expenses, etc.
e. The Intimidator – Uses threat to intimidate the prospect in order for him to buy.
f. The Peddler – Is like “Walking Store,” bringing all items and leaving it to the prospect
to choose the items he prefers to buy
g. Order-Filler – Gives the costumer only what he asks for
h. The Unethical – Exhibits unethical behavior to make a sale.
i. High Pressure – Uses force in selling
2. Christian and Professional Salesmanship
a.Satisfying Customers’ Needs
Professional Salesmanship is a Christian and professional way of handling products and
customer. It is primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the customer’s needs. A
professional salesman uses professional approaches and is honest in all his transactions.
He diagnoses the according and convincingly.

CHRISMARY
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 b. LE as Missionary Salesman
A Literature Evangelist is a Missionary Salesman. Therefore, he must choose only selling
practices which are in accordance with Christian principles.
“Canvassers need to be daily converted to God, that their words and deeds
may be a savor of life unto life, that they may exert a saving influence”
(Colporteur Ministry, P. 48).
PHASES OF SALES PROCESS
1. Pre-Sales Preparation
This is the phase when the Literature Evangelist does his preparation before going out
to work.
2. Proper-Sales Interview
This is the phase when the LE does his actual sales presentation in the presence of the
prospect.
3. Post-Sales Interview
Accomplished after the sales is consummated.
(The three phases above shall be discussed thoroughly on the following sections of this
syllabus.)

PRE SALES PREPARATION

Spiritual Upliftment
Literature Evangelism is a ministry of leading men and women to Jesus Christ.
Therefore, it must be conducted from a spiritual standpoint and the Literature
Evangelist must be a deeply spiritual worker. As a church worker, he needs the
following;
1. Complete Dedication
2. Have Soul-Winning as the Principal Objective in Mind.
3. Obedience to Heavenly Principles (Tithe, Offerings and Others)
4. Study of the Bible and Spirit of Prophecy
Mental Preparation
1. Knowledge of the Books You Sell
The successful LE shall have the knowledge of all the Facts and
benefits of the books he is selling. This needs constant reading and study of the
literature he sells.
a. Knowledge of the Facts – He should know the facts of each book he sells
such as; The number of pages, number of pictures (the colored and the
black and white), author, number of editions, number of languages it is
printed into, number of copies sold, number of chapter and articles, type of
binding, etc.
b. Knowledge of the Benefits – The LE should be able to identify the benefits
provided by each book/ literature he sells.
2. Memorizing a Standard Sales Talk
There are considerable benefits in using a memorized sales presentation;
a. It provides the best approach and selling points used and proven effective
by most successful Les.
b. It provides concise yet accurate facts and benefits about his books and magazines.
c. It eliminates repetition and saves time for both the salesman and the prospect.

CHRISMARY
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 d. It guarantees effective sales presentation by having the sales points arranged in a logical
sequence.
e. It gives self-confidence to the LE, especially to the new ones.

PHYSICAL PREPARATION
This topic will be covered thoroughly in the subject on Personality Development and
Ethics.
CONVASSING TOOLS
It is very important that the LE has a complete set of canvassing tools. These must
be prepared the night before the day’s work.
1. Well-illustrated Prospectus
2. Briefcase
3. Clean Book Samples
4. Contract Forms and Receipts
5. Nice-Looking Pen
6. Recommendation/Introductory Cards
7. Prospect’s Information

STEPS OF PROPER-SALES INTERVIEW

Attention
There are two steps to secure the attention of the prospect;
1. Approach
a.Pre Approach – This begins the moment the prospect sees you. So, it is important to conduct
yourself or act impressively even before you see the prospect.
j. Be sure your attire physical appearance is right.
k. Be positive.
l. Walk briskly. The prospect may be observing you.
m. Knock at the door firmly.
n. Take a step backward as you wait for the door to open.
b. Proper Approach-This is accomplished when the LE and the prospect meet each other,
usually at the door. It is important to do this property in order to gain entrance into the
home. As the door opens, greet him and introduce yourself. Example;
“Good morning, Mrs. Mukonka. Iam Chris of the Home Health Education Service. My visit is
in the interest of your children, Victor and Steve. May I step in as I explain briefly/ thank you?
Mentioning the names of the prospect’s children indicates personalized service.
Saying “thank you” immediately after requesting to step inside, even before the prospect
responds, indicates positive expectations and confidence that he will be allowed.
Bridge to the Heart
Bridging to the heart is a process of creating confidence. This is usually done while
already inside the home as you start the Sales Interview.
Establish good rapport and when the prospect’s confidence through respect, courtesy
and friendliness. Be enthusiastic is contagious.
Know your prospect together with the family members and mention favorable comments
about them, which you learned through “advance information” from a previous customer
Talk to the prospect about his interest or about things which he loves, like;
a. Flower Garden

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 b. Wall painting
c. Children
d. Pets
e. Hobbies
INTEREST
There are two ways in leading, the attention of the prospect to interest.
1. Bridging to the Mind
After getting his attention, you are now ready to develop that Attention to
Interest. Bridging to the mind takes a very short period designed to alert his mind as
you endeavor to create a vacuum of needs. Be sure you have his complete attention
as you proceed. Be sure you his complete attention as you proceed. You may use any
of the following approaches to arouse his interest;
a. Statement of Concern – By sharing your burden with honest and sincere interest
in helping people cope with present and potential problems, which is the main
objective of your visit.
Example: “Mrs. Moonga, there is a growing concern among parents today
regarding the influence of the secular society upon our children. Drug abuse,
television and destructive literature, especially pornography, are taking their roll
upon the youth of our country. Parents are asking what they can do to ……..”
b. Current Events – By mentioning current events, showing newspaper clippings and
mentioning news from radio and TV.
Example: “Mrs. Mwila, in these newspaper clippings that I gathered
sometime ago, there is a story of a mother who gave birth to a baby having two
heads coming out from one body. The newspaper said that the mother had been
smoking and taking drugs during her pregnancy.”
c. Use of Startling Facts – By using startling facts or statements to arouse the prospect’s curiosity.
Example: “Mr. Burton, do you know that 56% of all deaths are the result of heart
diseases?”
It is important that you use any of these approaches with sincerity in
relation to the prospects identified need.
2. Creating the Need (problem)
Most people are not aware of potential problems that may occur to him
personally or his family. It is the responsibility of the LE to identity and creates the
problem-need of the prospect in his conscious mind.
It is important and necessary that you use a well-arranged pictorial prospectus
and newspaper clippings in this process. You can do the following;
a. Show the evidences of increasing juvenile delinquency (for character-building
books).
b. Point serious world condition (for spiritual books).
c. Explain the increasing number of illness and the excessive costs of medical
treatments (for medical books).
d. Show the damages of using drugs and the evil effects of destructive literature and
television (for character-building books).
e. These problem-needs can be transformed into the different categories of buying
motives. Why do people buy books? Below are examples of buying motives.

CHRISMARY
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 - Fear and Security – Increasing juvenile delinquency, increasing number of illnesses, dangers
of using drugs.
- Pride – The aspiration of having successful, well-trained and professional children;
Psychological satisfaction of being classified into families with complete educational and
professional library
- Knowledge – The desire of housewives for knowledge on how to cook for their families;
Desire of husband and wives to know the secrets of having good family relations.
f. As soon as the prospect sees the needs in his family, he is anxious to find
solutions. The prospect is now ready to listen to your presentations of solutions
and benefits.
DESIRE
The desire to purchase the literature could be developed by two
important approaches. These are the presentation of benefits provided by your
products and handling objections.
1. Product Presentation (Solution)
The presentation of the books must be focused on how they will meet the
needs already created in the mind of the prospect. These books must provide
a ‘solution’ to the ‘Problem-Need.’
In order to accomplish this, the LE should;
a. Know all the facts of the book he is selling;
- Authorship
- Contents (chapters, colored pictures, pages, etc)
- Physical make-up (binding, cover, paper, size)
- Other features (number of editions, copies sold)
b. Identify the benefits of each fact and present both of them in logical
sequence.
• * * * *page not clear
• *****
ACTION
The consummation of the sale is the most important part of the total sales process. This step
determines, to a great extent, the success of the whole sales process. At this point the prospect decides
favorably or otherwise.
1. Closing the Sale
After presenting the benefits of your literature convincingly and handling the objections
successfully, you close the sale.
When is the proper time to close?
Many Literature Evangelists make the mistake of trying to close too early before the prospect
understands the benefits. Yet others miss earlier opportunities of closing by waiting until the
entire sale presentation is over. An alert Literature Evangelist must be aware of buying signals.
Here are some helpful buying signals;
- Spoken words – The prospect may ask the price, ask that you repeat some details, ask about
delivery time, or give you other verbal indications of interest.
- Facial expressions – The prospect may raise his eyebrows, give a nod or make some positive
looks.

CHRISMARY
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 - Physical actions – He may keep on looking at the contract receipt. He may get the book from
you for personal examination
Steps in closing the sale;
- Always put God’s things first
- Picture future benefits
- Summarize the benefits in order to exalt the value and to minimize the price.
- Be positive. Always have the attitude the prospect will buy.
How do you close the sale?
There are many ways of closing the sale. We will mention here the three which are
commonly used.
- Alternative Close – This is accomplished by giving the prospect alternatives to choose from
both for your favor. For example;
‘Which is binding would you prefer the hardbound or paperbound?”
- ‘Which language is more favorable to you, the English edition or the local language or dialect
translation?’
- ‘When wound you like this book delivered to your home, on 5th August or 5th September?’
Ask-for-The-Other Close – This is accomplished by simply implying that the prospect will buy.
Examples;
a. ‘When would you like your copy or this set delivered to you?’
b. ‘Would you please write your complete name and address here, Sir?’ (Show your contract
receipt).
Benefit Summary Close – This is done by summarizing the benefits provided by your
literature.
2. Sales Contract or Invoice
a. In countries where the circulation of our literature is done on cash basis, this process is quick
and simple. All you need do is to issue the sales invoice.
b. In countries where order basis is used, it is necessary to make arrangements for the
payments. After the contract for the order has been completed and signed, the LE has to
request a down payment or a deposit.

CHRISMARY
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 Chapter 4

CHRISTIAN STORY TELLING

A story is a talk given about somebody’s experience or a creative talk to give a lesson to the listeners.
A parable is a story, which does not need a date, place and a title. A person who tells a story is known
as a storyteller.

SOURCE WHERE YOU HAVE FOUND MATERIAL FOR STORIES FOR EACH OF THE FOLLOWING
CATEGORIES. TELL A STORY FROM EACH CATEGORY.

Sacred history
Stories in the sacred history category are Bible stories. These are obviously found in the Bible!

Church history
Paul B. Rachiotis has written several books covering church history at the Primary and Junior levels:

• Where is Moo Cow/Tig's Tale

• Mr. Squirrel's Treasure/Ellen's Miracle Horse
• Charlie Horse
• Ellen White: Friend Of Angels
• Ellen White: Trailblazer For God

Nature
Jim Arnosky has written many excellent nature stories and field guides for the younger crowd. These books are
excellent resources. The life cycle story of penguins, bees, ants, and frogs are truly fascinating. Consult an
encyclopedia for details, or check out a book from your local library. Most children enjoy acting out the
life cycle story of the penguin:

• Have them walk and slide on their tummies to a "rookery"

• Hand each girl an "egg" (not a real egg!) and have her pass it to a boy using nothing but their
feet.
• Direct the girls to return to the "sea" to get "fish" (you can make fish from construction paper). It
may be wise to have an assistant hand out the fish.
• Have the boys huddle together to fight the cold antarctic winter/night, rotating the boys from
the inside to the outside so no one gets too cold. Tell them to keep their eggs on their feet.
• Take the "eggs" from the boys and give them "baby penguins" (plush toys work well for this)
• Call the girls back and have them find the boy they passed their egg to. Then direct them to give
the fish to the babies. (In reality, they regurgitate the fish when they return).
• Have the boys return to the sea to eat - they haven't in several months! Then they return and
feed the babies fish.
• Finally the whole family returns to the sea.

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Children also enjoy acting out the parts of the Sun, Earth, and Moon:

• Designate one child as the Sun - give "the Sun" a flashlight

• Designate another child as the Earth and have the earth spin around on its axis as the Sun shines
on it. Point out how one side is dark (night) and the other is bright (day).
• Designate a third child as the Moon. Have the moon orbit the Earth, but make sure the Moon is
always facing the earth (it's rate of rotation and orbital period are the same).
• Then set the Earth in orbit around the Sun and see of the Moon can keep up.

Character story
A character story is a story about a person. It could be a famous person (such as Abraham Lincoln), a not-famous
person, or someone you know. Choose a story that demonstrates good character. You can also tell a story about
someone with bad character, but be absolutely certain that you share the consequences of this person's poor
choices.

An encyclopedia, book, newspaper or magazine article, or first-hand knowledge are excellent resources
for these stories. The Adventist Book Center also carries bedtime story books by Arthur S. Maxwell -
these stories are true classics. If you do not have these books, check your church or Adventist school
library.

Object lesson with visual aids

An object lesson is a story that warns others as to the outcomes that result from a particular behavior as
exemplified by the fates of those who followed that course. The Biblical stories of Esau, Balaam's donkey, and
King Saul are excellent examples. Uncle Arthur's story books are replete with object lessons. After choosing a
story, you will need to choose a visual aid. A visual aid can be anything from the story, but the more central the
visual aid is to the story, the better.

Web sources
The internet has become a wide ranging source for stories from all categories. The following links will take you to
sites that contain possible sources for stories to tell. Add your favorite sites:
• Next Bible Sermon Illustrations - also found at Bible.Org
• Our Daily Bread - Daily devotionals

FOR THE ABOVE STORIES YOU TELL, DO THE FOLLOWING:

Tell one of your stories to children, aged five and under, for at least three minutes.
• Volunteer to tell a story to the Beginners (Cradle Roll) Sabbath School class in your church, or if your
church presents a children's story during the worship hour, volunteer to tell that. You can also tell stories
if you volunteer to work the child care aspects of an evangelistic series.

Tell one of your stories to the 10-12 year olds for at least five minutes.
• Volunteer to tell a story to the Juniors Sabbath School class in your church, or tell one around a campfire
during your next club camp out. You can also tell a story as part of the worship service during a
Pathfinder meeting.

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 28
OUTLINE OF A STORY YOU ARE TO TELL.

An outline is a hierarchical organization of an idea - in this case, a story. The major bullets in the outline
should include the setup, description of a conflict, how the characters react to the conflict, how the
conflict is resolved, and the events caused by the resolution. Each of these points can then be broken
down into finer details, but there is really no need to go into further detail. The outline below is a very
general example and the storyteller should not feel bound to its format:

1. Setup
1. Where and When
2. Description of protagonist
2. Conflict
1. Description of antagonist
2. Nature of the conflict
3. Reaction to conflict
1. What the antagonist does
2. What the protagonist does
4. Resolution
1. How the conflict is resolved
5. Aftermath
1. What happens to the antagonist
2. Lessons learned

UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES COURSE MATERIAL IS TO BE MODIFIED FOR THE FOLLOWING:

1. Telling the story in first person, second person, and third person

First Person
• A story told in the first person is one where the words "I", "me", "we", "and "us" are used. It is a story
about yourself. These stories are among the most compelling because they come from the story teller's
personal experience - and the audience knows that.

Second Person
• A story told in the second person is one where the word "you" is used. A good way to tell a story in the
second person is to direct your audience to close their eyes and imagine specific points in your story:
"Imagine yourself as you walk through the forest. You can hear the birds sing. You can feel a gentle
breeze on your face." Bible stories lend themselves to this sort of story telling, and can put the audience
right in the story. This can help them to better relate to the people in the story and the lesson it conveys.
Convert a story to second person when you want to engage the imagination of your audience.
•
Third Person
• A story told in the third person is a story told about someone else. The downside to telling a story in third
person is that the audience assumes you do not have personal experience in the matter, and they are not
fully engaged (as in the second person). However, this type of story does have its place. If you are telling
a story about someone the audience knows (or knows about), it may be important to leave it in the third
person.

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TYPES OF STORIES
Myth
• This is a story originating in the early religious idea of heathen people and relating to the
actions of gods or other supernatural beings.
Fairly
• This is a tale of fairies i.e. of imaginary super natural little beings who assume human and
wonderful impossible things, good or bad. The term is made to lovers also and there are
also financial tales of children and animals.
Legends
• It is a story in the childhood of a race or in simple minds, relating not to the gods but to
human beings and often to a definite locality.
Feeble
• This is a story of animals or other objects, which are in story given human characteristics,
reasoning and acting and talking like beings. The story being told for the purpose of
drawing a moral lesson.
Allegory
• This is a story in which actors represent something other than stated. It is one of the
historical figures of speech, a metaphor extended into a story.
Note: Examples of a story cut line with a least divisions like aim, title, introduction, main body and
conclusion.

