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Review on design and manufacturing of wind turbine for renewable energy

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Review on design and manufacturing
of wind turbine for renewable energy
applications
Cite as: AIP Conference Proceedings 2776, 050002 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0136639
Published Online: 12 April 2023

Dhuha Albusalih, Zaid Duliami and Ali Najah Al-Shamani

AIP Conference Proceedings 2776, 050002 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0136639 2776, 050002

© 2023 Author(s).
 Review on Design and Manufacturing of Wind Turbine for
Renewable Energy Applications

Dhuha Albusalih a), Zaid Duliamib) and Ali Najah Al-Shamanic)

Al-Furat Al-Awsat Technical University, Kufa, Iraq

a)
Corresponding author: dhuha.kleef@atu.edu.iq
b)
duliamizm@atu.edu.iq
c)
alshamani@atu.edu.iq

Abstract. As a global concern to look for climate variation, many countries have the target of a clear “net zero” through
developing the renewable-energy. One of the sources is the offshore wind turbine, which has received special
consideration from a number of countries and companies. However, wind turbine offshore design experiences challenges
due to the large and complex design parameter space as well as different operational requirements and environmental
conditions. The technology of advanced optimization should be implemented to consider these challenges. Additionally,
the materials of the wind turbine should be considered. This review presents a short overview of the categories and
fundamental principles of many optimization technologies and their application in the design process. The review shows
the offshore wind turbine structures. The review presents the composite materials used for wind turbine blades, including
the traditional composites (glass fibers/epoxy matrix composites), natural composites, hybrid and nano engineered
composites. Manufacturing technologies for wind turbine composites were also reviewed

Keywords. offshore wind turbine; design parameter; optimization algorithm

INTRODUCTION

Globally, there is a rising demand for energy. This has led to overexploitation of rudimentary energy sources,
such as fossil fuels, beyond their safe limits. The situation has been brought about by an increase in global
population, economic growth and industrialization which have had a consequent impact on the global energy and
power demands. Therefore, to counter this situation, various countries are over-utilizing the existing energy sources
to their capacity at the expense of environment, human welfare and generally the balance of ecosystem. Notably,
global energy review (2021) reveals that the carbon emissions are expected to jump to 1.5 billion tones in 2022 as
the demand for fossil fuels is on course to shoot (1). This will be occasioned by the global dire need to recover
economies which had sluggishly grown since the record of the first Covid-19 pandemic case.
Due to the rising global environmental and ecological concerns, the use of renewable energy is necessary. The
push for renewable energy use is due the challenges posed by the existing energy sources such as diesel engines and
the consequent continuous diminishing of fossil fuel sources such as the oil reserves. Some of these challenges
include climate change due to massive greenhouse gas emissions which slowly cause global warming. Also, the

1st International Conference on Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

AIP Conf. Proc. 2776, 050002-1–050002-10; https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0136639
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-4441-6/$30.00

050002-1
search for more and more energy output to meet the highly ballooned demands has led social and ecological
whereby human beings are forced to relocate their homes or indirectly affected by energy generation side effects (2).
Furthermore, excessive exploitation of fossil fuels for energy generation leads to ecological habitat deterioration
hence leading to imbalance in the ecosystem (3).
Thus, energy sector players have been forced to explore renewable energy options as sources of energy.
Significantly, renewable is a slowly but surely growing power source promise for the future. Essentially, renewable
energy refers to the energy that is acquired from the natural resources that are constantly and continuously
replenished (4). These energy sources include but not limited to wind energy, solar energy, biomass energy and
hydropower energy, amongst others. These are innovative solutions to the energy crisis globally and are
characterized by low energy costs while displacing the dirty fossil fuel sources thus solutions to the massive carbon
emissions (5).
Wind energy is one such perfect solution to the energy sector. This technology has undergone tremendous
growth and improvements starting from the old-fashioned wind-mills to the current technologies which are diverse
in nature and efficiency. However, opportunities for investment and developments still exist in this line (6). Thus,
research scientists and engineers are continuously coming up with novel ideas and norm-breaking techniques in the
wind energy sector to make existing systems even better. Basically, wind energy is generated from the wind turbine
which is characterized by wind rotor blades, drive shaft, gear box, generator and supply cables. While in use,
moving air or wind turns the blades of the turbine which feeds into electric generator and subsequently produce
electricity. The turbines are located on open areas with free flow of air away from any possible barriers such as tall
trees and buildings, including onshore locations.
Depending on the size of power demand, one or several wind turbines can be erected in a given locality called a
wind farm (7). Essentially, wind farm refers to a group of wind turbines located in the same place and used for
electrical generation. The turbines vary from few turbines to thousands of turbines in an extensive area. This
includes both the onshore and offshore places. The wind farms have been highly encouraged because of less impact
on the environment. However, critics have been labeled against this renewable energy source due to large land area
use and poor visual impact on the natural beauty of an area.

