Lecture One: Morphology as Part of Grammar

1. The name of the course and its subject for the present term.

2. Grammar as a word of general English: meaning and use.

Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners: 1. Set of rules that describe the structure
of a language and control the way the sentences are formed (errors in spelling in grammar); 2. A
book explaining the rules of a language.

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary: 1. The rules in a language for changing the form of
words and joining them into sentences (the basic rules of grammar); 2. A person’s knowledge
and use of a language (His grammar is appalling.) 3. A book containing a description of the
rules of a language.

3. Attitudes to grammar.
a) Advertisement: “Basic English Course: 20 lessons. We teach you how to speak so there isn’t
much grammar”.

b) Opinion 1: “I’m glad I was brought up to speak English – a much easier language than Latin,
German, and all those others with dozens of word endings.”

c) Opinion 2: “English … has a grammar of great simplicity and flexibility.“(From The English
Language by David Crystal)

4. The history of the term grammar.

5. The terminological meanings of grammar.

Definitions of grammar based on Prof. O.S. Akhmanova”s Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:

1. A branch of linguistics that studies principles and types of word structure, word-combinations
and sentences in abstraction from the concrete, material (lexical) meaning of words, word-
combinations and sentences.

2. The composition of words and sentences typical of a given language.

3. A set of rules of word formation and combinability of words laid down for a given language.

6. Morphology as a term in various spheres of knowledge.

Definitions of morphology based on Prof. O.S. Akhmanova”s Dictionary of Linguistic Terms:

1. A branch of linguistics which investigates various aspects of word structure in terms of the
dependence of its meaning on the constituent morphemes. The aim and purpose of morphology
is the study of morphological oppositions as a system typical of a given language, i.e. the system
of its morphological categories and means of their expression.

2. A range of morphological oppositions (categories) inherent to a given language and means of

their expression.

7. Questions for revision

1. What is the meaning of grammar as a word of general English?

2. What are the most important terminological uses of grammar?

3. How do the terms grammar, morphology and syntax correlate? The term grammar is
often used to refer to morphology (the study of word forms) and syntax (the study of sentence
structure) together

4. What is the difference between the terms morphology and accidence? a part of
grammar that deals with inflections (see INFLECTION sense 2a)Inflectional morphology studies
the way in which words vary (or "in-flect"), in order to express grammatical contrasts in
sentences, such as singular/plural or past/present tense. In older grammar books, this branch of
the subject was referred to as "accidence."

Inflection – словоизменение (accidence, word-formation).

Morphology studies not only inflection, but also world-building (словообразование).

Morphology is a larger term. Inflectional (grammatical) morphology studies inflections.

https://www.uni-due.de/SHE/REV_MorphologySyntax.htm

There are two basic divisions in morphology:

1) lexical morphology (word building)

2) inflectional morphology (word formation)

Generic term, umbrella term– родовой

The present part denotes the action simultaneous with the other action expressed
by the predicate. The predicate may take any form/

The past part shows an action that preceded the main one.

Lecture Two: Morphology among other linguistic disciplines

1. Morphology-syntax relation.
 “According to the traditional view, the relation between morphology and syntax is the following:
while morphology builds up word forms—typically by combining roots with other roots and with affixes,
but also by applying other operations to them, syntax takes fully inflected words as input and combines
them into phrases and sentences. The division of labour between morphology and syntax is thus perfect:
morphology only operates below the word level whereas syntax only operates above the word level.
Moreover, these two components of grammar are ordered in strict sequence, such that the syntax takes
over after the morphology has done its work.” (Julien, Marit, 2007, p.209-238)

2. Morphology-syntax interaction in English

Classification I: verb forms

Synthetic verb forms Analytical verb forms

Walk, walks, walked, walking is walking, has walked, has been walking,

had walked, had been walking, will walk,

will be walking, will have walked, will have

been walking, having walked, (to) be

walking, (to) have walked

Classification II: verb forms

Finite verb forms Non-finite verb forms

Walk, walks, walked, (to) walk, (to) be walking

is walking, has walked, has been walking, (to) have walked, (to) have

had walked, had been walking, will walk, been walking, walking,

will be walking, will have walked, will have having walked

been walking

Finite verb forms show tense, person and number (I go, she goes, we went, etc.).
She was waiting in the room before he came in.
Non-finite verb forms do not show tense, person or number. Typically they are infinitive forms
with and without to (e.g. to go, go), -ing forms and -ed forms (e.g. going, gone):
She tiptoed round the house so as not to wake anyone.