2. Different audiences, ages, and purposes

• Young children do not have the patience to sit through a long story, so make it short. It helps if you can
involve them in the story. Have them stand up and do something, perhaps to demonstrate how a penguin
walks (show them how and ask them to copy you) or whatever else you can have them do that will help
your story progress. Make sure your vocabulary matches that of your audience. The point of storytelling
is not to demonstrate how clever you are, it is to communicate an idea. If you're using multi-syllabic
words (such as multi-syllabic) on a crowd of four year-olds, expect some blank stares followed by
fidgeting and then pandemonium.
• Older children will feel like you are patronizing them if you ask them to show you how a bird flies.
"C'mon! That's first-grade stuff!" They might not say it, but they will sure think it (and some will say it!)
• You can use one story to make more than one point by stressing different parts of it. The story of Jonah
can be used to stress the importance of obedience, how we cannot run away from God, the love God has
for other people, or how enormous a whale is. Each of these points can be made with the same story by
stressing different aspects of it.

a. PURPOSE OF STORY
• For teaching
• For entertainment
Stories can be bad or good and can be grouped in the following;
TITLE
 The title must be summarized. The entire sermon (Brief) e.g. not more than five
words. The title must be proper getting or tricky.

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 INTRODUCTION
 Introduce the topic or tell the people what you are going to tell them i.e. for
attention. You can use a story to introduce the sermon. The introduction can be in a
question form.
MAIN BODY
 Tell the people what you promised them in the introduction. You can use all kinds of
illustrations and they should not always be stories. They can be demonstrations or
objects. You can have many paragraphs each explaining one thing or another.
CONCLUSION
 Must take same amount of time as the main body or you can say, in short, this is
what I was saying. It is also meant for appeal.
STOP
 To close or to finally end this is to summarize, but it must trouble those who are
comfortable e.g. some are comfortable in sin.

b. Characteristics of a story-teller
• Should be active - Should present stories actively with vigor and gestures to attract the
attention of the listeners.
• He must be creative – Should be creative in narrating his story or parable this makes
listeners discover many things
• He must be resourceful – Must be able to produce resources i.e. pictures, diagrams, this
makes listeners understand the story.
• He must enjoy telling stories – A storyteller has to have interest in telling the stories.
• Ensure eye contact – The teller must observe eye contact this will help to know the
effects of his story.
• Must be a good character
• Must be smartly dressed
MAIN PARTS OF THE STORY
• Title
• Introduction
• Main body
• Climax
• Conclusion
3. Making the story shorter
• There are many reasons to make a long story short, including the attention span of your audience, the
point you are trying to make, or the amount of time you have allotted to tell the story. Stories can be
shortened by skipping over details, eliminating sub-plots, withholding background information, or any
combination of the above.

4. Making the story longer

• Making a story longer can be done by adding extra details, adding side-stories, including background
information, or any combination of the above. It may be necessary to include background information so
the audience can understand why a character makes the choices he does. Sometimes you may be asked
to occupy an audience until the next portion of a program is ready (it happens). There is a certain amount
of skill involved in lengthening a story while keeping it interesting.

CHRISMARY
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5. Tell why a definite aim is necessary in telling a story.
• If a story does not have an aim, it is idle entertainment. If it has an aim, it can teach a lesson or get a
message across. Often, it can accomplish this without being "preachy." A good storyteller can get a
message or a lesson across without the hearers even suspecting that they've been preached to.

6. Tell one story of foreign missionaries, not less than five minutes in length.
• There are many good stories about Adventist missionaries. Norma Youngberg has written many books
chronicling missionary adventures in the South Pacific. Eric B. Hare wrote of many of his experiences
working in Burma and India before (and during) World War II.
• The Hall of Faith series published by the Pacific Press is another good source of foreign missionary stories.
They may be out of print, but you can find used copies at Amazon.com.
• If you are a Sabbath School teacher you may wish to spend a little time each week telling a continuing
mission story to your class. If you are not a Sabbath School teacher, talk to one about telling a mission
story in class. In either case, try to choose a story from the mission field being emphasized by the General
Conference (this changes quarterly).

7. Tell one story that teaches health principles.

• You may wish to draw from personal experience, or from other sources. Many people have stories about
sneaking a cigarette and getting sick. The story of Daniel's refusal to eat from the king's table is an
excellent source as well.

CHRISMARY
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 CHAPTER 5

PART 1- FIRST-AID BASIC

First Aid is the emergency first care given to the sick or injured.
The aims of first aid are:
1. Preserve Life
2. Promote Recovery
3. Prevent the injury or illness from becoming worse
THE RULES OF FIRST AID (Remember: "D A N G E R")

D - Danger Urgently assess the situation and beware of dangers to self, onlookers and
victim.

A - A.B.C.D. of life-sustaining first aid. Act quickly and confidently to check:

Airway - clear and tilt head back if necessary
Breathing - restore if necessary
Circulation - check pulse, control hemorrhage
Degree of Consciousness - note cause, give treatment
N - Never leave an unconscious person - place in the coma position and check pulse and
breathing regularly.
G - Get medical assistance when necessary.

E - Examine the patient for further injuries and treat according to severity.

R - Reassure the victim, handle him gently, and make arrangements to send patient to
hospital, home, etc.

Note: The completion of the Basic First Aid Honor will satisfy this

ALPHABET OF FIRST-AID
A – Always
B - Be
C – Calm
D – During
E – Emergency

THE FIRST AIDER MUST BE ABLE TO ASSESS:

• History The story behind the accident or illness
• Signs Difference from normal that can be detected - pallor, pulse, etc.
• Symptoms Sensations described by the patient - thirst, pain, nausea.
• Diagnosis Making a decision as to what is the matter with the patient
• Treatment Decide on priorities and act quickly.

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 THE FIRST AIDER MUST KNOW HOW TO:
• Take the pulse in the radial and carotid arteries
• Measure the respiration rate
• Take the temperature of

PULSE RESPIRATION TEMPERATURE

RATE
Adults 60-80/min 12-15/minute 98.6°F
36.9°C
Children 100/minute 15-20/minute 98.6°F
36.9°C
Infants 120/minute 20-25/minute 98.6°F
36.9°C

FIRST AID KIT

Avoid elaborate equipment and treatment. Remember this is "First Aid". Add to this basic list as local
conditions indicate.

 1 pair scissors. Surgical type with one round end.

 1 pair tweezers. For removing splinters and handling non sticky dressings.
 Band Aids, safety pins, cotton wool.
 General Antiseptic. Do not use undiluted. 1 teaspoon to 300 mls of water.
 1 roll ankle wrap 2.5 cm
 Bandages - 4 triangular bandages (sufficient to cover most emergencies)
o 4 x25 mm bandage;
o 3 x 50 mm bandages;
o 3 x 75 mm bandages;
o 3 x 75 mm bandages;
o 2x 100mm crepe bandages.
 Eye wash. Especially useful for chemicals, smoke, etc.
 Non stick dressing. Individual packs. Teflon or Tule Gras type.
 Syrup of Ipecacuanha, 100 mls.
 Methylated Spirits.
 1 packet sterile gauze squares 5 cm x 5 cm.
 Calamine lotion.
 Optional Include also first line drugs

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TREATMENT FOR SHOCK (Now called Circulatory Collapse)
• This term refers to a condition met with in all medical emergencies. It is a state of collapse
with a reduction of blood volume circulating to the brain and heart.

• Shock is caused by loss of body fluid from bleeding, burns, vomiting or diarrhea, heart
attack and poisoning, nervous reaction, and infection.

• It is recognized by a cold clammy skin, rapid feeble pulse, rapid shallow breathing, and finally
unconsciousness. The patient often feels faint or giddy, nauseated and maybe thirsty.

It is best handled by treating the cause as well as:

R -Rest Lie the patient down, legs elevated.

A -Air Ensure adequate airway. Loosen clothing around the neck, chest and waist.
W - Warmth Do not over-heat the body.

WOUNDS, BRUISES
A wound is a break in the skin allowing entry of germs or damage to deeper tissues.

Cuts of any kind are best treated by:

• Cleaning the surrounding area and the application of a mild antiseptic.
• Covering the wound with a suitable sterile dressing if available.
• If there are embedded objects, do not remove. Apply a ring pad or build up dressing to
the area.
• Use gauze dressings direct on a wound, never cotton or wool.
• If stitches (sutures) appear necessary, they should be done as soon as possible.
• Medical advice regarding tetanus injections should be sought.

Bruises
• A bruise is a minor hemorrhage into the tissues. It can be recognized by pain, swelling,
discoloration, and tenderness.
• The best treatment is elevation, application of an evaporating dressing and the application of a
firm bandage. To reduce swelling, evaporating dressing should be applied for 20 minutes.
Ice packs, gel packs, water, may also be used, if correctly applied.
Bleeding
• Bleeding (hemorrhage) is the loss of blood from the circulation causing reduced blood pressure
(weak pulse) and reduced supply of oxygen.
• Blood can be lost internally or externally.
• External bleeding can be from Arteries (usually bright red and spurts out), Veins
• (usually darker red and pours out) and Capillaries (as in gravel rash, oozes out).
• Treatment: Act quickly as blood loss aggravates shock. Stop the bleeding using direct pressure
on the wound where appropriate. Bandage, using pad, ring pad, or build up dressing, and
elevate the affected part. If bleeding persists after the

CHRISMARY
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 • application of a pad and bandage, add another pad and bandage firmly. Together with rest and
elevation, this usually suffices. By resting the patient, we help to reduce blood pressure. Do not
disturb clots.
Internal bleeding has all the usual signs of shock, plus the following:
• Severe thirst, restlessness, and air hunger.
• Bright frothy red blood coughed up, indicates bleeding from the lung.
• Blood vomited like coffee grounds, indicates bleeding in the area of the stomach.
• Rest the patient, and secure medical aid speedily.

Control of Bleeding from Special Areas

Bleeding from the Nose. This can be serious if not stopped quickly.
• Sit patient with the head slightly forward.
• Loosen clothing around the neck,
• chest and waist.
• Instruct the patient not to blow through the nose.
• Instruct the patient to breathe through the mouth.
• Apply pressure to flap of nostril for at least ten minutes.
• Apply cold packs or wet towels to neck, forehead and bridge of nose.

Bleeding from Tooth Socket. Place a firm pad of gauze (not cotton or wool)
over the socket and ask the patient to bite on it.

Bleeding from Palm of Hand.

 Place a dressing in the hand.
 Have the patient close hand firmly.
 Bandage the fist.
 Elevate in a triangular arm sling, and rest the patient.

KNOW THE CAUSES OF SHOCK AND DEMONSTRATE ITS PROPER TREATMENT.

Shock is a medical condition where the delivery of oxygen and nutrients is insufficient to meet the body's needs.
The main carrier of oxygen and nutrients in the body is the blood, so anytime there is a loss of blood, there is a
risk of shock. Shock is a life-threatening emergency.
Recovery position

First aid treatment of shock includes:

Immediate reassurance and comforting the victim if conscious.
If alone, go for help. If not, send someone to go for help and someone stay with the victim.
Ensure that the airway is clear and assess breathing. Place the victim in the recovery position if possible.
Attempt to stem any obvious bleeding.
Cover the victim with a blanket or jacket, but not too thick or it may cause a dangerous drop in blood pressure.
Do not give a drink, moisten lips if requested.

CHRISMARY
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Prepare for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
Give as much information as possible when the ambulance arrives.

KNOW THE PROPER STEPS FOR RESCUE BREATHING.

Rescue Breathing. The head of the patient is tilted backward. The rescuer closes the nose with one hand, while
pushing the chin downward with the other hand to keep the patient's mouth open.
• If the patient is breathing, do not administer rescue breathing.
• Rescue breathing is an emergency treatment that may help the victim regain the ability to breathe on his
own.
• Tilt back the head of the patient to extend his airways; the head will remain in this position by itself, you
do not have to maintain it so.

• Open the jaw of the patient by pulling on his chin. In some cases (like some cases of epilepsy), the
patient's muscles are so contracted that it is impossible to open the mouth. Contrary to urban legend, the
patient will not "swallow" their tongue. In this situation, it may not be possible to blow into the mouth.
Instead, seal the lips together and breath into the nose while keeping the head tilted back.
• Close the patient's nose with your free hand by pinching the nostrils together.
• Take a deep breath, put your mouth on the mouth of the patient in an airtight manner, and blow into the
mouth of the patient. These breaths should be gentle and last no longer than 2 seconds to prevent air
from entering the stomach.

When you have given two rescue breaths, check the patient's pulse, while keeping an eye on his
respiration. Chances are that

• The patient might have recovered spontaneous respiration thanks to your rescue breaths.
• The patient might be in a state of cardio-respiratory arrest.

If the patient has recovered spontaneous respiration, put him in the recovery position, cover him, and
monitor his breathing on a regular basis until an ambulance arrives. If the patient is in a state of cardio-
respiratory arrest, you will have to perform CPR.

CHRISMARY
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KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURES TO ASSIST A CHOKING VICTIM.

A diagram of the Heimlich Maneuver

• Coughing is the body's natural defense against choking, and it is generally very effective. If the victim is
coughing, do not interfere. If the victim stops coughing (or was never coughing in the first place), ask her
"are you choking?" If the victim indicates that she is choking, tell her your are going to help her. To do
this, you will need to perform the Heimlich Maneuver.
• Briefly, a person performing the Heimlich Maneuver uses their hands to exert pressure on the bottom of
the diaphragm. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on any object lodged in the trachea,
hopefully expelling it. This amounts to an artificial cough. (The victim of an obstructed airway, having lost
the ability to draw air into the lungs, has lost the ability to cough on their own.)
• Even when performed correctly, the Heimlich Maneuver can injure the person it is performed on.
• The Heimlich Maneuver should never be performed on someone who can still cough, breathe, or speak.

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURES TO ASSIST A BLEEDING VICTIM.

If you see a person who is bleeding heavily, you can do the following:
• Press hard onto the wound to stop the bleeding.
• If an arm or leg is cut, elevate the limb.
• Cover with a clean pad and apply a bandage.
• Check that the bleeding has stopped. If it has not, add another pad, and bandage, do not remove
previous bandage.
• If you have bandaged a limb, check frequently that the fingers and toes remain warm. If fingers and toes
are getting cold, loosen the bandage to let the blood circulate.
• Get the person to a hospital for stitches (and immunization against Tetanus) keeping the limb raised.

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KNOW THE PRESSURE POINTS AND HOW TO CORRECTLY APPLY PRESSURE AT THESE POINTS.

The usual way to control bleeding is to put pressure directly onto the wound, either with the hand
directly or with a dressing of some sort (bandage, handkerchief, tea towel etc). Do not forget that any
wound which is not controlled within a minute or two is a medical emergency; and any deep or large

wound must receive medical attention as soon as possible

Pressure Points

It is sometimes not possible to press directly on a wound: for example, there may be a foreign object
inside the wound, or a broken bone protruding outside, or the wound may be too large or be
inaccessible (e.g. if the limb is trapped by some immovable object). In this case, the only way to control
the bleeding is to compress blood vessels over particular pressure points (usually where arteries cross
over bones near to the surface of the skin). This technique can be used to control external bleeding
from arm wounds and leg wounds.

The correct point is determined by finding a pulse on a victim similar to that felt in the wrist when
taking one's own pulse. This point could be located in the wrist, the arm (on the soft underside of the
elbow), the groin, or behind the knee. This is the position where a rhythmical pulsation can be felt.
Pressure can then be applied over this point -- the artery -- to control bleeding.

CHRISMARY
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Once an artery is compressed over a pressure point, it must not be compressed for more than 10
minutes: any longer in one go can cause irreversible damage to the limb. Typically pressure would be
applied for 10 minutes, then released for a couple, then reapplied and so on.

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE TO ASSIST A VICTIM OF POISONING.

• With poison container in hand, call the local poison control center and do NOT try to make the
patient vomit.
• Only induce vomiting if a poison center worker or a doctor advises you to do so.
• If the poison is on the skin or clothes, remove the clothing and wash with a large amount of
water.
• If poison gets in the eyes, flush the eyes with clean water for 10 minutes.
• Get the victim to a hospital as soon as possible, and if possible, bring the poison container with
you.

DEMONSTRATE THE PROPER PROCEDURE IN SPLINTING VARIOUS BROKEN BONES IN THE BODY.

Splints An essential part of the first-aid treatment is immobilizing the injured part with splints so that
the sharp ends of broken bones won’t move around and cause further damage to nerves, blood vessels,
or vital organs. Splints are also used to immobilize severely injured joints or muscles and to prevent the
enlargement of extensive wounds.

Before you can use a splint, you need to have a general understanding of the use of splints. In an
emergency, almost any firm object or material can be used as a splint. Such things as umbrellas, canes,
tent pegs, sticks, oars, paddles, spars, wire, leather, boards, pillows, heavy clothing, corrugated
cardboard, and folded newspapers can be used as splints. A fractured leg may sometimes be splinted by
fastening it securely to the uninjured leg.

Splints, whether ready-made or improvised, must meet the following requirements:

• Be light in weight, but still be strong and fairly rigid.
• Be long enough to reach the joints above and below the fracture.
• Be wide enough so the bandages used to hold them in place won’t pinch the injured part.
• Be well padded on the sides that touch the body. If they’re not properly padded, they won’t fit well and
won’t adequately immobilize the injured part.
• To improvise the padding for a splint, use articles of clothing, bandages, cotton, blankets, or any other
soft material.
• If the victim is wearing heavy clothes, apply the splint on the outside, allowing the clothing to serve as at
least part of the required padding.