Therefore, this paper provides a review on the significance of wind energy and novel manufacturing and design
of wind farm for renewable energy applications. The review starts with the significance of wind energy and then the
illustration of aerodynamic design and makes issues that provides for optimization therein.

Aerodynamic Issues of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are faced with some design issues and opportunities for improvement and optimization. First,
wind turbines are characterized by extremely high turbulence and wind shear thus operate in highly unsteady
conditions. This is attributable to the frequently changing wind direction and speeds (8). Secondly, the air flow over
the wind turbine blade is not the type that aerodynamicists could consider as linear since the flow is not over a fixed
wing. Thus, such flow scenarios present an interesting modeling problems as related simulations need to be carried
out in an iterative manner thus highly complex to interpret. Third, there are more sever interactions in which the
wind turbine undergoes due to the tower or imposed by other turbines in a wind power. For example, a downward
turbine’s rotor blade experience a dynamic wake produced by the tower and the blade goes through this in every
revolution hence deter its efficiency (9).
On the other hand, those turbines in the wind farm operate in complex wakes due to other running turbines.
Fourth, wind turbine’s normally encounter high blade angle of attack. Furthermore, wind turbines are characterized
by deep static stall and dynamic stall often as opposed to fixed wing. Finally, wind turbine experiments are quite
unsteady. This is because of highly unsteady operational environments which demands the use of sophisticated data
acquisition system to ensure appropriate dynamic response (10). The unsteady environments also make the acquired
data difficult to resolve into their distinct elements or aspects.

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 Types Wind Turbines Designs

Generally, there two basic wind turbines used for electricity generation: vertical-axis and horizontal-axis wind
turbines. . Many types of wind turbines are available. According to the orientation of their axis of orientation, wind
turbines can be classified into two main types that are horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) and vertical axis wind
turbines (VAWTs), see figure 1. Vertical axis wind turbine was developed d in parallel with HAWTs that was less
considered and financially supported. Also, the tidal current power conversion for the vertical wind turbines are
more favored in work and was used in many countries (11).

FIGURE 1: Vertical-axis and Horizontal- axis wind turbines (11)

Vertical-Axis Wind Turbine

For this class of wind turbines, the main rotor shaft is set at right angles but necessarily vertical to the direction
of the wind. The main components are found on the turbine base (12). The entire assembly serves to ensure that the
gearbox and generator are located close to the ground, thus easy access and services on a need basis. This category
of wind turbines is not necessarily pointed to the wind, thus avoiding the need for wind-sensing and orientation
mechanisms. The initial designs of a vertical-axis wind turbine were characterized by high torque variations on
successive rotations and large bending moments. As such, research and design optimizations were carried out to
counter these drawbacks. This resulted in the adoption and integration of the Gorlov type of turbine, which is a
commonly used rotor for water turbines (13). This is an inclined or helically swept rotor that helps to reduce torque
variations and lower the bending moments.
Some of the advantages of this category of turbines include its insensitivity to the wind direction hence avoiding
the inclusion of wind sensing mechanisms and motors to pitch the blades and yaw the rotor (14). Also, there is ease
in accessing, servicing and replacing gearbox and generators when the need arises. Finally, it is possible to use this
in locations that are not preferable to use horizontal-axis category of turbines such as slow wind ground level
contexts hence a complementary type of turbine (15).
On the downside, vertical-axis rotors are vulnerable to the dynamic stall of blades since the angle of attack
changes significantly (16). The blades in this category of turbines are highly exposed to fatigue because of the
excessive variations in the applied forces during each rotation. However, recent designs have overcome this through
the use of composite materials to enhance the strength of the blades to withstand such shock loads. Also, designs
have been improved to counter this challenge. An example of a design shift is the utilization of aerodynamic
wingtips. This is significant because it causes the spreader wing connections to develop the static loads. Finally, the
vertical-axis types of turbines have been seen to be non-reliable compared to the horizontal type of turbines.
However, such drawbacks have been solved through design augmentation and optimization.