N-F: They cannot perform their syntactic function as a predicate, they can only be a part of a
predicate. Nonfinite verbs that are found in English are infinitives and participles (1and 2) .

Participle: Present (I) and Past (II)

Participle denotes the property of an action.

The present part denotes the action simultaneous with the other action expressed by the predicate. The
predicate may take any form. Has 4 forms: active/passive, perfect/non-perfect

The past part shows an action that preceded the main one. Has 2 forms: active/passive

The verb features of the participle: the categories of Voice and Taxis:

1) active, non-perfect — reading, 2) passive, non-perfect — being read, 3) active, perfect — having
read, 4) passive perfect — having been read.

Non-perfect – perfect present Participles: He was sitting in the armchair, looking through a magazine.
She sat next to him trying various topics of conversation. -: Having looked through a magazine he rose
and went away. Having tried various topics of conversation she asked him to tell her who all the people
at table were.

Participle II: I don't like books written in the first person. — The woman who wrote the book is a
friend of mine.

Adjectival features of the participle: The next minute we were welcomed by a smiling woman of
about forty. Through the window, I could see a young mother looking at her little child and smiling.

Participle and adjective: She was starting to feel at bit confused.- She’s left a very confusing message
on my answerphone.

Syntactic functions of the participle:

1) attribute: I saw a running boy. It was a pleasant room overlooking a garden. There was a broken
cup on the table. This was a story made up to impress me.

2) part of a predicate: The boy was seen running to the river. The children were heard laughing.

3) object as part of the Complex Object: I saw a boy running along the street. She heard him playing
the piano.: We have just had our house painted. I have my hair cut once a month.

4) adverbial modifier: Turning round, he stared at me. While working so hard he needed fresh air.
When dressed. I sat a long time by the window. He drove slowly, enjoying the evening.

5) Absolute Nominative Participial Construction:

She turned, losing her restraint, her eyes sparkling with honest indignation. (A. Cronin) He found that
Ann had advanced into the hall, her hands folded upon her apron, her eyes contemplating him... (A.
Cronin.)

Supper finished, he led him into the parlour... (S. Maugham) Sitting like that, his eyes half closed,
tasting blood, an image began to form hazily in his mind. (I. Shaw) Africans who spoke different
languages were purposefully grouped together by the slave traders to discourage communication
between the slaves, the idea being to prevent slave revolts.

Then Ms face lightening, he ran to the desk. (A. Christie) She had the window opened, and sat looking
out, the feeble sun shining full upon her. (T. Hardy) The Strand, it being the hour when the theatres
began to empty themselves, was a roaring torrent of humanity and vehicles. (P. Woodhouse)

This duty completed, he had three months' leave. (T. Hardy) It being now pretty late, we took our
candles and went upstairs. (Ch. Dickens) One morning he stood in front of the tank, his nose almost
pressed to the glass. (Th. Dreiser) Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow.

The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction:

The daughter sat quite silent and still, with her eyes fixed on the ground. (Ch. Dickens) The accent
variations have provoked not a little controversy in recent years, with the broad Australian accent in
particular having its critics and its defenders.

Lecture 3

Participle 1 and gerund are formally identical.

The very idea of sailing makes me sick

Lived without thinking – only gerund with prepositions, adverbial modifier

Gerund can go only with adverbs. Only nouns can go with adjectives.

Perfect passive gerund/indefinite passive gerund

Going(gerund) shopping (noun) with a baby…

Partis 1 and gerund – diff in syntactic functioning

Gerund – is marked by the suff -ing - The naming of an action. There are 4 forms of gerund
(act/pass,

Participle - is a non-finite form which combines features of an action (verb) and of an adjective.