Although splints should be applied snugly, never apply them tight enough to interfere with the
circulation of the blood. When applying splints to an arm or a leg, try to leave the fingers or toes
exposed. If the tips of the fingers or toes become blue or cold, you will know that the splints or
bandages are too tight. You should examine a splinted part approximately every half-hour, and loosen
the fastenings if circulation appears to be cut off. Remember that any injured part is likely to swell, and
splints or bandages that are all right when applied may be too tight later.

CHRISMARY
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To secure the limb to the splint, belts, neckerchiefs, rope, or any suitable material may be used. If
possible, tie the limb at two places above and two places below the break. Leave the treatment of other
types of fractures, such as jaw, ribs, and spine, to medical personnel. Never try to move a person who
might have a fractured spine or neck. Moving such a person could cause permanent paralysis. Don’t
attempt to reset bones.

Forearm

There are two long bones in the forearm, the radius and the ulna. When both are broken, the arm
usually appears to be deformed. When only one is broken, the other acts as a splint and the arm retains
a more or less natural appearance. Any fracture of the forearm is likely to result in pain, tenderness,
inability to use the forearm, and a kind of wobbly motion at the point of injury. If the fracture is open, a
bone will show through. If the fracture is open, stop the bleeding and treat the wound. Apply a sterile
dressing over the wound. Carefully straighten the forearm. (Remember that rough handling of a closed
fracture may turn it into an open fracture.) Apply two well-padded splints to the forearm, one on the
top and one on the bottom. Be sure that the splints are long enough to extend from the elbow to the
wrist. Use bandages to hold the splints in place. Put the forearm across the chest. The palm of the hand
should be turned in, with the thumb pointing upward. Support the forearm in this position by means of
a wide sling and a cravat bandage (see illustration). The hand should be raised about 4 inches above the
level of the elbow. Treat the victim for shock and evacuate as soon as possible.

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Upper Arm

The signs of fracture of the upper arm include pain, tenderness, swelling, and a wobbly motion at the
point of fracture. If the fracture is near the elbow, the arm is likely to be straight with no bend at the
elbow. If the fracture is open, stop the bleeding and treat the wound before attempting to treat the
fracture.

NOTE

Treatment of the fracture depends partly upon the location of the break.

If the fracture is in the upper part of the arm near the shoulder, place a pad or folded towel in the
armpit, bandage the arm securely to the body, and support the forearm in a narrow sling.

If the fracture is in the middle of the upper arm, you can use one well-padded splint on the outside of
the arm. The splint should extend from the shoulder to the elbow. Fasten the splinted arm firmly to the
body and support the forearm in a narrow sling, as illustrated.

Another way of treating a fracture in the middle of the upper arm is to fasten two wide splints (or four
narrow ones) about the arm and then support the forearm in a narrow sling. If you use a splint between
the arm and the body, be very careful that it does not extend too far up into the armpit; a splint in this
position can cause a dangerous compression of the blood vessels and nerves and may be extremely
painful to the victim. If the fracture is at or near the elbow, the arm may be either bent or straight. No
matter in what position you find the arm, DO NOT ATTEMPT TO STRAIGHTEN IT OR MOVE IT IN ANY
WAY. Splint the arm as carefully as possible in the position in which you find it. This will prevent further
nerve and blood vessel damage. The only exception to this is if there is no pulse on the other side of the
fracture (relative to the heart), in which case gentle traction is applied and then the arm is splinted.

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Treat the victim for shock and get him under the care of a medical professional as soon as possible.

Kneecap

Carefully straighten the injured limb. Immobilize the fracture by placing a padded board under the
injured limb. The board should be at least 4 inches wide and should reach from the but- tock to the
heel. Place extra padding under the knee and just above the heel, as shown in the illustration. Use strips
of bandage to fasten the leg to the board in four places: (1) just below the knee; (2) just above the knee;
(3) at the ankle; and (4) at the thigh. DO NOT COVER THE KNEE ITSELF. Swelling is likely to occur very
rapidly, and any bandage or tie fastened over the knee would quickly become too tight. Treat the victim
for shock and evacuate as soon as possible.

Ankle

The figure-eight bandage is used for dressings of the ankle, as well as for supporting a sprain. While
keeping the foot at a right angle, start a 3-inch bandage around the instep for several turns to anchor it.
Carry the bandage upward over the instep and around behind the ankle, forward, and again across the
instep and down under the arch, thus completing one figure-eight. Continue the figure-eight turns,
overlapping one-third to one-half the width of the bandage and with an occasional turn around the
ankle, until the compress is secured or until adequate support is obtained.

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KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE TO ASSIST A FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD DEGREE BURN VICTIM.

Burns should be immediately immersed in cold running water, or shower for large area. Do not wait to remove
clothes. This should be maintained for at least 10-15 minutes.
• Continue for at least 1 hour with cold pack, partially insulated with clean fabric (cotton, thin toweling), or
further immersion in iced water. Blistered or open burn wounds should be cleaned and covered with
non-adhesive gauze (preferably bactericidal) and cotton dressing. DO NOT use butter, oils or any similar
treatment which can trap heat and increase risk of infection. Also do not use antiseptics that may
aggravate sensitive skin.
• Consult a medical physician immediately for any large, deep, infected or otherwise serious burn.
• Aloe vera extract, silverdene (Silver Sulfazdiazine), topical analgaesics and NSAID are commonly used
medications. Consult a doctor before use.
• Burns are sustained by electricity, heat , chemical or radiation (sunburn). There are three levels of burns,
including first degree burns (Superficial burn), second degree burns (Partial thickness burn) and third
degree burns (Full thickness burn). The first degree burn is typical sunburn with symptoms such as
redness of the skin and pain. Second degree often has blisters and severe pain. Third degree can be
caused by fires and caustic chemicals. Often the victim will feel no pain because the nerves have been
destroyed, even though the skin is deeply charred.
• Burns that cover more than ten percent of the body, or are larger than the casualty's palm, are medical
emergencies and need to be treated as such. Also ANY burns to the face, hands or groin should be
considered critical and require a physician to look at it.

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE TO ASSIST A VICTIM OF A CHEMICAL BURN.

• Quickly flush the area with large amounts of water, using a shower or hose, if available. Do not
apply water too forcefully. Continue to flood the area while the clothing, including shoes and
socks, is being removed, as well as afterwards.
• NOTE: There are two exceptions to the above. In alkali burns caused by dry lime, the mixing of
water and lime creates a very corrosive substance. Dry lime should be brushed away from the
skin and clothing, unless large amounts of water are available for rapid and complete flushing. In
acid burns caused by phenol (carbolic acid), wash the affected area with alcohol because phenol
is not water soluble; then wash with water. If alcohol is not available, flushing with water is
better than no treatment at all.
• After thorough washing, neutralize any chemical remaining on the affected area.
• WARNING: DO NOT attempt to neutralize a chemical unless you know exactly what it is and
what substance will neutralize it. Further damage may be done by a neutralizing agent that is
too strong or incorrect. For acid burns make a solution of 1 teaspoon of baking soda in a pint of
water and flush it over the affected area. For alkali burns mix 1 or 2 teaspoons of vinegar in a
pint of water and flush it over the affected area.
• Flush the area again with water and gently pat dry with a sterile gauze. Do not rub the area.
• Transport the victim to a medical treatment facility.

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KNOW WHAT SITUATIONS ARE LIKELY TO CAUSE CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING AND THE RESCUE
AND TREATMENT TECHNIQUES FOR SUCH POISONING.

• Carbon monoxide is present in exhaust gases of internal combustion engines as well as in sewer
gas, lanterns, charcoal grills, and in manufactured gas used for heating and cooking. It gives no
warning of its presence since it is completely odorless and tasteless.
• The victim may lose consciousness and suffer respiratory distress with no warning other than
slight dizziness, weakness, and headache. The lips and skin of a victim of carbon monoxide
poisoning are characteristically cherry red. Death may occur within a few minutes.
• The first stage of treatment for an inhalation poisoning is to remove the victim from the toxic
atmosphere immediately.
• WARNING: Never try to remove a victim from the toxic environment if you do not have the
proper protective mask or breathing apparatus or if you are not trained in its use. Too often,
well intentioned rescuers become victims.
• When in doubt, call for trained personnel. If help is not immediately available, and if you know
you can reach and rescue the victim, take a deep breath, hold it, enter the area, and pull the
victim out. If the victim is not breathing, begin CPR. Get the victim to a hospital as soon as
possible.

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE FOR GIVING ASSISTANCE TO THE VICTIM OF A HEAD INJURY.

Head wounds must be treated with particular care, since there is always the possibility of brain damage.
The general treatment for head wounds is the same as that for other fresh wounds. However, certain
special precautions must be observed if you are giving first aid to a person who has suffered a head
wound.

1. NEVER GIVE ANY MEDICINE.

2. Keep the victim lying flat, with the head at the level of the body. Do not raise the feet if the face is flushed.
If the victim is having trouble breathing, you may raise the head slightly.
3. If the wound is at the back of the head, turn the victim on his or her side.
4. Watch closely for vomiting and position the head to avoid getting vomit or saliva into the lungs.
5. Do not use direct pressure to control bleeding if the skull is depressed or obviously fractured.

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE FOR GIVING AID TO A VICTIM OF INTERNAL INJURIES.

Internal soft-tissue injuries may result from deep wounds, blunt trauma, blast exposure, crushing
accidents, bone fracture, poison, or sickness. They may range in seriousness from a simple bruise to life-
threatening hemorrhage and shock.

Visible indications of internal soft-tissue injury include the following:

• Vomiting or coughing up bright red blood.
• Excretion of tarry black stools.
• Excretion of bright red blood from the rectum.
• Passing of blood in the urine.
• Non menstrual vaginal bleeding.

CHRISMARY
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 • Nosebleed.
• Pooling of the blood near the skin surface.
•
More often than not, however, there will be no visible signs of injury, and you will have to infer the probability
of internal soft-tissue injury from other symptoms such as the following:
• Pale, moist, clammy skin.
• Subnormal temperature.
• Rapid, feeble pulse.
• Falling blood pressure.
• Tinnitus (ringing in the ears).
• Fainting.
• Dehydration and thirst.
• Yawning and air hunger.

First aid’s goal must be to obtain the greatest benefit from the victim’s remaining blood supply. The following
steps should be taken:
• Treat for shock.
• Keep the victim warm and at rest.
• DO NOT give the victim anything to drink
• Splint injured extremities.
• Apply cold compresses (ice packs) to identifiable injured areas.
• Transport the victim to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible.

KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HEART ATTACK, STROKE, EPILEPSY, AND SIMPLE FAINTING, AND
THE TREATMENT FOR EACH.

Heart Attack
A heart attack is when blood supply to part of the heart is interrupted causing heart tissue to die. Symptoms of a
heart attack include severe chest pain, looking pale, sweating, and feeling sick. A heart attack is a medical
emergency, and it is a leading cause of death for both men and women.

First aid includes the following:

• Seek emergency medical assistance immediately.
• Help the patient to rest in a position which minimizes breathing difficulties. A half-sitting
position with knees bent is often recommended.
• Give access to more oxygen, e.g. by opening the window and widening the collar for easier
breathing; but keep the patient warm, e.g. by a blanket or a jacket
• Give aspirin, if the patient is not allergic to aspirin. Aspirin inhibits formation of further blood
clots.

o Non-coated or soluble preparations are preferred. These should be chewed or dissolved,

respectively, to facilitate quicker absorption. If the patient cannot swallow, the aspirin
can be placed under the tongue.
o U.S. guidelines recommend a dose of 160 – 325 mg.
o Australian guidelines recommend a dose of 150 – 300 mg.
• If it has been prescribed for the patient, give nitroglycerin tablets under the tongue.

CHRISMARY
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 • Monitor pulse, breathing, level of consciousness and, if possible, the blood pressure of the
patient continually.
• Administer CPR if cardiac arrest occurs (that is, if the heart stops).

Stroke
A stroke is caused by an interruption of the arterial blood supply to a portion of the brain. This interruption may
be caused by hardening of the arteries or by a clot forming in the brain. Tissue damage and loss of function result.
Onset of a stroke is sudden, with little or no warning. The first signs include weakness or paralysis on the side of
the body opposite the side of the brain that has been injured. Muscles of the face on the affected side may be
involved. The patient’s level of consciousness varies from alert to unresponsive. Additionally, motor functions -
including vision and speech - on the affected side are disturbed, and the throat may be paralyzed.

If you think a person has suffered a stroke, do the following:

• Ask the victim to smile.
• Ask the victim to raise both hands over his head.
• Ask the victim to repeat a simple sentence.

Inability to do any of these three things means the victim may have had a stroke. First aid for a stroke is
mainly supportive. Special attention must be paid to the victim’s airway, since he may not be able to
keep it clear.

• Call 999
• Place the victim in a semi-reclining position or on the paralyzed side.
• Act in a calm, reassuring manner, and keep any onlookers quiet since the victim may be able to
hear what is going on.
• Carefully monitor the victim’s vital signs and keep a log. Pay special attention to respirations,
and pulse strength and rate (take the pulse in the neck).

Epilepsy
• Epilepsy, also known as seizures or fits, is a condition characterized by an abnormal focus of activity in
the brain that produces severe motor responses or changes in consciousness. Fortunately, epilepsy can
often be controlled by medications. Grand mal seizure is the more serious type of epilepsy. Grand mal
seizure may be - but is not always - preceded by an aura. The victim soon comes to recognize these
auras, which allows him time to lie down and prepare for the seizure’s onset.
• A burst of nerve impulses from the brain causes unconsciousness and generalized muscular contractions,
often with loss of bladder and bowel control. The primary dangers in a grand mal seizure are tongue
biting and injuries resulting from falls. A period of sleep or mental confusion follows this type of seizure.
When full consciousness returns, the victim will have little or no recollection of the attack.
• First aid is aimed at preventing the patient from injuring himself or herself.
• A tongue depressor or other type of padded gag should be placed between the patient’s teeth
to prevent biting the tongue; however, this may not be possible if the jaws are clenched. Don’t
force it. Never try to restrain a patient during convulsions; however, do not leave the patient
alone. Loosen the clothing around the neck, and turn the head to the side to prevent the patient
from inhaling saliva and mucus.
Fainting
Fainting is a self-correcting, temporary form of shock. It often is the result of a temporary gravitational pooling of
the blood as a person stands up. As the person falls, blood again rushes to the head, and the problem is solved.

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 47
Usually, the serious problems related to fainting are injuries that occur when falling down from the temporary
loss of consciousness. Fainting may be caused by stressful situations.

If a person faints (is feels he is about to faint) do the following:

• Lay victim down
• Elevate feet
• Loosen tight clothing
• Maintain an open airway

KNOW HOW TO PREVENT INFECTION.

• Although infection may occur in any wound, it is a particular danger in wounds that do not bleed
freely; in wounds in which torn tissue or skin falls back into place and prevents the entrance of
air; and in wounds that involve the crushing of tissues. Incisions, in which there is a free flow of
blood and relatively little crushing of tissues, are the least likely to become infected.
• There are two types of bacteria commonly causing infection in wounds—aerobic and anaerobic.
The former bacterial live and multiply in the presence of air or free oxygen, while the latter are
bacterial that live and multiply only in the absence of air.
• The principal aerobic bacteria that cause infection, inflammation, and blood poisoning are
streptococci and staphylococci, some varieties of which destroy red blood cells. The
staphylococci and streptococci may be introduced at the time of infliction, or they may be
introduced to the wound later, at the time of first aid treatment or in the hospital if non sterile
instruments or dressings are employed.
• Wash minor wounds immediately with soap and clean water; then dry and paint them with a
mild, nonirritating antiseptic. Apply a dressing if necessary. In the first aid environment, do not
attempt to wash or clean a large wound, and do not apply an antiseptic to it since it must be
cleaned thoroughly at a medical treatment facility. Simply protect it with a large compress or
dressing and transport the victim to a medical treatment facility. After an initial soap and water
cleanup, puncture wounds must also be directed to a medical treatment facility for evaluation.

WHAT IS THE PROPER TREATMENT FOR A SNAKE BITE?

• In a snakebite situation, every reasonable effort should be made to kill or at least to positively
identify the culprit, since treatment of a nonpoisonous bite is far simpler and less dangerous to
the victim than treatment of a poisonous bite.
• Snake venom is a complex mixture of enzymes, peptides, and other substances. A single
injection can cause many different toxic effects in many areas of the body. Some of these effects
are felt immediately while the action of other venom components may be delayed for hours or
even days. A poisonous bite should be considered a true medical emergency until symptoms
prove otherwise.
• The venom is stored in sacs in the snake’s head. It is introduced into a victim through hollow or
grooved fangs. An important point to remember, however, is that a bitten patient has not
necessarily received a dose of venom. The snake can control whether or not it will release the
poison and how much it will inject. As a result, while symptoms in a poisonous snakebite
incident may be severe, they may also be mild or not develop at all.