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 Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines

In today's world, horizontal axis wind turbines are the most often employed kind of wind energy generator.
Horizontal Axial Wind Turbine HAWTs are powered by a rotor with aerodynamic blades that may be aligned either
upwind or downwind. This category of turbines normally comprises two- or three blades. Their operation is
characterized by high blade tip speeds based on the individual turbine design in this category. Notably, those
machines that encompass upwind rotors require yaw to assist them in orienting themselves towards the wind (17).
On the other hand, those machines with downwind rotors are made of coned blades, which aids the turbine to
independently position itself. One disadvantage of downwind rotors is that they have been known to 'wander' about
while attempting to match up with winds during low wind speed situations, reducing the amount of energy produced
during low wind speed conditions. (18).
Current HAWTs employ lift forces of aerodynamics to spin the rotor blades, in the same manner as to how an
aircraft flies, to propel them forward. The following is a broad description of how the lift force works. When a blade
is exposed to the wind, air flows around both the top and bottom sections of the blade simultaneously. Because of
the blade's curvature, air flows over the top of the blade more rapidly than it does over the bottom section. This
results in a low-pressure region on the topside of the blade. The difference in pressure formed between the two sides
of the blade results in a force acting in the direction of the top of the blade when the blade is cut.
The lift force works in at right angles to the 'relative wind' blowing on the blades of the turbine (19). Actually,
the force of the lift outweighs and outperforms the drag, which operates in tandem with the flow of air. This permits
blades to revolve at speeds that would be impossible to attain solely via drag forces. Even though some wind
turbines generate energy by the utilization of the drag force, the majority of high-altitude wind turbines are intended
to decrease drag whereas increasing lift.
HAWT class of turbines is characterized by some of the key advantages as follows:
1. The designs of HAWTs are stable and widely accepted commercially. Notably, most large commercial
turbines are made of three-blade horizontal-axis blades.
2. This category of turbines has a lower cut in the velocity of wind with a larger power coefficient leading to
the high overall efficiency of the system.
3. These designs allow room for the use of tall towers to maximize better wind potential at higher altitudes.
4. This design provides for higher control on the attack angle. The angle of attack can be made optimal
through the use of variable blade pitching.
On the downside, HAWTs are made of some weaknesses:
1. This type of turbine requires the integration of yaw drives for the orientation of the blades to the direction
of the wind.
2. The drive elements such as gearbox and generator are located at higher positions in the tower hence the
need for strong support, making it expensive and complex. The heavy units of the generator and gearbox are to be
placed over the tall tower, which requires stronger structural support. This makes the HAWTs more complex and
expensive.
3. This type of turbine employs tall towers, which are expensive and complex.

Geometric Optimization of vertical-axis wind turbineVAWTs

This optimization process was carried out mainly to try and find out the possibility of improving the blade
geometry so as to take advantage of drag and lift for generating torque. Several hybrid designs that combine the
efficiencies provided by the drag and lift designs have been explored previously (20, 21). The current design
combines both drag and lift effects and includes a novel asymmetric shield. This new feature helps to improve the
efficiency of VAWTs by shrouding the returning blades hence reducing negative torque that could have otherwise
been generated. The combined effect of drag and lift is evident through a change in motion of blades from being
perpendicular to the wind where drag is the dominant force to a scenario where the motion of blades are parallel to
the wind flow and in this instance, lift force is the dominant force (22).

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 Overview of Materials of Wind Turbine Blades

Materials

Blades are crucial parts of the wind turbine and, by extension, the costliest in terms of design and manufacture.
Any failure or inefficiency on this aspect renders the overall non-fit for usage. Proper material choice has played a
significant role in producing wind energy gear.