Infinitive – non-finite form which combines verbal features with those of the noun. It has 6
forms:

The category of voice: active, passive

The category of taxes – perfect – non-perfect

The category of aspect: continuous – non-cont

to write – active, non-perfect and non-continuous

to be writing – active, non-p, cont

to be written – passive, non-p, non-cont

to have written – active, perfect, non-cont

to have been written – passive, perfect, cont

to have been writing – active, perfect, cont

Syntactic functions: subject, object, the nominal part of a compound predicate, attribute,
adverbal modifier (of pronouns)

Complex object – составное дополнение – Is a structure consisting of 2 elem:

- first is nominal – a noun or a personal pronoun in a objective case

- second is a non-finite verb-form

It is the meaning of a lexical verb as part of a predicate, which effects and stimulates the use of
the complex object.

This construction can be used after the following categories of verbs:

1. Volitional verbs: want, like, expect

2. Verbs of sense perception - to see, to hear, to find, to watch. (used without to)

We ither use present participle or infinitive. – I saw her crossing the street / I saw her cross the
street.

3. Verbs of mental activity - to consider, to expect, to mean, to think, to believe, to presume, to

trust.

To have smth done

Complex subject may be expressed as a noun or a pronoun

1 part is nominal – is connected with the infinitive. She seems (appears) to be reading a lot.

The role – to express supposition (not confident).

Seem, appear

Happen to (We happened to meet him before)

Prove, turn out

The predicate is used in the active form.

This structure can also be used in passive predicate:

You were supposed to/expected to

He is believed to have left the country.

They were seen trying to unlock the door

To be likely/unlikely - the highest degree of supposition

MORPHONOLOGY (synonyms: morphonology and morphophonemic)

Interaction on morphology and phonology.
1st subject was morphology with syntax. Net year - modal predicative structures.
Next step - morphology and phonology.

Phonology usually goes with phonetics. Similarities: both study sounds of the lang. phonology – branch
of linguistic that studies the sound as means as differentiations between the sound’s envalopes (??) and
morphemes and investigate the semiological relevance and functional properties of sounds. The basic
units – phonemes. Phone – is a synonym of a sound. Phoneme – minimal unit of sound that distinguish
one word from another. They have no meaning of their own. Phoneme represented by phones and
allophones (the variants of the phones).
Phonemes VS letters.
Any alphabet is constructed on a phonemic method. Phoneme – an abstract sound. Suffix -eme - The
most abstract, generalized nature of this unit.
On the level of phonology which is within of root phonemes in a ???

Morphemics – studies phonemes in terms of their order, occurrence, arrangement, combinability,

similarity VS dissimilarity. Phonemes, allomorphs and morphs. Phonemes – ultimate unis of the
semantic level or the expression, regularly reproducible in according with the patterns of language.
Correlates with the units of semantic – of content play (план содержания) – sememe.