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 48
 • It is essential that you be able to quickly diagnose snakebite as being envenomated or not.
Usually enough symptoms present themselves within an hour of a poisonous snakebite to erase
any doubt. The victim’s condition provides the best information as to the seriousness of the
situation. The bite of the pit viper is extremely painful and is characterized by immediate
swelling and excess fluid about the fang marks, usually within 5 to 10 minutes, spreading and
possibly involving the whole extremity within an hour. If only minimal swelling occurs within 30
minutes, the bite will almost certainly have been from a nonpoisonous snake or from a
poisonous snake that did not inject venom.
• The aim of first aid for envenomated snakebites is to reduce the circulation of blood through the
bite area, delay absorption of venom, prevent aggravation of the local wound, maintain vital
signs, and transport the victim as soon as possible to a medical treatment facility. Other aid will
be mainly supportive:
 Apply a constricting band (i.e., rubber tubing, belt, necktie, stocking) above and below
the bite. Each band should be approximately 2 inches from the wound, but NEVER place
the bands on each side of a joint. If only one constricting band is available, place it above
the wound. It should be tight enough to stop the flow of blood in the veins, but not tight
enough to shut off the arterial blood supply. The victim’s pulse should be palpable below
the band.
 If the victim cannot reach a medical treatment facility within 30 minutes of the time of
the bite, and there are definite signs of poisoning, use a sterile knife blade to make an
incision about 1/2 inch (13 mm) long and 1/4 inch (6 mm) deep over each fang mark on
the long axis of the extremity. This technique is done only on the extremities, not on the
head or trunk. Apply suction cups to help remove some of the injected venom. Suction by
mouth is recommended only as a last resort, because the human mouth contains so
many different bacteria that the bite could become infected. Incision and suction later
than 30 minutes from the time of the bite is not recommended.
 Check the pulse and respiration frequently. Give artificial ventilation if necessary.
 Calm and reassure the victim, who will often be excited or hysterical. Keep the victim
lying down, quiet, and warm. DO NOT give alcohol or any other stimulant to drink.
 Treat for shock.
 Use a splint to immobilize the victim’s affected extremity, keeping the involved area at or
below the level of the heart.
 Cover the wound to prevent further contamination.
 Give aspirin for pain.
 Telephone the nearest medical facility so that the proper antivenin can be made
available.
 Transport the victim (and the dead snake) to a medical treatment facility as soon as
possible. All suspected snake bite victims should be taken to the hospital, whether they
show signs of envenomation or not.

WHAT IS THE PROPER TREATMENT FOR ANIMAL BITES?

• A special kind of infection that must be guarded against in case of animal bites is rabies
(sometimes called “hydrophobia”). This disease is caused by a virus that is present in the saliva
of infected animals. The disease occurs most commonly in wild animals, but it has been found in
domestic animals and household pets. In fact, it is probable that all mammals are susceptible to

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 49
 it. The virus that causes rabies is ordinarily transmitted by a bite, but it can be transmitted by the
saliva of an infected animal coming in contact with a fresh wound or with the thin mucous
membrane of the lips or nose. The virus does not penetrate normal unbroken skin. If the skin is
broken, DO NOT attempt wound closure.
• If rabies develops in man, it is usually fatal. A preventive treatment is available and it is very
effective, but only if it is started shortly after the bite. Since the vaccine can be obtained only at
a medical treatment facility, any person bitten by an animal must be transferred quickly to the
nearest treatment facility for evaluation, along with a complete report of the circumstances
surrounding the incident. Remember, prevention is of utmost importance. Immediate local
treatment of the wound should be given. Wash the wound and the surrounding area carefully,
using sterile gauze, soap, and sterile water. Use sterile gauze to dry the wound, and then cover
the wound with a sterile dressing. DO NOT use any chemical disinfectant. All of the animal’s
saliva must be removed from the victim’s skin to prevent further contamination of the wound.
CAUTION: DO NOT allow the animal’s saliva to come in contact with open sores or cuts on your
hands. When a person has been bitten by an animal, every effort must be made to catch the
animal and to keep it confined for a minimum of 8 to 10 days. DO NOT kill it if there is any
possible chance of catching it alive. The symptoms of rabies are not always present in the animal
at the time the bite occurs, but the saliva may nevertheless contain the rabies virus. It is
essential, therefore, that the animal is kept under observation until a diagnosis can be made.
The rabies treatment is given if the animal develops any definite symptoms, if it dies during the
observation period, or if for any reason the animal cannot be kept under observation.
Remember that any animal bite is dangerous and MUST be evaluated at a treatment facility.

PROPER TREATMENT FOR INSECT AND SPIDER BITES

Insect Bites
Though ticks and leeches are not technically insects, we will deal with them here as if they are. Most of
the time insect bites and stings will not require first aid. However, you should be aware that there are
many insect-borne diseases including Lyme's disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, malaria, yellow
fever, bubonic plague, etc. Be on the alert for any sickness following an insect bite, and contact a doctor
if you suspect transmission of an insect-borne disease.

First aid is aimed at reducing the discomfort caused by an insect bite or sting and preventing infection:
• Get away from the insects to avoid additional bites or stings.
• For stings, scrape the stinger away - do not use tweezers or otherwise pinch a stinger, as this will cause
more venom to be injected into the wound.
• Place an ice pack over the affected area to reduce pain and swelling.
• Apply hydrocortizone, calamine lotion, or make a paste from three parts baking soda and one part water
and apply that to the affected area.
• Give the patient an antihistamine such as Benadryl.
• Remove ticks by pulling them straight out with a pair of tweezers. Be careful not to break a tick's mouth
parts off beneath the skin. Contact the child's doctor who may ask you to save the tick and bring it in for
testing. Do not try to remove a tick by touching it with a hot match head or by covering it with petroleum
jelly.
• Do not scratch
• Wash the affected area with soap and water.
•

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 50
Spider Bites
• Spiders in the United States are generally harmless, with several exceptions. The most notable are the
black widow and brown recluse spiders. Their bites are serious but rarely fatal.
• Bites by non-poisonous spiders should be treated the same as insect bites.
• Bites by poisonous spiders should be treated as follows:
 Place ice over the bite to reduce pain.
 Hospitalize victims who are under 16 or over 65 for observation.
 Be prepared to give antivenin in severe cases.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT EXHAUSTION AND HEAT STROKE, AND WHAT IS THE TREATMENT
FOR EACH

Heat stroke
• Heat stroke is a less common but far more serious condition than heat exhaustion, since it carries a 20
percent fatality rate. The main feature of heatstroke is the extremely high body temperature, 105º F (41º
C) or higher, that accompanies it. In heatstroke, the victim has a breakdown of the sweating mechanism
and is unable to eliminate excessive body heat built up while exercising. If the body temperature rises too
high, the brain, kidneys, and liver may be permanently damaged.
• Sometimes the victim may have preliminary symptoms, such as headache, nausea, dizziness, or
weakness. Breathing will be deep and rapid at first, later shallow and almost absent. Usually the victim
will be flushed, very dry, and very hot. The pupils will be constricted (pinpoint) and the pulse fast and
strong.
• When you provide first aid for heatstroke, remember that this is a true life-and-death emergency. The
longer the victim remains overheated, the higher the chances of irreversible body damage or even death
occurring. First aid treatment for heatstroke is designed to reduce body heat. Reduce body heat
immediately by dousing the body with cold water, or applying wet, cold towels to the whole body. Move
the victim to the coolest possible place and remove as much clothing as possible. Maintain an open
airway. Place the victim on his/her back, with the head and shoulders slightly raised. If cold packs are
available, place them under the arms, around the neck, at the ankles, and in the groin. Expose the victim
to a fan or air-conditioner since drafts will promote cooling. Immersing the victim in a cold water bath is
also effective. Give the victim (if conscious) cool water to drink. Do not give any hot drinks or stimulants.
Get the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible. Cooling measures must be continued while the
victim is being transported.

Heat Exhaustion
• Heat exhaustion is the most common condition caused by working or exercising in hot spaces.
Heat exhaustion produces a serious disruption of blood flow to the brain, heart, and lungs. This
causes the victim to experience weakness, dizziness, headache, loss of appetite, and nausea.
• Signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion are similar to those of shock: the victim will appear
ashen gray; the skin will be cold, moist, and clammy; and the pupils of the eyes may be dilated
(enlarged). The vital (blood pressure, temperature, pulse, and respiration) signs usually are
normal; however, the victim may have a weak pulse together with rapid and shallow breathing.
• Body temperature may be below normal. You should treat heat exhaustion victims as if they
were in shock. Loosen the clothing, apply cool wet cloths, move the victim to either a cool or an
air-conditioned area, and fan the victim. Do not allow the person to become chilled. If the victim
is conscious, administer a solution of 1 teaspoon of salt dissolved in a quart of cool water. If the

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 51
 victim vomits, do not give any more fluids. Transport the victim to a medical facility as soon as
possible.
•
WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IF YOUR CLOTHES CATCH FIRE?

• Get the person to the ground and roll him over and over on the ground. Another option is to wrap the
victim with a blanket, coat, or jacket if one is handy. If your own clothes catch on fire, stop, drop, and roll
- do the same thing to yourself as you would to someone else.

WHAT ARE THE BASIC FIRE PREVENTION PRINCIPLES FOR THE HOME?

• If your home lacks smoke detectors, install them (it's not that hard).
• Replace the batteries and test your smoke detectors on a regular basis (when adjusting your
clocks for daylight savings time, for example).
• Do not smoke or allow anyone else to smoke in your home.
• Never overload circuits or extension cords. Do not place cords and wires under rugs, over nails
or in high traffic areas. Immediately shut off and unplug appliances that sputter, spark or emit an
unusual smell. Have them professionally repaired or replaced.
• When using appliances follow the manufacturer's safety precautions. Overheating, unusual
smells, shorts and sparks are all warning signs that appliances need to be shut off, then replaced
or repaired. Unplug appliances when not in use. Use safety caps to cover all unused outlets,
especially if there are small children in the home.
• Portable heaters need their space. Keep anything combustible at least three feet away.
• Keep fire in the fireplace. Use fire screens and have your chimney cleaned annually. The
creosote buildup can ignite a chimney fire that could easily spread.
• Kerosene heaters should be used only where approved by authorities. Never use gasoline or
camp-stove fuel. Refuel outside and only after the heater has cooled.
• Practice an escape plan from every room in the house. Caution everyone to stay low to the floor
when escaping from fire and never to open doors that are hot. Select a location where everyone
can meet after escaping the house. Get out then call for help.
• Keep your home clean and neat.

WHAT ARE THE BASIC WATER SAFETY PRINCIPLES?

• Learn to swim.
• Swim in areas where a lifeguard is on duty
• Young children and weak swimmers should wear a personal floatation device (PFD) when they
are around water.
• Set limits for inexperienced swimmers, such as not allowing them to enter water that is more
than chest-deep.
• Inspect swimming areas for hazards such as underwater trees, holes, and swift currents.
• Swim parallel to the shore if caught in a rip tide.
• Get out of the water if there is a risk of a lightning strike.

WHAT ARE THE WAYS TO SAVE A DROWNING VICTIM WITHOUT SWIMMING?

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 52
Unless you have been trained to properly do so, never swim to the assistance of a person who is
drowning. A drowning person is typically in a panic, and will grab onto anyone or anything he can reach
in an effort to save himself. If he grabs an untrained rescuer, the chances are very good that he will pull
him under and both the original victim and the rescuer will drown.

Instead, do one of the following:

• Use a boat to reach the victim.

• Throw life ring, life jacket, or some other flotation device to the victim.
• Extend an item such as a rope, pole, oar, or paddle to the victim, and once the victim grabs it,
tow him in.

WHAT ARE THE BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY PRINCIPLES?

• Do not overload circuits or extension cords.

• Only use an extension cord that is rated to handle the current an appliance will use. An
appliance's amperage is listed on the outside of the appliance.
• Shut off the power before working on a circuit.
• Unplug an appliance before servicing it.
• Water and electricity do not mix. Do not use an electric appliance when standing in a puddle of
water or while in a bathtub or shower.
• Do not use a land-line telephone or touch any "wired" appliance during an electrical storm.
• Do not insert anything into an electrical socket other than an electrical plug which is in good
condition.
• Replace broken or frayed electrical cords.

HOW CAN YOU PREVENT FOOD POISONING?

Food poisoning is causes by eating food which is contaminated with any infectious or toxic agent such
as bacteria or parasites. The two main ways food becomes contaminated is by improper storage, or by
coming into contact with contaminated food (cross-contamination).

Food Storage
• The basic rule for storing food is to pay attention to the temperature. Keep hot foods hot, and keep cold
foods cold. Most bacteria will not grow in food that is hotter than 140°F (60°C), and bacterial growth is
greatly slowed at temperatures below 40°F (4°C). It is unsafe to store foods susceptible to bacteria
growth between these temperatures.
• Food poisoning is often caused by eating left-overs that were not promptly refrigerated. As soon as the
food temperature falls below 140°F (60°C), it should be refrigerated. The longer food is left in the "danger
zone", the more bacteria will multiply in it. If it contains enough bacteria, it will overwhelm the body's
immune system and sickness will result.
• Be careful about refrigerating large quantities of hot food. For instance, the potato salad in the center of
a two-gallon container can remain warm for hours after refrigeration - providing ample time for bacteria
to multiply. Divide large quantities of food into smaller containers prior to refrigeration so that the food
can cool throughout.
•

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 53
Cross Contamination
• Cross contamination usually happens during food preparation. Raw meat and raw eggs should always be
treated as if they were contaminated. Cooking them kills the bacteria and makes them safe to eat. Do not
allow other food to come into contact with raw meat or eggs, or that food will become contaminated. Do
not use the same utensils to handle raw meat and food that is ready to eat.
• Wash your hands before you eat or cook, and always wash your hands after handling raw meat or eggs -
before handling any other food.
• Do not allow pets to walk on food preparation surfaces (i.e., don't let the cat walk on the counter top or
dining table). Animals pick up many types of bacteria on their feet, and this is easily transferred to food. If
you do catch your pet walking on the countertop, be sure to disinfect it before using it as a food
preparation surface.

PART 2- FIRST AID, STANDARD

complete the following requirements And Standard First Aid and receive your certificate.

KNOW THE BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR MOUTH-TO-MOUTH BREATHING AND THE TREATMENT FOR AN
OBSTRUCTED AIRWAY.

Rescue Breathing. The head of the patient is tilted backward. The rescuer closes the nose with one
hand, while pushing the chin downward with the other hand to keep the patient's mouth open.

• If the patient is breathing, do not administer rescue breathing. Rescue breathing is an

emergency treatment that may help the victim regain the ability to breathe on his own.
• Tilt back the head of the patient to extend his airways; the head will remain in this position by
itself, you do not have to maintain it so.
• Open the jaw of the patient by pulling on his chin.

In some cases (like some cases of epilepsy), the patient's muscles are so contracted that it is
impossible to open the mouth. Contrary to urban legend, the patient will not "swallow" their
tongue. In this situation, it may not be possible to blow into the mouth. Instead, seal the lips
together and breath into the nose while keeping the head tilted back.

• Close the patient's nose with your free hand by pinching the nostrils together.
• Take a deep breath, put your mouth on the mouth of the patient in an airtight manner, and blow
into the mouth of the patient. These breaths should be gentle and last no longer than 2 seconds
to prevent air from entering the stomach.

When you have given two rescue breaths, check the patient's pulse, while keeping an eye on his
respiration. Chances are that
• The patient might have recovered spontaneous respiration thanks to your rescue breaths.
• The patient might be in a state of cardio-respiratory arrest.

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 54
If the patient has recovered spontaneous respiration, put him in the recovery position, cover him, and
monitor his breathing on a regular basis until an ambulance arrives.

If the patient is in a state of cardio-respiratory arrest, you will have to perform CPR.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A HEART ATTACK AND A STROKE AND THE TREATMENT FOR EACH.

Heart Attack
A heart attack is when blood supply to part of the heart is interrupted causing heart tissue to die. Symptoms of a
heart attack include severe chest pain, looking pale, sweating, and feeling sick. A heart attack is a medical
emergency, and it is a leading cause of death for both men and women.

First aid includes the following:

• Seek emergency medical assistance immediately.
• Help the patient to rest in a position which minimizes breathing difficulties. A half-sitting position with
knees bent is often recommended.
• Give access to more oxygen, e.g. by opening the window and widening the collar for easier breathing; but
keep the patient warm, e.g. by a blanket or a jacket
• Give aspirin, if the patient is not allergic to aspirin. Aspirin inhibits formation of further blood clots.
 Non-coated or soluble preparations are preferred. These should be chewed or dissolved,
respectively, to facilitate quicker absorption. If the patient cannot swallow, the aspirin can be
placed under the tongue.
 guidelines recommend a dose of 160 – 325 mg.
 others guidelines recommend a dose of 150 – 300 mg.
• If it has been prescribed for the patient, give nitroglycerin tablets under the tongue.
• Monitor pulse, breathing, level of consciousness and, if possible, the blood pressure of the patient
continually.
• Administer CPR if cardiac arrest occurs (that is, if the heart stops).
•
Stroke
A stroke is caused by an interruption of the arterial blood supply to a portion of the brain. This interruption may
be caused by hardening of the arteries or by a clot forming in the brain. Tissue damage and loss of function result.
Onset of a stroke is sudden, with little or no warning. The first signs include weakness or paralysis on the side of
the body opposite the side of the brain that has been injured. Muscles of the face on the affected side may be
involved. The patient’s level of consciousness varies from alert to unresponsive. Additionally, motor functions -
including vision and speech - on the affected side are disturbed, and the throat may be paralyzed.