The common material that was utilized for earlier turbine blades is steel. This material has its fair share of issues
and shortcomings, with some of the steel blades collapsing within hours of intermittent usage. Such failures forced
the study of creating composites blades (23). A great example of the first success story of the composite wind
turbine blade is the Gedser wind turbine, whose material composition comprised steel spars and aluminum shells.
The two were supported by wooden ribs. Impressively, Gedser blades were utilized for up to 11 years without
failure and maintenance. Composites materials were employed recently for use in order to counter the challenges of
use of steel materials. The biggest design challenge that necessitate the use of composite materials is the fatigue.
Most of the composites materials that were employed for manufacture of the blades are made up of two materials,
that is, matrix or the binder and the reinforcement materials. The matrix serves to create a dispersion of the
reinforcement materials such as fibers, stamp and particulates. It also helps to transfer the tension force that is
arriving at the matrix to the reinforcement materials that bears and accommodates it (23). The recent rotor blades are
constructed using composite materials which mainly encompass fiberglass and polyester, or fiberglass and epoxy.
Sometimes, the make of these turbines include wood and carbon composite. There is a recent technology
advancement which has attracted the use of novel composites which include glass fiber-reinforced plastics which are
characterized by good fatigue strength at low cost such better corrosion resistance, good mechanical resistance and
tolerance of high temperatures. The composite stiffness is found by knowing the fiber stiffness and their volume
fraction. Usually, E-glass fibers are used as reinforcement in the composite that is used in wind turbine because of
its high electric resistance. Increasing the volume fraction of fiber in the composite, results in an increase in
stiffness, tensile and compression strength (up to 65% fiber content). Beyond this percentage dry areas might be
produced that results in a reduction in fatigue strength (24).
Usually, the composites of the glass/epoxy composites used for wind blades includes glass up to 75 wt. %.
Research conducted to develop the fiber use as reinforcement in the composite that give higher strength than E-glass
fiber. S-glass, R-glass, carbon fibers and basalt and aramid fibers suggested as a high strength fiber to be added to
the composite. S-glass with 40% higher compressive strength and flexural modulus has used as a replacement to E-
glass due their higher properties in comparison with E-glass fiber (25, 26). Currently, carbon/glass hybrid
composites are used for wind turbine manufacturing (27). The addition of nano reinforcement in the composite
results in an improvement of the overall composites properties. Many works conducted by the addition of nanotubes
of carbon or nanoclay (of 0.5wt (26) in the polymer matrix of composites. The layers of the interlaminar or fiber
permits the composite enhancement the fatigue resistance, shear or compressive strength and fracture toughness up
to 30–80% (27, 28). A number of studies demonstrated that the carbon and graphene nanoparticles incorporation to
the matrix of the wind turbine blade results in enhancement the life time and other mechanical properties (29-31).

Blades Manufacturing Process

Initially, the blades production process entails employing wet hand lay-up technology, a standard technique in
open molds—the method here is the employment of paintbrushes and rollers to saturate glass-fiber reinforcements.
Finally, the shells were glued together adhesively. The downside of this method is the low-quality products and
expensive labour expenses (32).
Later, vacuum infusion and prepreg technologies were added, which boosted the quality of the production
process. This technique was borrowed from the airplane technology, and its base for usage relies on pre-impregnated
composite fibers. The current production process is resin infusion technology, wherein fibers are inserted in sealed
and closed moulds. The resin is subsequently forced into the mold under pressure. After that, the mold is treated
with heat (33).

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 DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF TURBINE SUPPORT STRUCTURES

Wind turbines require a highly stable system of anchor due to their highly fluctuating and irregular applied loads.
The design for the worst case scenario principle has proven insufficient for such operating environments. Thus, the
need for optimized tower systems to anchor the turbine is an unavoidable necessity. The advancement of structural
analysis has developed in equal measure with structural optimization (34). To this effect, several optimal design
solutions for towers and foundation support structures have been tried to counter the current operating challenges
and achieve efficient and productive turbine use. Some have failed while others have achieved significant results.
Notably, computer-aided optimization techniques have become one of the bankable solutions to the design
optimization challenge. This method is critical in that it allows for consideration of wide range of possible and non-
obvious scenarios which are limited in human and manual optimizations (35). Some of the reasons that have fueled
this move are shifts from onshore to offshore wind farms which require more complex designs and optimization of
the support structures especially for the deeper waters (36). Moreover, the sizes of turbines have grown significantly
over the years in the bid to maximize turbine efficiency and energy production. Such shifts in turbine designs have
encouraged vulnerability to shocks and excitations from wave and wind loads. Thus, this has necessitated the change
of structural make and designs of towers and foundations (37).

Structural Optimization - Static Analysis

The static loads, also called the dead weights, refers to cumulative weights of the turbine materials and assembly
including those of the support structures, that is, tower and foundation assemblies. Structural optimization
techniques have focused on providing solution to static challenges due to the static loads. The typical static
challenge is to reduce static weights as much as it is optimally possible while retaining the design integrity of the
structures. The weight of these structures can be possibly achieved through the iterative variations of the parameters
that define its geometry (38). The typical parameters include the diameters and thickness of various elements within
the assembly. On the other hand, structural stiffness can be maximized to achieve the same strength with minimized
geometric parameters (39, 40).
In order to adequately solve this problem, nonlinear programming functions are applied to ensure iterative
computations. The common method that is applied in this case is the sequential linear programming whose common
improvement is the method of moving asymptotes (41). To be able to effectively use this method, gradient
information should be available. Therefore, this method stresses the essence of constraint approximations and
sensitivity derivatives (42). This method has been proven to produce the tower designs with minimal weights and
optimal working budgets without compromising on the strength integrity of the individual elements (43).