Phonemes as a blanket term – root term and affix. As part of word formation (словоизменение)
grammatical morphemes are called inflexional morphemes. They are referred to as derivational
morphemes – as part of a word formation.
If a morpheme is represented as one variant – morph if there is more variants – allomorphs. The
examples of morphs – cranberry: cran can be used by their own – bound morpheme (связанная).
Allomorphs – phonologically distinct: similar but not identically: the negative prefix -in is often
pronounced as [in], but sometimes pronounced as [im] (often with the sound p). sometimes takes the
form of -il. Dis- is also a
The function of morpheme within ??
Morpheme perform a drastically different function: каша – чаша, рука – ручной – оба звука к и ч,
служат для выражения идентичности корня. Друг – дружба – друзья г-ж-з – одна морфема. Deride
– derisive – derision
Найти еще примеры, для след раза и для экзамена.
MORPHONOLOGY – studies the interaction between morphological and phonological or phonetic
processes. Processes that are characteristics of morpheme structures and boundaries.
All the grammatical form represented by analytical and synthetic forms.
Morphology of synthetic forms.
synthetic forms – inflexional Morphology.
Stam root and base – все синониму для корня.
Root – when morpheme is not further analyzed (short words – the word is equal to its root)
Base – morpheme which can take on other morphemes, eg affixes
Stam – root morpheme only when it comes to word formation. Morpheme which takes on inflexional
morphemes, eg suffix.
Big bigger biggest – both the morpheme such as ‘er’ and ‘est’ they are morphs – one unique variants of
this morpheme. But more often – morphemes are represented by the number of allophones.
synthetic forms that are fond by reflexional forms: suffix ‘(e)s’. it is multifunction suffix – и мн ч сущ, и 3
лицо ед ч глаголов. Moreover, it brings it closely to the category of possessive case.
Suffix ‘ed’ – 2nd and 3rd verb form.
Cats – dogs – foxes.
What’s the phonological states of the different pronunciation? They are not different morphemes? [s]
and [z] – two allophones of the same morpheme. Sound [e] as a part of [es] – interfix, no the base, no
the inflexion.
[z] – arci-phoneme. Is a Mixed phoneme, abstract linguistic unit, which represents 2 or more phonemes,
when the distinguish between them has been neutralized. Eg: [z] – bundle of distinguish features:
щелевые, кругло-щелевые и альвеолярные. The opposition of strong and weak consonant – is the
only distinguish feature in this case. All the features are neutralized.
Phonetics processes affecting grammatical form.
Fusion and agglutination.
Fusion –
the merge of feature of one or more elements into two a single elements. By Fusion – a close
morphological combination of корень полнозначного слова and multifunctional suffixes. 1 hand –
joining elements. To possible to see the boundaries between morphemes. Inflexional morphemes is
mostly based of fusion. 2 hand – fusion can be found in analytical forms: will – won’t, do – don’t. we
observe the dropping of a noun in negative part ‘not’. The fusion can be also observed in the flow of
speech: I was sent to secondary school. Wa[s s]end – the case of fusion. I’m missing you so mush. I[m
m]issing – fusion. It has to do with how grammatical affixes bound to base.
Agglutination – the opposite one. The process of attaching mono-semantic stranded affixes to the
unchangeable root or base. This is the case of word building now. Eg: unfriendliness, disorganization –
derivational uses, armchair – compounds. You can easily see the boundaries.
Besides the process of Agglutination sometimes is supported by vowel change. It has to do with
derivation morphology = word building.

Suffix -ing
- Gerund
- Participle 1
- Verbal nouns
- Adjectives
- Such words and phrases as including and so on: в ря они выполняют роль предлога/союза.

Language processes and linguistic phenomena

Ling phenomena result from lang processes.

Analysis and synthases are mental processes. One of the basic

Comparison, concretization

All ling processes result from thinking pros. In language

Synthases – process of combining elements into larger global units

Analysis – a process of breaking down a complex form into smaller units

These processes represent mental proc going in the speakers mind irrespective of the lang they
speak. As mental processes they are opposed. The Eng l is mostly analytical.

Inflection - словоизменение
Derivation – worldbuilding

Compounding (or composition) – is a process of worldbuilding that creates compound lexemes.

There are loose compounds and stable compounds.

Processes that effect word structure.

Relative adj and quality adj (can be measured in quantity?)

Suffixes -er and -est are morphs – they are equal to themselves

Word classes

The structure of words in relation to word classes

Function words are mostly simple in structure and cannot be further fragmented. Depending on
the process the structure of the word includes different types of morphemes. Lexical
derivational and inflectional morphemes:

By lexical morph Am linguists mean roots, stems or basis of lexical words. In Russian ling also
includes derivational morphemes. Inflectional morp are gen referred to as grammatical morp in
this country.

2. to differentiate between root, stem and base as primary lexical morphemes.

A base is any form to with suff can be added. That means that any root or stem can be turned a
base. But the set of bases isn’t exousted

Inflection is represented by inftectional stem followed by inf suffix

Derivation: root or base + deriv affixes

Comp:

Bound morph – cranberry morphemes

Grammatical morphology is allomorphic and

Lexical morphology

Item and arrangement vs item and process

Item – morpheme

When we study words in lexical morphology their structure can be taken as a static
phenomenon that has been given to us from the very beginning, on the other hand it is an
ongoing process. When words are analyzed in terms of item and arrangement the focus is the
way of segmenting the already existing units. – this is the base of morpheme-based
morphology. But if our main concern is the potential of morphemes (-er – one of the most
productive suffixes )

Derivatives and compounds – what lexicologists seek to know is lexical meaning and variation
as part of the lexicon while morphologists focus on the formal aspect of derivation and
compounding (they investigate the processes and their rusults). If lexicologists are interested in
the roots of bases the main concern of morphologists is …

What unites lexicology and morphology is semantics (all the content inf communicated by lang
ot its unit be a single word, by word combination, by a sentence). As an aspect of linguistics
semantic focuses on the relationship between ling units and objects, processes of extra-
linguistic reality.