If you think a person has suffered a stroke, do the following:

• Ask the victim to smile.
• Ask the victim to raise both hands over his head.
• Ask the victim to repeat a simple sentence.

Inability to do any of these three things means the victim may have had a stroke. First aid for a stroke is
mainly supportive. Special attention must be paid to the victim’s airway, since he may not be able to
keep it clear.

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 55
 • Call 999
• Place the victim in a semi-reclining position or on the paralyzed side.
• Act in a calm, reassuring manner, and keep any onlookers quiet since the victim may be able to
hear what is going on.
• Carefully monitor the victim’s vital signs and keep a log. Pay special attention to respirations,
and pulse strength and rate (take the pulse in the neck).

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE FOR ASSISTING A BLEEDING VICTIM.

If you see a person who is bleeding heavily, you can do the following:
• Press hard onto the wound to stop the bleeding.
• If an arm or leg is cut, elevate the limb.
• Cover with a clean pad and apply a bandage.
• Check that the bleeding has stopped. If it has not, add another pad, and bandage, do not
remove previous bandage.
• If you have bandaged a limb, check frequently that the fingers and toes remain warm. If fingers
and toes are getting cold, loosen the bandage to let the blood circulate.
• Get the person to a hospital for stitches (and immunization against Tetanus) keeping the limb
raised.

KNOW THE PRESSURE POINTS AND HOW TO CORRECTLY APPLY PRESSURE AT THOSE POINTS.

The usual way to control bleeding is to put pressure directly onto the wound, either with the hand
directly or with a dressing of some sort (bandage, handkerchief, tea towel etc). Do not forget that any
wound which is not controlled within a minute or two is a medical emergency; and any deep or large
wound must receive medical attention as soon as possible.

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 56
Pressure Points
• It is sometimes not possible to press directly on a wound: for example, there may be a foreign
object inside the wound, or a broken bone protruding outside, or the wound may be too large or
be inaccessible (e.g. if the limb is trapped by some immovable object). In this case, the only way
to control the bleeding is to compress blood vessels over particular pressure points (usually
where arteries cross over bones near to the surface of the skin). This technique can be used to
control external bleeding from arm wounds and leg wounds.
• The correct point is determined by finding a pulse on a victim similar to that felt in the wrist
when taking one's own pulse. This point could be located in the wrist, the arm (on the soft
underside of the elbow), the groin, or behind the knee. This is the position where a rhythmical
pulsation can be felt. Pressure can then be applied over this point -- the artery -- to control
bleeding.

Once an artery is compressed over a pressure point, it must not be compressed for more than 10
minutes: any longer in one go can cause irreversible damage to the limb. Typically pressure would be
applied for 10 minutes, then released for a couple, then reapplied and so on.

KNOW THE PROPER METHOD OF APPLYING A TOURNIQUET AND WHEN TO APPLY ONE.

• A tourniquet is a tightly tied band applied around a body part (an arm or a leg) sometimes used in an
attempt to stop severe traumatic bleeding. Severe bleeding means the loss of more than 1,000 ml (1 liter)
of blood. This flow of blood can soak a paper or cloth handkerchief in a few seconds. In such a situation,
the bleeding will cause the death of the casualty in seconds to minutes.
• A tourniquet is a last resort method of bleeding control. Other methods that should be applied first and
in conjunction,

• if possible, include:
 direct pressure
 elevation of the limb or wound above the heart
 the use of a pressure point to slow the artery above the injury(s)
 blood-clotting agents or bandages
 Even in cases of amputation, most bleeding can be controlled through these alternative
methods. The rare exception is when a limb is shattered by massive trauma or when a major
blood vessel is torn along its length. Even in these cases, the use of a pressure point above
the wound is strongly preferred.

As the tourniquet stops blood flow to the limb, it can cause the death of the limb, forcing the later
surgical amputation of the limb just below the level the tourniquet is applied. This is likely to occur
when the tourniquet stays in place several hours. In any event, once a tourniquet has been applied,
advanced medical care from a doctor or hospital will be required to salvage the limb if not save the life
of the patient.

The decision to employ a tourniquet should be made by an emergency medical technician or preferably
a doctor if at all possible. But when severe external bleeding cannot be controlled by other means, a
tourniquet may be the only way for a first-aider to save the casualty.

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 57
Most civilian first aid instruction in the United States no longer teaches the use of the tourniquet for the
following reasons:

• the effectiveness of direct pressure, elevation and pressure points (controlling severe bleeding in
up to 90% of cases as estimated by medical sources)
• the increased difficulty of reattaching an amputated limb when a tourniquet has been applied to
the victim
• unnecessary use by poorly trained bystanders
• the unavoidable risks to both limb and life even when properly employed
• the rare nature of injuries that require tourniquets, which typically occur in unusual settings
such as working with agricultural or industrial machinery and the battlefield

The use of a tourniquet by a layperson in countries where it is considered outside the scope of practice
of first aid may result in civil lawsuits and/or criminal charges, especially if the application was later
found to have been unnecessary.

KNOW THE CAUSES OF SHOCK AND DEMONSTRATE ITS PROPER TREATMENT.

Shock is a medical condition where the delivery of oxygen and nutrients is insufficient to meet the
body's needs. The main carrier of oxygen and nutrients in the body is the blood, so anytime there is a
loss of blood, there is a risk of shock. Shock is a life-threatening emergency.

Recovery position

First aid treatment of shock includes:

• Immediate reassurance and comforting the victim if conscious.
• If alone, go for help. If not, send someone to go for help and someone stay with the victim.
• Ensure that the airway is clear and assess breathing. Place the victim in the recovery position if possible.
• Attempt to stem any obvious bleeding.
• Cover the victim with a blanket or jacket, but not too thick or it may cause a dangerous drop in blood
pressure.
• Do not give a drink, moisten lips if requested.
• Prepare for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
• Give as much information as possible when the ambulance arrives.
•
KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE FOR ASSISTING A VICTIM OF POISONING.

• With poison container in hand, call the local poison control center and do NOT try to make the
patient vomit. Only induce vomiting if a poison center worker or a doctor advises you to do so. If
the poison is on the skin or clothes, remove the clothing and wash with a large amount of water.
If poison gets in the eyes, flush the eyes with clean water for 10 minutes.

CHRISMARY
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 • Get the victim to a hospital as soon as possible, and if possible, bring the poison container with
you.

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE FOR ASSISTING A BURN VICTIM.

Thermal Burns
Burns should be immediately immersed in cold running water, or shower for large area. Do not wait to remove
clothes. This should be maintained for at least 10-15 minutes.
• Continue for at least 1 hour with cold pack, partially insulated with clean fabric (cotton, thin toweling), or
further immersion in iced water. Blistered or open burn wounds should be cleaned and covered with
non-adhesive gauze (preferably bactericidal) and cotton dressing. DO NOT use butter, oils or any similar
treatment which can trap heat and increase risk of infection. Also do not use antiseptics that may
aggravate sensitive skin.
• Consult a medical physician immediately for any large, deep, infected or otherwise serious burn.
• Aloe vera extract, silverdene (Silver Sulfazdiazine), topical analgaesics and NSAID are commonly used
medications. Consult a doctor before use.
• Burns are sustained by electricity, heat , chemical or radiation (sunburn). There are three levels of burns,
including first degree burns (Superficial burn), second degree burns (Partial thickness burn) and third
degree burns (Full thickness burn). The first degree burn is typical sunburn with symptoms such as
redness of the skin and pain. Second degree often has blisters and severe pain. Third degree can be
caused by fires and caustic chemicals. Often the victim will feel no pain because the nerves have been
destroyed, even though the skin is deeply charred.
• Burns that cover more than ten percent of the body, or are larger than the casualty's palm, are medical
emergencies and need to be treated as such. Also ANY burns to the face, hands or groin should be
considered critical and require a physician to look at it.
Chemical Burns
Quickly flush the area with large amounts of water, using a shower or hose, if available. Do not apply water too
forcefully. Continue to flood the area while the clothing, including shoes and socks, is being removed, as well as
afterwards.

NOTE: There are two exceptions to the above. In alkali burns caused by dry lime, the mixing of water and lime
creates a very corrosive substance. Dry lime should be brushed away from the skin and clothing, unless large
amounts of water are available for rapid and complete flushing. In acid burns caused by phenol (carbolic acid),
wash the affected area with alcohol because phenol is not water soluble; then wash with water. If alcohol is not
available, flushing with water is better than no treatment at all.

• After thorough washing, neutralize any chemical remaining on the affected area. WARNING: DO NOT
attempt to neutralize a chemical unless you know exactly what it is and what substance will neutralize
it. Further damage may be done by a neutralizing agent that is too strong or incorrect. For acid burns
make a solution of 1 teaspoon of baking soda in a pint of water and flush it over the affected area.

• For alkali burns mix 1 or 2 teaspoons of vinegar in a pint of water and flush it over the affected area.
• Flush the area again with water and gently pat dry with a sterile gauze. Do not rub the area.
• Transport the victim to a medical treatment facility.

KNOW HOW TO PROPERLY APPLY THE FOLLOWING BANDAGES:

a. Open and closed spiral

CHRISMARY
CZC 2014 P. 59
 • Start by laying a strip of roller bandage along the length of the limb, from the larger portion to the
smaller (for example, from the elbow to the wrist, or from the knee to the ankle). Then make two or
three turns around the smaller part of the limb, and then wind upward in a spiral fashion, covering the
first part of the bandage that was laid down. For an open spiral, leave gaps between successive windings.
This is useful for holding dressings in place over a large area, as needed in the case of a burn. For a closed
spiral, overlap each winding. Secure at the top by tying the two ends of the bandage together with a
square knot.

b. Figure-eight

• The figure-eight bandage is used for dressings of the ankle, as well as for supporting a sprain.
While keeping the foot at a right angle, start a 3-inch bandage around the instep for several
turns to anchor it. Carry the bandage upward over the instep and around behind the ankle,
forward, and again across the instep and down under the arch, thus completing one figure-eight.
Continue the figure-eight turns, overlapping one-third to one-half the width of the bandage and
with an occasional turn around the ankle, until the compress is secured or until adequate
support is obtained.

• The figure-eight bandage can also be used on the hand, wrist, elbow, and knee.

c. Fingertip
• Begin by laying the bandage along the length of the injured finger, leaving the end extending a couple of
inches to the center of the palm. Then take the bandage over the fingertip, and going back down again on
the other side to the base of the finger. Twist the bandage, and begin spiraling towards the fingertip.
When the top joint of the finger is reached, spiral downwards again towards the base of the finger. Tie
the two ends together with a square knot to secure the bandage.

CHRISMARY
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d. Cravat bandage to the head

Cravat bandage for the temple, cheek, or ear.

• This bandage is useful to control bleeding from wounds of the scalp or forehead. After placing a
compress over the wound, place the center of the cravat over the compress and carry the ends
around to the opposite side; cross them, continue to carry them around to the starting point,
and tie in a square knot.

KNOW HOW TO APPLY THE FOLLOWING SPLINTS:

a. Upper arm splint

The signs of fracture of the upper arm include pain, tenderness, swelling, and a wobbly motion at the
point of fracture. If the fracture is near the elbow, the arm is likely to be straight with no bend at the
elbow. If the fracture is open, stop the bleeding and treat the wound before attempting to treat the
fracture.

NOTE

Treatment of the fracture depends partly upon the location of the break.

• If the fracture is in the upper part of the arm near the shoulder, place a pad or folded towel in
the armpit, bandage the arm securely to the body, and support the forearm in a narrow sling.

CHRISMARY
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 • If the fracture is in the middle of the upper arm, you can use one well-padded splint on the
outside of the arm. The splint should extend from the shoulder to the elbow. Fasten the splinted
arm firmly to the body and support the forearm in a narrow sling, as illustrated.
• Another way of treating a fracture in the middle of the upper arm is to fasten two wide splints
(or four narrow ones) about the arm and then support the forearm in a narrow sling. If you use a
splint between the arm and the body, be very careful that it does not extend too far up into the
armpit; a splint in this position can cause a dangerous compression of the blood vessels and
nerves and may be extremely painful to the victim. If the fracture is at or near the elbow, the
arm may be either bent or straight. No matter in what position you find the arm, DO NOT
ATTEMPT TO STRAIGHTEN IT OR MOVE IT IN ANY WAY. Splint the arm as carefully as possible in
the position in which you find it. This will prevent further nerve and blood vessel damage. The
only exception to this is if there is no pulse on the other side of the fracture (relative to the
heart), in which case gentle traction is applied and then the arm is splinted. Treat the victim for
shock and get him under the care of a medical professional as soon as possible.

b. Forearm splint There are two long bones in the forearm, the radius and the ulna. When both
are broken, the arm usually appears to be deformed. When only one is
broken, the other acts as a splint and the arm retains a more or less natural
appearance. Any fracture of the forearm is likely to result in pain, tenderness,
inability to use the forearm, and a kind of wobbly motion at the point of
injury. If the fracture is open, a bone will show through. If the fracture is
open, stop the bleeding and treat the wound. Apply a sterile dressing over the
wound. Carefully straighten the forearm. (Remember that rough handling of a
closed fracture may turn it into an open fracture.) Apply two well-padded
splints to the forearm, one on the top and one on the bottom. Be sure that
the splints are long enough to extend from the elbow to the wrist. Use
bandages to hold the splints in place. Put the forearm across the chest. The
palm of the hand should be turned in, with the thumb pointing upward.
Support the forearm in this position by means of a wide sling and a cravat
bandage (see illustration). The hand should be raised about 4 inches above
the level of the elbow. Treat the victim for shock and evacuate as soon as
possible.

CHRISMARY
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c. Ankle splint

The figure-eight bandage is used for dressings of the ankle, as well as for supporting a sprain. While
keeping the foot at a right angle, start a 3-inch bandage around the instep for several turns to anchor it.
Carry the bandage upward over the instep and around behind the ankle, forward, and again across the
instep and down under the arch, thus completing one figure-eight. Continue the figure-eight turns,
overlapping one-third to one-half the width of the bandage and with an occasional turn around the
ankle, until the compress is secured or until adequate support is obtained.

d. Kneecap splint

Carefully straighten the injured limb. Immobilize the fracture by placing a padded board under the
injured limb. The board should be at least 4 inches wide and should reach from the but- tock to the
heel. Place extra padding under the knee and just above the heel, as shown in the illustration. Use strips
of bandage to fasten the leg to the board in four places: (1) just below the knee; (2) just above the knee;
(3) at the ankle; and (4) at the thigh. DO NOT COVER THE KNEE ITSELF. Swelling is likely to occur very
rapidly, and any bandage or tie fastened over the knee would quickly become too tight. Treat the victim
for shock and evacuate as soon as possible.

KNOW THE PROPER TREATMENT FOR THE FOLLOWING:

a. Head injuries
Head wounds must be treated with particular care, since there is always the possibility of brain damage. The
general treatment for head wounds is the same as that for other fresh wounds. However, certain special
precautions must be observed if you are giving first aid to a person who has suffered a head wound.
• NEVER GIVE ANY MEDICINE.