Structural Optimization – Transient Loads

The optimization of turbine structure in relation to transient loads is an area which has not been developed
sufficiently. The principle approach to this optimization process is constraint based; this is where the specific
constraints have to be appreciated at each instance of time. The optimization model developed here comprises of
several constraint equations each focusing on any possible unforeseen transient shocks or loads. The equivalent
static loads method can be employed to reduce the dissect the problem and reduce it to few static optimization
problems whereby analytical problems are easily obtainable. The static optimization problems are combined to be
able to get the approximate values of the real sensitivities (44).
The transient load optimization process is crucial for a tower design especially when designing for combined
effects of wind and wave loadings. In this regard, damping is part of the design calculations. Damping could be of
various types which include structural damping, aerodynamic damping, hydrodynamic damping and soil damping.
The aerodynamic damping is of greatest concern because good provisions of the other types of damping eventually
lead to no aerodynamic motions and vibrations. This is attainable through the use of improved versions of blade
element momentum theory (45).

050002-6
 Structural Optimization- Frequency-Domain Analysis

This is where analysis of performance of the structures is carried out based on frequency rather than time. It
advantageous in that it takes less computational cost as compared with time-dependent analysis. On this approach,
several research has been carried out which mainly combines Genetic-Algorithm (GA) and parametric Finite-
Element Analysis (FEA). First, Gentils et al. (46) did a research whereby they came up with a model for a
substructure for wind turbine structure used offshore through the combination of GA and FEA. This model helped to
modify and optimize the parts of the support structure, including the tower, monopile and grout. On the other hand,
Pasamontes et al. (47) utilized GA model to optimize the structure design of support upwind jacket structures.
The assessment carried out in that work was on effect of fatigue which was done for the all the joints in the
structures by applying the hot-spot stress method where the performance constraints were applied. The concept of
GA was expanded by Häusler and Owman (48) to optimize other salient but not normally considered structural
factors including electrical connection and the selection of the sites. The basis to the optimization that was carried
out using GA in this aspect was investment cost. Also, Chew and fellow researchers carried out a research to
determine the optimization between the four-legged and three-legged structures used for supporting the wind turbine
mast (49-52). The findings of their research revealed advantages of using three-legged support structure over four-
legged support structure on the basis of an economic viewpoint. Later optimizations in terms of research improved
on the performance and efficiency of OC4 jacket support structure (53). These researchers tried the gradient-based
approach to explore the optimization of wind turbine with reference to fatigue criteria (54). Subsequently, the
optimization of the OC4 jacket support structure was later improved through the use OC4 jacket support structure
and linear programming method to bring about the mass optimization for this type of turbine (55).

Structural Optimization-Particle Swarm Algorithm (PSA)

The PSA model finds its roots in the predation behavior of fish and birds, and their peculiar cooperation when
they are flying for food thus optimal attainment of their goal. This method is characterized by few parameters that
need to be adjusted each time hence simple and faster to use. Literature suggests that this method is one hot-spot
method as it includes the application of intelligence without overlapping calculations carried out (56). The PSA
model was applied for blade model to minimize on the mass of the blades through the optimization of the hub height
(57). It was noted that those turbines with PSA-optimized hub heights are characterized by increase the normalized
power output (58). A study was carried out on off-shore single-pile turbine using PSA model was coupled spring
model to reduce the weight of support structure. The study considered the influence of the foundation by defining
strength, frequency, stability and motions of the top of the tower as constraint conditions (59). Studies by Wan and
fellow researchers noted that PSA was developed to solve the wind turbine positioning problem which was a great
challenge with the use of the models (60, 61). They went ahead and proposed Gaussian particle swarm optimization
with a differential evolution local search strategy so as to reinforce the performance of the PSO method. This model
was much more effective as compared with the GA and PSO models that had previously been developed (62, 63).

CONCLUSION

Renewable energy should have more attention in the next decade in order to minimize the fossil fuel usage and
dependency. Particularly, wind turbine should be considered as an alternative energy source and installed with big
scale to be placed onshore and offshore in wind parks. The performance of the wind blades can be enhanced by
using composite materials with high mechanical properties of high fatigue resistance, durable, stiff, and lightweight
materials. Fiber reinforcement polymer composites are used due their properties in resisting loads over time
Wind turbine blades experience high combined impact, statistic and dynamic loading (random cyclic loading). E-
glass/epoxy composite) are usually used to fulfill these conditions. However, a new material is needed to minimize
the cost of the wind turbines. Some of the used composites are: carbon fiber with high stiffness that are using as
alternative to the E-glass fiber. Nano particles or fiber composite (1-10 nm) showed higher properties of fracture
toughness and lifetime up to 80% than neat composites.

050002-7
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