Un-break my heart - lexical potential of suffixes

And un-cry my tears

‘what is morphology’ by mark

I mustn’t keep you standing here for another second. – participle 1, complex object (you
standing)

It was agreed among learners that English has reached in the recent past a near perfect stage
having (perfect passive part 1) been purged of its impurities and inconsistencies. – adverbal
mod of time

To he

But at the end of the 15 th cent the lang was not still stable and uniform though the invention
of printing was to hasten its development – modal verb of obligation
A major concern of the 18 century writers was to prevent further change – link verb

Even scholarly adults are intrigued by – auxiliary

The church or would have (aux) had (link verb) an eye and an ear – would – предположение

This very variability may have (link verb, part of the compound predicate) as much to do with
society as with language –

May be said to have (have: aux, non-finite – perfect infinitive, compound verbal predicate)
invented the historical novel

The idea of category in grammar

Category - lexical of grammatical classes of words that are singled out on the basis of
grammatical properties of these classes.

By a grammatical category we mean the most abstract gramm unit typical of a ling unit (a part
of speech), which has acquired regular grammatical expression. Traditionally category as a
meaning is based on opposition.

Lexical categories

- gender – opposition animate vs inanimate

- number – singularity/plurality
-

The verb categories

English morphology book by ///

By category we mean the most abstract or generalized meaning, which is regularly expressed in
a language and is based on opposition. It is represented by categorial forms.

1. Category of mood – expresses the relation of an action or state to reality. When an action or
state is viewed as real it

The indicative mood is opposed to oblique mood. The oblique mood shows action or state as
probable, possible (lower degree of supposition) or unreal. Probability is the same as likelihood,
high degree of supposition (высокая степень вероятности).
Subjunctive 2, conditionals (shows an action or state as possible).
Imperative, subjunctive 1 …. Show an action as probable.

2. The category of tense – shows the time of an action or state. 3 forms – past, present, future.

3. The category of taxes (категория временной отнесенности) – shows the relation of an

action or state to another action or state. Interiority and simultaneity. The category of taxes
expresses enteriority (with perfect forms). Non-perfect forms express simultinioty. The main
opposition – perfect tenses (6) vs non-perfect tenses.

Having written and having been written

To have written, to have written, to have been writing

4. The category of aspect (вид) – shows an action of state in progress. It is represented by

continuous forms (6 cont tenses) vs non-cont. Non finite : to be reading, to have been reading

5. The category of voice – expresses various relation between the subject and the object of
action. Indicates whether the subject acts itself or it is acted on. (Perfect cont, furure cont нет
пас залога)

6. The category of person – manifests in 4 diff ways:

- to be

- has

- shall/will

7. The category of number – to be, 3rd person sing, have/has

8. The category of negation – shows that the link between the subject and the action of state is
missing. Affirmative and negative sentences.

9. The category of interrogation – expresses inquiry or erdge to provide with information.

Expressed by opposition affirmative vs interrogative.

Questions: general, tag (special), alternative, disjunctive. Reversed word order or inversion. A
question to the subject – the word order remains.

10. The category of expressivity – expresses emphasis in opposition to ordinary information.

The expressive form is analytical (do as an emphasis).
11. The category of representation – shows an action as expressed in its variety that is . …
Opposition of finite vs non-finite forms.

The correlation of grammatical forms vs categorial forms. Categorial forms represent a presific
category – each form has a cat meaning.

And gramm forms are more complex formations – they combine a number of categorial
meanings. Gramm forms are represented by categorical meanings.

He has been reading since morning – indicative mood, present tense, perfect taxes, continuous
aspect, 3 rd person, singular.