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 • Keep the victim lying flat, with the head at the level of the body. Do not raise the feet if the face is
flushed. If the victim is having trouble breathing, you may raise the head slightly.
• If the wound is at the back of the head, turn the victim on his or her side.
• Watch closely for vomiting and position the head to avoid getting vomit or saliva into the lungs.
• Do not use direct pressure to control bleeding if the skull is depressed or obviously fractured.
b. Internal injuries
Internal soft-tissue injuries may result from deep wounds, blunt trauma, blast exposure, crushing accidents, bone
fracture, poison, or sickness. They may range in seriousness from a simple bruise to life-threatening hemorrhage
and shock.
Visible indications of internal soft-tissue injury include the following:
• Vomiting or coughing up bright red blood.
• Excretion of tarry black stools.
• Excretion of bright red blood from the rectum.
• Passing of blood in the urine.
• Non menstrual vaginal bleeding.
• Nosebleed.
• Pooling of the blood near the skin surface.
More often than not, however, there will be no visible signs of injury, and you will have to infer the probability
of internal soft-tissue injury from other symptoms such as the following:
• Pale, moist, clammy skin.
• Subnormal temperature.
• Rapid, feeble pulse.
• Falling blood pressure.
• Tinnitus (ringing in the ears).
• Fainting.
• Dehydration and thirst.
• Yawning and air hunger.
•
First aid’s goal must be to obtain the greatest benefit from the victim’s remaining blood supply. The following
steps should be taken:
• Treat for shock.
• Keep the victim warm and at rest.
• DO NOT give the victim anything to drink
• Splint injured extremities.
• Apply cold compresses (ice packs) to identifiable injured areas.
• Transport the victim to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible.

c. Gunshot wounds
A gunshot wound is a medical emergency and will require treatment at a medical facility. First, control any
bleeding by using the pressure points and by elevating the injured area. Do not try to remove the bullet, it may
help a doctor to determine the extent of the injury, and its removal may increase the bleeding. Cut or tear away
any clothing covering the wound. Do not pour any liquids into the wound. Wipe any debris away from the wound,
but be careful not to wipe it towards the wound - always wipe away from the wound. Cover the wound with a
bandage and fasten it securely so that it will not hang on anything during transport or slip off. Reassure the victim
and get him to a hospital as soon as possible.

d. Injuries to the eye

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 • Wounds that involve the eyelids or the soft tissue around the eye must be handled carefully to avoid
further damage. If the injury does not involve the eyeball, apply a sterile compress and hold it in place
with a firm bandage. If the eyeball appears to be injured, use a loose bandage. (Remember that you must
NEVER attempt to remove any object that is embedded in the eyeball or that has penetrated it; just apply
a dry, sterile compress to cover both eyes, and hold the compress in place with a loose bandage). Any
person who has suffered a facial wound that involves the eye, the eyelids, or the tissues around the eye
must receive medical attention as soon as possible. Be sure to keep the victim lying down. Use a stretcher
for transport.
• Many eye wounds contain foreign objects. Dirt, coal, cinders, eyelashes, bits of metal, and a variety of
other objects may become lodged in the eye. Since even a small piece of dirt is intensely irritating to the
eye, the removal of such objects is important. However, the eye is easily damaged. Impairment of vision
(or even total loss of vision) can result from fumbling, inexpert attempts to remove foreign objects from
the eye. The following precautions must be observed:
 DO NOT allow the victim to rub the eye.
 DO NOT press against the eye or manipulate it in any way that might cause the object to become
embedded in the tissues of the eye. Be very gentle; roughness is almost sure to cause injury to
the eye.
 DO NOT use such things as knives, toothpicks, matchsticks, or wires to remove the object.
 DO NOT UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES ATTEMPT TO REMOVE AN OBJECT THAT IS EMBEDDED
IN THE EYEBALL OR THAT HAS PENETRATED THE EYE! If you see a splinter or other object sticking
out from the eyeball, leave it alone! Only specially trained medical personnel can hope to save
the victim’s sight if an object has actually penetrated the eyeball.
Small objects that are lodged on the surface of the eye or on the membrane lining the eyelids can usually be
removed by the following procedures:
• Try to wash the eye gently with lukewarm, sterile water. A sterile medicine dropper or a sterile
syringe can be used for this purpose. Have the victim lie down, with the head turned slightly to
one side. Hold the eyelids apart. Direct the flow of water to the inside corner of the eye, and let
it run down to the outside corner. Do not let the water fall directly onto the eyeball.
• Gently pull the lower lid down, and instruct the victim to look up. If you can see the object, try to
remove it with the corner of a clean handkerchief or with a small moist cotton swab. You can
make the swab by twisting cotton around a wooden applicator, not too tightly, and moistening it
with sterile water.
CAUTION: Never use dry cotton anywhere near the eye. It will stick to the eyeball or to the
inside of the lids, and you will have the problem of removing it as well as the original object.
• If you cannot see the object when the lower lid is pulled down, turn the upper lid back over a
smooth wooden applicator. Tell the victim to look down. Place the applicator lengthwise across
the center of the upper lid. Grasp the lashes of the upper lid gently but firmly. Press gently with
the applicator. Pull up on the eyelashes, turning the lid back over the applicator. If you can see
the object, try to remove it with a moist cotton swab or with the corner of a clean handkerchief.
• If the foreign object cannot be removed by any of the above methods, DO NOT MAKE ANY
• FURTHER ATTEMPTS TO REMOVE IT. Instead, place a small, thick gauze dressing over both eyes
and hold it in place with a loose bandage. This limits movement of the injured eye.
• Get medical help for the victim at the earliest opportunity.

CHRISMARY
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e. Animal and insect bites

Animal Bites
• A special kind of infection that must be guarded against in case of animal bites is rabies (sometimes
called “hydrophobia”). This disease is caused by a virus that is present in the saliva of infected animals.
The disease occurs most commonly in wild animals, but it has been found in domestic animals and
household pets. In fact, it is probable that all mammals are susceptible to it. The virus that causes rabies
is ordinarily transmitted by a bite, but it can be transmitted by the saliva of an infected animal coming in
contact with a fresh wound or with the thin mucous membrane of the lips or nose. The virus does not
penetrate normal unbroken skin. If the skin is broken, DO NOT attempt wound closure.
• If rabies develops in man, it is usually fatal. A preventive treatment is available and it is very effective, but
only if it is started shortly after the bite. Since the vaccine can be obtained only at a medical treatment
facility, any person bitten by an animal must be transferred quickly to the nearest treatment facility for
evaluation, along with a complete report of the circumstances surrounding the incident. Remember,
prevention is of utmost importance. Immediate local treatment of the wound should be given. Wash the
wound and the surrounding area carefully, using sterile gauze, soap, and sterile water. Use sterile gauze
to dry the wound, and then cover the wound with a sterile dressing. DO NOT use any chemical
disinfectant.
• All of the animal’s saliva must be removed from the victim’s skin to prevent further contamination of the
wound. CAUTION: DO NOT allow the animal’s saliva to come in contact with open sores or cuts on your
hands. When a person has been bitten by an animal, every effort must be made to catch the animal and
to keep it confined for a minimum of 8 to 10 days.
• DO NOT kill it if there is any possible chance of catching it alive. The symptoms of rabies are not always
present in the animal at the time the bite occurs, but the saliva may nevertheless contain the rabies virus.
It is essential, therefore, that the animal is kept under observation until a diagnosis can be made. The
rabies treatment is given if the animal develops any definite symptoms, if it dies during the observation
period, or if for any reason the animal cannot be kept under observation. Remember that any animal bite
is dangerous and MUST be evaluated at a treatment facility.
Insect Bites
Though ticks and leeches are not technically insects, we will deal with them here as if they are. Most of the time
insect bites and stings will not require first aid. However, you should be aware that there are many insect-borne
diseases including Lyme's disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, malaria, yellow fever, bubonic plague, etc. Be
on the alert for any sickness following an insect bite, and contact a doctor if you suspect transmission of an
insect-borne disease.
First aid is aimed at reducing the discomfort caused by an insect bite or sting and preventing infection:
• Get away from the insects to avoid additional bites or stings.
• For stings, scrape the stinger away - do not use tweezers or otherwise pinch a stinger, as this will
cause more venom to be injected into the wound.
• Place an ice pack over the affected area to reduce pain and swelling.
• Apply hydrocortisone, calamine lotion, or make a paste from three parts baking soda and one
part water and apply that to the affected area.
• Give the patient an antihistamine such as Benadryl.
• Remove ticks by pulling them straight out with a pair of tweezers. Be careful not to break a tick's
mouth parts off beneath the skin. Contact the child's doctor who may ask you to save the tick
and bring it in for testing. Do not try to remove a tick by touching it with a hot match head or by
covering it with petroleum jelly.
• Do not scratch
• Wash the affected area with soap and water.

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f. Fainting and epilepsy

Fainting
Fainting is a self-correcting, temporary form of shock. It often is the result of a temporary gravitational pooling of
the blood as a person stands up. As the person falls, blood again rushes to the head, and the problem is solved.
Usually, the serious problems related to fainting are injuries that occur when falling down from the temporary
loss of consciousness. Fainting may be caused by stressful situations.

If a person faints (is feels he is about to faint) do the following:

• Lay victim down
• Elevate feet
• Loosen tight clothing
• Maintain an open airway
Epilepsy
Epilepsy, also known as seizures or fits, is a condition characterized by an abnormal focus of activity in the brain
that produces severe motor responses or changes in consciousness. Fortunately, epilepsy can often be controlled
by medications. Grand mal seizure is the more serious type of epilepsy. Grand mal seizure may be - but is not
always - preceded by an aura. The victim soon comes to recognize these auras, which allows him time to lie down
and prepare for the seizure’s onset. A burst of nerve impulses from the brain causes unconsciousness and
generalized muscular contractions, often with loss of bladder and bowel control. The primary dangers in a grand
mal seizure are tongue biting and injuries resulting from falls. A period of sleep or mental confusion follows this
type of seizure. When full consciousness returns, the victim will have little or no recollection of the attack.
First aid is aimed at preventing the patient from injuring himself or herself. A tongue depressor or other type of
padded gag should be placed between the patient’s teeth to prevent biting the tongue; however, this may not be
possible if the jaws are clenched. Don’t force it. Never try to restrain a patient during convulsions; however, do
not leave the patient alone. Loosen the clothing around the neck, and turn the head to the side to prevent the
patient from inhaling saliva and mucus.

g. Effects of heat and cold

Heat Exhaustion
• Heat exhaustion is the most common condition caused by working or exercising in hot spaces. Heat
exhaustion produces a serious disruption of blood flow to the brain, heart, and lungs. This causes the
victim to experience weakness, dizziness, headache, loss of appetite, and nausea.
• Signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion are similar to those of shock: the victim will appear ashen gray;
the skin will be cold, moist, and clammy; and the pupils of the eyes may be dilated (enlarged). The vital
(blood pressure, temperature, pulse, and respiration) signs usually are normal; however, the victim may
have a weak pulse together with rapid and shallow breathing.
• Body temperature may be below normal. You should treat heat exhaustion victims as if they were in
shock. Loosen the clothing, apply cool wet cloths, move the victim to either a cool or an air-conditioned
area, and fan the victim. Do not allow the person to become chilled. If the victim is conscious, administer
a solution of 1 teaspoon of salt dissolved in a quart of cool water. If the victim vomits, do not give any
more fluids. Transport the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible.

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Heat Stroke
Heat stroke is a less common but far more serious condition than heat exhaustion, since it carries a 20 percent
fatality rate. The main feature of heatstroke is the extremely high body temperature, 105º F (41º C) or higher,
that accompanies it. In heatstroke, the victim has a breakdown of the sweating mechanism and is unable to
eliminate excessive body heat built up while exercising. If the body temperature rises too high, the brain, kidneys,
and liver may be permanently damaged.
• Sometimes the victim may have preliminary symptoms, such as headache, nausea, dizziness, or
weakness. Breathing will be deep and rapid at first, later shallow and almost absent. Usually the victim
will be flushed, very dry, and very hot. The pupils will be constricted (pinpoint) and the pulse fast and
strong.
• When you provide first aid for heatstroke, remember that this is a true life-and-death emergency. The
longer the victim remains overheated, the higher the chances of irreversible body damage or even death
occurring. First aid treatment for heatstroke is designed to reduce body heat. Reduce body heat
immediately by dousing the body with cold water, or applying wet, cold towels to the whole body. Move
the victim to the coolest possible place and remove as much clothing as possible. Maintain an open
airway. Place the victim on his/her back, with the head and shoulders slightly raised. If cold packs are
available, place them under the arms, around the neck, at the ankles, and in the groin. Expose the victim
to a fan or air-conditioner since drafts will promote cooling. Immersing the victim in a cold water bath is
also effective. Give the victim (if conscious) cool water to drink. Do not give any hot drinks or stimulants.
Get the victim to a medical facility as soon as possible. Cooling measures must be continued while the
victim is being transported.
•
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is caused by continued exposure to low or rapidly falling temperatures, cold moisture, snow, or ice.
Those exposed to low temperatures for extended periods may suffer ill effects, even if they are well protected by
clothing, because cold affects the body systems slowly, almost without notice. As the body cools, there are
several stages of progressive discomfort and disability. The first symptom is shivering, which is an attempt to
generate heat by repeated contractions of surface muscles. This is followed by a feeling of listlessness,
indifference, and drowsiness. Unconsciousness can follow quickly. Shock becomes evident as the victim’s eyes
assume a glassy stare, respiration becomes slow and shallow, and the pulse is weak or absent. As the body
temperature drops even lower, peripheral circulation decreases and the extremities become susceptible to
freezing. Finally, death results as the core temperature of the body approaches 80°F (27°C).

The steps for treatment of hypothermia are as follows:

• Carefully observe respiratory effort and heart beat; CPR may be required while the warming process is
underway.
• Rewarm the victim as soon as possible. It may be necessary to treat other injuries before the victim can
be moved to a warmer place. Severe bleeding must be controlled and fractures splinted over clothing
before the victim is moved.
• Replace wet or frozen clothing and remove anything that constricts the victim’s arms, legs, or fingers,
interfering with circulation.
• If the victim is inside a warm place and is conscious, the most effective method of warming is immersion
in a tub of warm (100° to 105°F or 38° to 41°C) water. The water should be warm to the elbow - never
hot. Observe closely for signs of respiratory failure and cardiac arrest (rewarming shock). Rewarming
shock can be minimized by warming the body trunk before the limbs to prevent vasodilation in the
extremities with subsequent shock due to blood volume shifts.
• If a tub is not available, apply external heat to both sides of the victim. Natural body heat (skin to skin)
from two rescuers is the best method. This is called “buddy warming.” If this is not practical, use hot
water bottles or an electric rewarming blanket. Do not place the blanket or bottles next to bare skin,

CHRISMARY
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 however, and be careful to monitor the temperature of the artificial heat source, since the victim is very
susceptible to burn injury. Because the victim is unable to generate adequate body heat, placement
under a blanket or in a sleeping bag is not sufficient treatment.
• If the victim is conscious, give warm liquids to drink. Never give alcoholic beverages or allow the victim to
smoke.
• Dry the victim thoroughly if water is used for rewarming.
• As soon as possible, transfer the victim to a definitive care facility. Be alert for the signs of respiratory and
cardiac arrest during transfer, and keep the victim warm.
•
Frostbite
• Frostbite occurs when ice crystals form in the skin or deeper tissues after exposure to a temperature of
32°F (0°C) or lower. Depending upon the temperature, altitude, and wind speed, the exposure time
necessary to produce frostbite varies from a few minutes to several hours.
• The areas most commonly affected are the face and extremities. The symptoms of frostbite are
progressive. Victims generally incur this injury without being acutely aware of it. Initially, the affected
skin reddens and there is an uncomfortable coldness. With continued heat loss, there is a numbness of
the affected area due to reduced circulation. As ice crystals form, the frozen extremity appears white,
yellow-white, or mottled blue-white, and is cold, hard, and insensitive to touch or pressure. Frostbite is
classified as superficial or deep, depending on the extent of tissue involvement.

Superficial Frostbite
In superficial frostbite the surface of the skin will feel hard, but the underlying tissue will be soft, allowing it to
move over bony ridges. This is evidence that only the skin and the region just below it are involved.

General treatment for superficial frostbite is as follows:

• Take the victim indoors.
• Rewarm hands by placing them under the armpits, against the abdomen, or between the legs.
• Rewarm feet by placing them in the armpit or against the abdomen of the buddy.
• Gradually rewarm the affected area by warm water immersion, skin-to-skin contact, or hot water bottles.
• Never rub a frostbite area.

Deep Frostbite
In deep frostbite, the freezing reaches into the deep tissue layers. There are ice crystals in the entire thickness of
the extremity. The skin will not move over bony ridges and will feel hard and solid. The objectives of treatment
are to protect the frozen areas from further injury, to rapidly thaw the affected area, and to be prepared to
respond to circulatory or respiratory difficulties.

• Carefully assess and treat any other injuries first. Constantly monitor the victim’s pulse and
breathing since respiratory and heart problems can develop rapidly. Be prepared to administer
CPR if necessary.
• Do not attempt to thaw the frostbitten area if there is a possibility of refreezing. It is better to
leave the part frozen until the victim arrives at a medical treatment facility equipped for long-
term care. Refreezing of a thawed extremity causes severe and disabling damage.
• Treat all victims with injuries to the feet or legs as litter patients. When this is not possible, the
victim may walk on the frozen limb, since it has been proven that walking will not lessen the
chances of successful treatment as long as the limb has not thawed out.

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 • When adequate protection from further cold exposure is available, prepare the victim for
rewarming by removing all constricting clothing such as gloves, boots, and socks. Boots and
clothing frozen on the body should be thawed by warm-water immersion before removal.
• Rapidly rewarm frozen areas by immersion in water at 100°F to 105°F (38°C to 41°C). Keep the
water warm by adding fresh hot water, but do not pour the water directly on the injured area.
Ensure that the frozen area is completely surrounded by water; do not let it rest on the side or
bottom of the tub.
• After rewarming has been completed, pat the area dry with a soft towel. Later it will swell, sting,
and burn. Blisters may develop. These should be protected from breaking. Avoid pressure,
rubbing, or constriction of the injured area. Keep the skin dry with sterile dressings and place
cotton between the toes and fingers to prevent their sticking together.
• Protect the tissue from additional injury and keep it as clean as possible (use sterile dressings
and linen).
• Try to improve the general morale and comfort of the victim by giving hot, stimulating fluids
such as tea or coffee. Do not allow the victim to smoke or use alcoholic beverages while being
treated.
• Transfer to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible. During transportation,
slightly elevate the frostbitten area and keep the victim and the injured area warm. Do not allow
the injured area to be exposed to the cold.

KNOW THE PROPER PROCEDURE TO ASSIST A RADIATION-EXPOSURE VICTIM.

In the case of a nuclear accident or terrorist plot, a person might be exposed to radiation. First aid is to

• Remove all the victims clothing and discard it.

• Vigorously wash the victim with soap and water for an extended period of time in a shower.
• Get the victim to a medical care facility.
• Report the incident to authorities.

KNOW WHAT TO DO IN AN ELECTRICAL EMERGENCY.

First, do not touch a person who comes into contact with a live electric wire. If you do, the electricity
will also flow through your body, and there will be two victims instead of one. Instead, if you can quickly
turn off the power source, do so immediately. If it cannot be turned off quickly, try to knock the wire off
with something that does not conduct electricity, such as a shoe (take it off first), a wooden broom
handle, or a wooden chair.

Once the victim has been separated from the electric power source, check for breathing. If the victim is
not breathing, begin artificial respiration (mouth-to-mouth).

KNOW HOW TO ESCAPE FROM A FIRE.

In a fire, a person is far more likely to die from smoke inhalation than from exposure to flames. There
are two things to remember about smoke: it rises, and if you inhale enough of it, it will kill you.
Therefore, if you find yourself in a smoke filled room, get down and crawl. If you can, cover your mouth
and nose with a wet cloth to help filter the smoke and keep it from entering your lungs. If water is not
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available, use a dry cloth - it's better than nothing. Make your way to the door and if it is closed, feel it.
If it is hot, do not open it, as this means there is fire on the other side. Try to find another way out such
as a window or another exit.

KNOW HOW TO OBTAIN HELP IN AN EMERGENCY

With the advent of the cell phone, the most effective way of obtaining help in an emergency is by
calling 999. Most cell phones are equipped with a GPS module which allows their location to be pin-
pointed by a satellite. The cell phone automatically relays this information to the 999 operator.

However, sometimes a cell phone is either not available, or it is not within range of a cell phone
antenna tower. If you find yourself facing an emergency in the wilderness, you may have to attempt to
signal aircraft. Three ways of doing that are presented here:

MAKE A DISTRESS SIGNAL

Make a distress signal on the ground by piling rocks, branches, or other debris to form large letters spelling
"S.O.S." This is the universally recognized signal for help. Try to use materials that contrast with the surrounding
environment. In winter, you may be able to stomp an SOS into the snow. Make the letters read from east to west
(or west to east) so that the shadows catch the letters better.

LIGHT THREE FIRES

You may also light three fires to signal for help. Build them either in a line or in a triangle, and get them good and
hot. When you see a rescue plane during daylight hours, add green plant matter to the flames. This should cause
thick smoke. Be careful to not extinguish the fire by doing this.

Signaling mirror The emergency signaling mirror is approximately 3 by 5 inches and consists of an
aluminized reflecting glass mirror, a back cover glass, and a sighting device. It is used to attract the
attention of passing aircraft or ships by reflection, either in sunlight or in hazy weather. The reflections
of this shatterproof mirror can be seen at a distance of 30 miles at an altitude of 10,000 feet. Though
less effective, and with possible shorter range, mirror flashes can also be seen on cloudy days with
limited visibility. To use the mirror, proceed as follows:

• Punch a cross-hole in its center.

• Hold the mirror about 3 inches in front of your face and sight through the cross at the ship or aircraft. The
spot of light shining through the hole onto your face will be seen in the cross-hole.
• While keeping a sight on the ship or aircraft, adjust the mirror until the spot of light on your face
disappears in the hole. The bright spot, seen through the sight, will then be aimed directly at the search
ship or aircraft.

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KNOW THE FOLLOWING RESCUE CARRIES:

a. Drag by shoulder

The shoulder drag is accomplished by placing the victim in a supine position (laying on his back),
grasping the clothing behind his shoulders, and dragging him in the desired direction.

b. Blanket drag

Blanket Drag

The blanket drag can be used to move a person who, due to the severity of the injury, should not be
lifted or carried by one person alone. Place the casualty in the supine position on a blanket and pull the
blanket along the floor. Always pull the casualty head first, with the head and shoulders slightly raised
so that the head will not bump against the floor.

c. Two-person carry

Two-person carry
• Manual carries are tiring for the bearer(s) and involve the risk of increasing the severity of the casualty’s
injury. In some instances, however, they are essential to save the casualty’s life. Although manual carries
are accomplished by one or two bearers, the two-man carries are used whenever possible. They provide
more comfort to the casualty, are less likely to aggravate his injuries, and are also less tiring for the
bearers, thus enabling them to carry him farther.
• One two-person carry that can be used in emergencies is shown here. Two rescuers position themselves
beside the casualty, on the same side, one at the level of the chest and the other at the thighs. The
rescuers interlock adjacent arms as shown, while they support the victim at the shoulders and knees. In
unison, they lift the victim and roll his front toward theirs. This carry must not be used to move seriously
injured persons.

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 d. Carry by extremities

Two-person carry by the extremities

An injured person can be carried by his extremities as shown here. However, this carry should not be used to
carry a person who has serious wounds or broken bones.

e. Improvised litter

An improvised stretcher made from a blanket and two poles

An improvised stretcher made from a piece of rope

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Standard stretchers should be used whenever possible to transport a seriously injured person. If none
are available, it may be necessary for you to improvise. Shutters, doors, boards, and even ladders may
be used as stretchers. All stretchers of this kind must be very well padded and great care must be taken
to see that the casualty is fastened securely in place. Stretchers may be improvised by using two long
poles (about 7 feet or 2.1 meters long) and strong cloth, such as a rug, a blanket, a sheet, a mattress
cover, two or three gunny sacks, or two coats. The figure here shows an improvised stretcher made
from two poles and a blanket.

CAUTION: Many improvised stretchers do not give sufficient support in cases where there are fractures
or extensive wounds of the body. They should be used only when the casualty is able to stand some
sagging, bending, or twisting without serious consequences. An example of this type of improvised
stretcher would be one made of 40 to 50 feet of rope or 1 1/2-inch fire hose.

f. Three-person hammock carry

The three-person hammock carry is very similar to the two-person carry, except that three people are
involved: One positioned at the victim's calves, one at the hips, and the third person at the shoulders.
The carriers kneel on their knee nearest the victim's feet. The person at the victim's head gives the
command, and all three lift the victim to their knees simultaneously. The victim is then turned so that
he faces the rescuers. The person at the head then gives the command and the three rescuers stand.

g. Litter carry
When transporting an injured person, always see that the litter is carried feet forward no matter what
the injuries are. This will enable the rear bearer to observe the victim for any respiratory obstruction or
stoppage of breathing.

CHAPTER 6

KNOT TYING

Knots and ropes work, is the art of joining together pieces of such flexible material as rope and
of forming loops or designs in ropes, strings or fibers. It is one of the oldest human skills and
serves both utilitarian and decorative purposes.
DEFINE THE FOLLOWING TERMS

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a. Bight
• The term bight refers to any curved section, slack part, or loop between the two ends of a rope,
b. Running end
• The free end of the rope, usually shorter. This is the end of the rope in which a knot is being tied.
c. Standing part
• The part of the rope between the Running end and the Standing end (the end that doesn't
move, think of it as if someone is holding it)
d. Underhand loop
• A loop formed by passing the running end of a line under the standing part.
e. Overhand loop
• A loop formed by passing the running end of a line over the standing part.
f. Turn
A: Turn
B: Round turn
C: Two round turns

Turn
• A turn is a component of a knot. Turns can be made around objects, through rings, or around the
standing part of the rope itself. Turns come in various forms, distinguished by the number of
passes that the rope makes. A turn or single turn requires one pass. The line makes a U-shape
through or around the object, or half a revolution.
• A round turn requires two passes and makes one and a half revolutions.
• Two round turns adds another pass and revolution.

g. Bend
• A bend is used to tie two ropes together, as in the Sheet bend. Technically, even the Reef knot is
a bend
h. Hitch
• A hitch is used to tie a rope to a spar, ring or post, such as the Clove hitch. Hitches can also be
used to tie one rope ONTO another rope, as in the Rolling hitch.
i. Splice
• A knot formed by interweaving strands of rope rather than whole lines. More time consuming
but usually stronger than simple knots.

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j. Whipping
• A binding knot used to prevent another line from fray.

KNOW HOW TO CARE FOR ROPE.

• a. Keep the rope clean.

• b. Always coil a rope before storing it.
• c. Make sure wet rope is dry before coiling it.
• d. Return rope to its proper place after using it.

DESCRIBE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAID ROPE AND BRAIDED ROPE AND LIST THREE USES OF EACH.

In laid rope, three bundles of fiber or twine are twisted in the same direction, placed close to each
other, and allowed to twist together. In braided rope, the fibers are woven together, often around some
core material.

USES OF LAID ROPE

• Repels water
• Able to withstand immense strain.
• Can be spliced with standard techniques.

Uses of Braided Rope

• Works well with pulleys and rigging.

• Spinning (lariats and lassos).
• Decorative knots.

Identify the following types of rope:

a. Manila

Manila is a type of fiber obtained from the leaves of the abaca (Musa textiles), a relative of the
banana. It is mostly used to make ropes and it is one of the most durable of the natural fibers,
besides true hemp. Manila is a coarse, brown fiber, about the same color and feel as a coconut
shell.

b. Sisal

Sisal is valued for cordage use because of its strength, durability, ability to stretch, affinity for
certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration in saltwater. Sisal ropes and twines are widely
employed for marine, agricultural (bailing twine), and general industrial use. Sisal fibers are
smooth, straight and yellow and can be long or short.

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c. Nylon

Nylon rope is often white, but any color is possible. It has a smooth, silky feeling to it, and it coils
easily. Nylon rope does not float in water. It is a synthetic-fiber rope.

d. Polypropylene

Polypropylene rope is most often yellow, though any color is possible. It is often used in marine
applications because it floats in water. The rope is sometimes difficult to tie as it is somewhat
stiff and brittle. It is a synthetic-fiber rope.

The easiest way to make an initial identification of a rope is to visit a hardware store where rope is sold.
The packaging will tell you what the rope is made of. If you want to be sure, buy some of each type
(with the labeling) or examine it closely in the store.

SOME ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC ROPE

Advantages
• Improved abrasion-resistance
• Better UV-resistance
• Lighter
• Length does not vary as much when wet
• Rot-resistant
Disadvantages
• Some synthetics do not hold knots well
• More slippery
• Melts when heated
• Stretches more than natural ropes.

DO THE FOLLOWING TO ROPE:

a. Splice
A splice is used to join the ends of two ropes and results in the spliced part being about twice as
thick as the non spliced part. The short splice retains more of the rope strength than any knots
that join rope ends. It is tied using the same techniques as the eye splice (see below).

b. Eye splice

Use: The eye splice is the best method of creating a permanent loop in the end of multi
stranded rope by means of rope splicing. The ends of the rope are tucked (plaited) back into the

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 standing end to form the loop. Originally this splice was described with each end being tucked
only about three times. When the splice was made in tarred hemp or cotton this was reasonably
safe. With modern synthetic ropes, five complete tucks is a minimum and additional tucks are
recommended for critical loads

How to tie: The ends of the rope are first wrapped in tape or heated with a flame to prevent
each end from fraying completely. The rope is unlayed for a distance equal to three times the
diameter for each "tuck", e.g., for five tucks in half inch rope, undo about 7.5 inches. Wrap the
rope at that point to prevent it unwinding further. Form the loop and plait the three ends back
against the twist of the rope. Practice is required to keep each end retaining its twist and lie
neatly.
c. Back splice
A back splice (also called an end splice) is a splice where the strands of the end of the rope are
spliced directly back into the end without forming a loop. It is used to finish off the end of the
rope to keep it from fraying. The end of the rope with the splice is about twice the thickness of
the rest of the rope. Begin by unraveling the strands, and tie a crown knot. Then begin splicing
the rope onto itself as with the short splice.

FINISH THE END OF A ROPE WITH A DOUBLE CROWN, WHIPPING, OR A MATTHEW WALKER'S KNOT.

Double crown knot

Use: A double crown knot is a decorative knot tied on the end of a laid rope to prevent it from
unraveling.
How to tie: Tie a crown knot in the end of the rope.
Pull the three strands upwards, away from the standing part, and tie another crown knot.

Common whipping
Use: The common whipping is the simplest type of whipping knot, a series of knots intended to
stop a rope from unraveling. As it can slip off of the rope easily, the common whipping should
not be used for rope ends that will be handled. This whipping knot is also called 'wolf' whipping
in some parts of the world.

The benefit of a common whipping is that no tools are necessary and the rope does not need to
be unlayed. The problem is that it will slide off the end of the rope with little provocation. Other

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 whippings avoid this by interleaving the whipping with the strands of the rope and creating
friction with the strands to avoid slipping.

Normally a natural fiber rope is whipped with twine. The size of the rope dictates the size of the
twine. Any twine can be used, but tarred two strand hemp (marline) is preferred. Artificial-fiber
ropes should have their ends fused by heat rather than whipped to prevent unraveling.

How to tie:

The rope should be
whipped a short distance
(One and a half times the
diameter) from its end.
Lay the head of the twine
along the rope, make a
bight back along the rope
Begin wrapping the twine around
the rope and bight of twine
securely. Wrap until the whipping
is one and a half times wider than
the rope is thick.

Slip the working end of the Cut the twine flush with the
twine through the bight edges of the whipping and the
rope end not less than half its
width from the whipping to give
the rope end a finished look

Matthew Walker knot

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 Use: A Matthew Walker knot is a decorative knot that is used to keep the end of a rope from
fraying. It is tied by unraveling the strands of a twisted rope, knotting the strands together, then
laying up the strands together again. It may also be tied using several separate cords, in which
case it keeps the cords together in a bundle.
How to tie:
A Matthew Walker knot is tied in a circular bundle of any number of strands. To tie the knot, the
tier takes each strand and forms a loop around the rest of the bundle, then passes the end
through the newly-formed loop to form an overhand knot. He then moves to the next strand
over, moving around the bundle in the direction he passes the loops. Tying the first strand
around the bundle is straightforward, but each subsequent end must be passed through the
previously-formed loops in order to contain all of the other strands in its loop. When tightening,
it may help to roll the knot along the bundle, especially when using only two strands. The final
effect is a spiral knot vaguely resembling a section of a barber's pole.

MAKE A SIX-FOOT PIECE OF THREE-STRAND TWISTED ROPE FROM NATIVE MATERIALS OR TWINE

Rope-making apparatus
Making rope requires some simple apparatus which you can make yourself easily enough. The
first apparatus (we'll call it the twister) is used for twisting three strands of twine (or smaller
rope). When making the twister, clamp the two boards that form the handles together tightly
and drill three holes through both at the same time. This will ensure that they line up. The
hook/crank portion of the twister can be made from coat hanger wire. First make the two 90°
bends in the center, then pass them through the holes in the handles. Finally, form the hooks on
one end and the other 90° bend on the other. (This final bend prevents the crank from slipping
out of the holes in the handle).

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 As the strands are twisted, they will tend to grab one another and twist together. To make rope,
this tendency has to be controlled. This is done with a second apparatus (we'll call it the
separator). It consists of a board with three holes drilled in it, forming the points of an
equilateral triangle. These points should be at least six inches away from one another, and
should be large enough to pass the strands of twine through.

To make rope, cut three pieces of twine about 33% longer than the desired rope. Pass each
strand through a hole in the separator, then tie a non-slip loop in the end of each (a figure-eight
on a bight works well for this). We will call this end of the strands the free end. Slip these loops
over a hook of some sort, and pull the strands straight. Bunch the ends opposite the loops
together, and tie them off, again in a loop (and again, a figure-eight on a bight works well for
this). We will call this end the bound end. Make sure that the three strands are the same length
from one loop to the other. Hand the bound end to a helper, then attach the loops on the free
end to the hooks on the twister. Pull the twister away from the bound end (still affixed firmly to
another hook) until the strands are straight and tight. Then slide the separator towards the
common end. Start cranking the twister so that the hooks rotate. As you crank, your helper will
allow the three strands on his side of the separator to twist together. As they do this, the helper
will slide the separator towards you, going only as fast as the strands bind to one another. Be
careful to keep the strands tight as you do this so that they do not bind to one another on your
end of the separator. Continue twisting until the separator reaches the twister. Then tie a knot
in the free end of the rope, unhook it from the twister, and slide the separator off. Tie a stopper
knot, or bind the end with tape. Then cut off the few inches of untwisted strand that remain (or
make a back splice). Finish the opposite end in the same manner. Voila! You now have a rope!

FROM MEMORY TIE AT LEAST 20 OF THE FOLLOWING KNOTS AND KNOW THEIR COMMON USES AND
LIMITATIONS. DEMONSTRATE HOW THEY ARE USED

Anchor bend

Use: The Anchor Bend is a knot used for attaching a rope to a ring or similar termination.
How to tie:

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 Make two turns around a hitch.
Pass the running end around the standing end and beneath the two turns.
Finish with a half hitch on the standing end.

Bowline

Use: This knot doesn't jam or slip when tied properly. It can be tied around a victim's waist and used to
lift the victim, because the loop will not tighten under load. In sailing, the bowline is used to tie a
halyard to a sail head.
How to tie:
Make the overhand loop with the end held toward you, then pass end through loop.
Now pass end up behind the standing part, then down through the loop again.
Draw up tight.
BOWLINE ON A BIGHT

Use: This makes a secure loop in the middle of a rope which does not slip.
How to tie:
A bight is the middle part of the rope (not the ends)
• In the middle of a rope, form a small loop.
• Thread the bight through the loop.
• Spread out the bight a little.
• Pass this down and around the whole knot.
• Continue until it come back to the neck where it started.
• Tighten the bight to complete the knot.

BUTTERFLY LOOP KNOT OR ALPINE BUTTERFLY KNOT

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 Use: The Butterfly Loop has a high breaking strength and is
regarded by mountaineers as one of the strongest knots to
attach climbers to the middle of a rope, such that they have
room to move around even when the main rope goes tight,
and they can be supported in either direction from the main
rope. The loop is typically attached to a climbing harness by
carabineer. It can also be used to isolate a worn section of
rope, where the knot is tied such that the worn section is
used for the center of the loop.

Carrick bend

A fully interwoven diagonally opposed Carrick bend

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Use: The Carrick bend is used for joining two lines. It is particularly appropriate for very heavy rope or
cable that is too large and stiff to easily be formed into other common bends. It will not jam even after
carrying a significant load or being soaked with water. The Carrick bend's aesthetically pleasing
interwoven and symmetrical shape has also made it popular for decorative purposes.

In the interest of making the Carrick bend easier to untie, especially when tied in extremely large rope,
the ends may be seized to prevent the knot from collapsing when load is applied. This practice also
keeps the knot's profile flatter and can ease its passage over capstans or winches.

The ends are traditionally seized to their standing part using a Round seizing. For expediency, a series of
double constrictor knots, drawn very tight, may also be used. When seizing the Carrick bend, both ends
must be secured to their standing parts or the bend will slip.

WARNING: The Carrick bend is generally tied in a flat interwoven form shown above. Without
additional measures it will capsize (collapse) under load into a secure and stable, although bulky, form.
If the knot is allowed to capsize naturally under tension, considerable slippage of line through the knot
can occur before tightening. The knot should be upset carefully into the capsized form and worked up
tight before actual use

Cat's paw

Use: The Cat's paw is used for connecting a rope to an object.

Attaching a rope to a hook (or to a post or rail where the load is perpendicular to the post) with
more security than a simple girth hitch.
Joining an eye to a ring.
Strongly joining eyes in the ends of two lines, where there is access to the end of at least one
line.

How to tie:
Method 1
Form a bight in the middle of the line, and pull it back over itself like a girth hitch. This forms two
loops, turned in opposite directions. Give each loop one more full turn in the direction that will
tend to tighten it (the wrong direction will undo the loop completely). Pass both loops over the
hook, rail or post and pull tight, taking care to push the bight up snugly against the turns.
Method 2
If working end of the line has an eye in it, and the standing end is accessible, the knot can be tied
to a closed ring, another eye, or a rail with inaccessible ends, as follows. Pass the eye around the
ring or rail, then pass the standing end through its own eye (this effectively forms a girth hitch).
Then pass the standing end through the eye again, and pull up tight, taking care to push the
bight up snugly against the turns.

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 When using the cat's paw to join two eyes, this process may be repeated several times to give
several turns - as many as five in a fine fishing monofilament. Then when tightened, instead of
pulling the bight up against the turns, both eyes are pulled equally, to make neat coils of turns in
both eyes, meeting halfway between them.

Clove hitch

Use: This knot is the "general utility" hitch for when you need a quick, simple method of fastening a
rope around a post, spar or stake.
How to tie:
• Make a turn with the rope around the object and over itself.
• Take a second turn with the rope around the object.
• Pull the end up under the second turn so it is between the rope and the object. Tighten by
pulling on both ends.

Constrictor knot

Use: The Constrictor knot is one of the most effective binding knots. Simple and secure, it is a harsh knot
which can be difficult or impossible to untie once tightened. It is made similarly to a clove hitch but
with one end passed under the other, forming an overhand knot under a riding turn.
How to tie:
• Make a turn around the object and bring the working end back over the standing part.
• Continue around behind the object.
• Pass the working end over the standing part and then under the riding turn and standing part,
forming an overhand knot under a riding turn.
• Be sure the ends emerge between the two turns as shown. Pull firmly on the ends to tighten.

WARNING: The Constrictor knot's severe bite, which makes it so effective, can damage or disfigure
items it is tied around.

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Crown knot
Use: Used a component in a back splice and in the double crown knot. Can be used to temporarily
prevent the ends of a laid rope from unraveling.
How to tie:
• Make a constriction around the rope about 7.5 cm from the end. You can constrict it by tying a
constrictor knot around the rope with a bit of twine, or you can tape it.
• Unravel the end of the rope all the way to the constriction.
• Bind the ends of the strands with tape to keep them from unraveling.
• Double one strand (strand A) over itself and lay it between the other two (strands B and C),
leaving a loop in its center.
• Pull strand B over the end of strand A and lay it between strands A and C.
• Pass strand C through the loop made in strand A.
• Tighten all three strands carefully.

Double bow

How to tie:
• Make a loop with the running end crossing over the
standing end.
• Make a larger loop that passes over the first loop, again
with the running end passing over the standing end.
• Pass the running end through the first loop from the
bottom.
• Wrap the running end behind the standing end, and
back down through the first loop.
• Tighten

Figure eight

Use: This knot is ideal for keeping the end of a rope from running out of tackle or pulley.
How to tie:

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 • Make underhand loop, bringing end around and over the standing part.
• Pass end under, then up through the loop.
• Draw up tight.

Fisherman's bend

How to tie:
To tie the fisherman's knot, lay the two ends to be tied alongside each other and facing opposite
ways. Tie an overhand knot on the first rope and pass the second rope through the loop formed.
Tighten the overhand knot, to prevent the line inside it from flopping around. Then tie another
overhand knot on the second rope with the first rope passing through it.

Fisherman's loop

Use: The fisherman's loop makes a non-slip loop at the end of a rope.
How to tie:
This knot is the same as a fisherman's bend, except that instead of joining two ropes together, a single
rope is doubled over and then joined to itself forming a loop.

Halter hitch
Use: The halter hitch is used to tie the lead rope, which is attached to a horse's halter, to a post
or hitching rail. The benefit of the halter hitch is that it can be released by pulling on one end of
the rope. Even if there is tension on the horse-side of the rope it can still be release with ease.
Create a bight in the working end of the rope. The bight is then passed in front of the main loop and
into the second loop.

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How to tie:

Create a bight in the Tighten the hitch by

Pass the working end of Pass the working end working end of the pulling on the
the rope over the behind the loop rope. The bight is then standing end and the
standing part passed in front of the bight. The hitch can
main loop and into the be finished by passing
second loop. the working end
through the bight.

Hunter's bend

Use: The Hunter's bend (aka Rigger's bend) is used to join two lines. It consists of interlocking
overhand knots, and can jam under moderate strain. Hunter's bend is one of the most recent
knots to be discovered. It appeared on the front page of The Times in 1978 and was credited to
Dr. Edward Hunter. Dr. Hunter used it for years to tie broken shoelaces before discovering its
originality through a friend in the 1970s. When it appeared on the front page, it led to much
publicity for the knot and also to the foundation of the International Guild of Knot Tyers.
However, the knot was presented in Knots for Mountaineering by Phil Smith ca. 1956.

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Lariat or Bowstring knot

Use: A lariat knot is the loop knot commonly used in a lasso. Its round shape, especially when tied in
stiff rope, helps it slide freely along the rope it is tied around.
How to tie:
• Place an overhand knot in the end of the rope.
• Tie a second overhand knot, pass the rope end through it, and tighten

Lark's head

Use: The lark's head is a knot (specifically, a hitch). Also called a cow hitch, it comprises two half-hitches
tied in opposing directions. The cow hitch is often used to connect loop-ended lanyards to handheld
electronic equipment, since it can be tied without access to the ends of the fastening loop.
How to tie:
When both the standing parts of the rope are available, the cow hitch can be tied in the following
manner:
• Form a bight and pass it through the ring from the underneath.
• Pull the head of the bight downwards, and reach through it, grabbing both standing parts of the
rope.
• Pull both standing parts of the rope through the bight.

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Man harness knot

Use: The Man harness is a knot with a loop on the bight for non-critical purposes. This knot is used when multiple
people are to pull a load. Typically one end of the rope is tied to a load, and one man harness knot per puller will
be tied along its length. Each loop is then pulled by a different person.
How to tie:
• Lay the rope flat
• Make a loop in the rope with the running end going beneath the standing part.
• Pull the running end down so that it crosses over the loop.
• Pull the bottom of the loop through the gap between the top of the loop and the running end.

WARNING: The Man harness knot must have the loop loaded or it will slip and contract easily.

Miller's knot

Use: A Miller's knot (also Sack knot or Bag knot) is a binding knot used to secure the opening of a sack
or bag. Historically, large sacks often contained grains; thus the association of these knots with the
miller's trade. Several knots are known interchangeably by these three names. Several variations
are shown here.

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 This is another depiction of the knot This knot is also a This variation is
shown above. useful hitch and is noted as having
known by the name better binding
Ground-line hitch characteristics than
when used for that the others.
purpose.

Packer's knot

Use: The Packer's Knot is a binding knot usually

used in smaller line. This knot is sometimes used in
baling and in parcel tying.
How to tie:
• Make a figure eight not near the standing
end of the rope. Wrap the running end
around the "parcel" and pass it through the
top loop of the "eight" following the same
path as standing end.
• Make a loop in the running end and pass the
standing end through it.
• Tighten.

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Pipe hitch

Use: The pipe hitch is used for hoisting tubular objects (such as pipes).

How to tie:
• Make four or five turns around the pipe with the rope.
• Bring the running end back to the standing part.
• Tie two half-hitches around the standing part.

Prusik knot

Use: A Prusik (aka Prussik or Prussic) is a friction hitch used in climbing, canyoneering, caving, rope
rescue and by arborists to grab a rope (sometimes referred to as a rope-grab). The term Prusik is
used both for the knot, for the loops of cord, and for the action (to prusik).

A Prusik rope is a circular loop with a circumference of 20 to 100 cm depending on its intended use. Two
Prusik ropes are tied to another rope which is anchored above. When the Prusik knot is under tension, it
grabs the rope to which it is tied. When not under tension, it is easily moved. The climber places one
foot into each loop, and shifts all of his or her weight to one of them, releasing the tension on the other.
The rope without tension is then slid upwards on the vertical rope. The climber the shifts his or her
weight to the other loop and slides the first one up. This is repeated until the rope has been ascended.

Prusiks will work around two ropes, even two ropes of different diameters. Prusiks provide a high-
strength and relatively fail-safe (i.e., they will slip before damaging the rope or breaking) attachment,
and are used in some rope-rescue techniques. Prusiks are good to use in hauling systems where
multiple rope-grabs may be needed, and where mechanical rope-grabs are not available.

Although the Prusik Climb technique may be called old-school by some, the US Army still includes it in
its annual Best Ranger competition. Rangers in the competition routinely make it up a 90 foot rope in
under a minute.

How to tie:
The Prusik is tied by wrapping the prusik loop around the rope a number of times (depending on the

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materials, but usually 3-5 times), and then back through itself, forming a barrel around the rope, with a
tail hanging out the middle. When the tail is weighted the turns tighten around the main rope and grab.
When weight is removed the loop can be slid along the rope by placing a hand directly on the barrel and
pushing. The trick is, if it grabs well, then it is hard to slide along the rope. Breaking the Prusik free from
the rope after it has been weighted can be difficult, and is easiest done by pushing the bow, being the
loop of cord which runs from the top wrap, over the knot to the bottom wrap, along the tail a little. This
loosens the grip of the hitch and makes movement easier.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Locked while Slides readily

holding tension. without tension.

Sheepshank

Use: The sheet bend knot is excellent for joining two ropes together, especially if the two ropes are
not the same size. When tied properly, it will not come undone, and it is easy to untie. It is very
similar to the bowline.
How to tie:
• Make a bight at the end of the larger rope (if they are not the same size).
• Run the end of the smaller rope through the bight, entering from the bottom.
• Wrap the end of small rope around the back of the large rope, crossing the short end of the
large rope first.
• Tuck the end of the short rope under itself, on top of the bight.

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Slip knot
Use: A slip knot is one that will tighten under load, and which can
be easily untied by pulling on the running end. This knot is
typically a component of more complicated knots, and is
generally not used by itself.

How to tie:
• A slip knot can be tied by starting an overhand knot, but
instead of passing the running end through the loop, pass a
bight through instead.
•
WARNING: If tied as shown in the illustration, the running end (on
the right) will pull through the loop if even the slightest load is
applied to the standing end (on the left). If one reverses the
standing end and running ends in the illustration, the knot is far
more stable. As shown, the knot will hold a load on the running
end, but not on the standing end.

Slipped half hitch

Use: The slipped sheet bend is used in non-critical situations for

temporarily joining two ropes.
How to tie:
Start the same as in tying a regular sheet bend, only pass a bight (light
blue in the illustration) under the last rope (dark blue) instead of passing
the running end under.

WARNING: The slightest tug on the running end will untie this knot
instantly - even if the knot is under load..

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 Square knot
Use: Also known as Reef knot - The Square Knot is easily learned
and useful for many situations. It is most commonly used to tie
two lines together at the ends. This knot is used at sea in reefing
and furling sails. It is used in first aid to tie off a bandage.
How to tie:
• Pass left and over and under right end.
• Curve what is now the left end toward the right and cross
what is now the right end over and under the left.
• Draw up tight.

WARNING: Do not rely on this knot to hold weight in a life or

death situation. It has been known to fail.

Stevedore's knot

Finished stevedore knot

Stevedore knot before tightening

Use: The Stevedore knot is a stopper knot, often tied near the end of a rope. It is more bulky and less prone to
jamming than the closely related figure-eight knot. This knot is excellent for anchoring a tarp. Pass the
end of the rope through a tarp's grommet, tie a stevedore, and anchor the other end with a taut-line
hitch. Its added bulk prevents it from pulling through the grommet.
How to tie:
The knot is formed by following the steps to make a figure-eight knot, but the working end makes an
additional round turn around the standing part before the end passes back through the initial loop.

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 Strangle knot

Use: The Strangle knot is a simple binding knot. Similar to the constrictor knot, it also features an
overhand knot under a riding turn. The difference is that the ends emerge at the outside edges,
rather than between the turns as for a constrictor. This knot is actually a rearranged double
overhand knot and makes up each half of the double fisherman's knot.

Black wall hitch

This is used for quickly attaching a rope to a hook. Pass a loop over the hook so that the
standing part passes over the end. When the rope is pulled lightly, the end is secure.

Carrick Bend
Used for binding two hauling lines together. To make this knot form a bight by laying the end of
the rope on top of and across the standing part. Then take the end of the other rope and pass it
through the bight first down, then top over the cross and down through the bight again, so that
it comes out on the opposite side from the other end thus bring one end on top and below as in
the illustration. If the lines are very stiff or heavy, the knot maybe secured by fastening the end
of the standing part.

Granny Knot
This knot is slightly similar to the square knot. It is used to tie bundles of wood together
especially in the camps.

Josephine’s Knot
Used to join two ropes of the same thickness.

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Surgeon's knot

Use: The surgeon's knot is similar to a square knot, except that the first stage is doubled. This helps the knot
stay tight while it is being tied

Tautline hitch

Use: The Taut Line Hitch is an adjustable loop knot for use on lines under tension. It is useful when the
length of a line will need to be periodically adjusted in order to maintain tension. It is made by
tying a Rolling hitch around the standing part after passing around an anchor object. Tension is
maintained by sliding the hitch to adjust size of the loop, thus changing the effective length of the
standing part without retying the knot. It is typically used for securing tent lines in outdoor activities
involving camping, by arborists when climbing trees, for creating adjustable moorings in tidal
areas, and to secure loads on vehicles. A versatile knot, the Taut-line hitch was even used by
astronauts during STS-82, the second Space Shuttle mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope.

How to tie:
• Pass the working end around the anchor object. Bring it back along side of the standing part and
make a half-hitch around the standing part.
• Continue with another wrap inside the loop, effectively making a round turn around the
standing part.
• Complete with a half-hitch outside the loop, made in the same direction as the first two wraps,
as for a clove hitch.
• Dress by snuggling the hitch firmly around the standing part. Load slowly and adjust as
necessary.

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Timber hitch

Use: The timber hitch is a knot used to attach a single length of rope to a piece of wood. This knot is
easily undone after use.
How to tie:
• To make the knot, pass the rope completely around the wood.
• Pass the running end around the standing part, then through the loop that you have just formed.
• Make three turns around the loop then pull on the standing part to tighten.
• Take care that you double the rope back on itself before making the three turns, or it won't hold.
• Three are recommended for natural rope such as jute, whereas five turns are needed on
synthetic rope like nylon.
• This knot is also known as the Bowyer's Knot as it is used to attach the lower end of the
bowstring to the bottom limb on an English Longbow.

Two half hitches

Use: This reliable knot is quickly tied and is the hitch most often used in mooring.
How to tie:
• Pass end of rope around post or other object.
• Wrap short end of rope under and over long part of rope, pushing the end down through the
loop. This is a half hitch.
• Repeat on long rope below first half hitch and draw up tight.

Kindly show "Why Knot? an introduction to knots, splices & rope"

DVD and rope available through AdventSource.org. Every
requirement is completely covered by this resource.
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