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Asian Philosophy: An International

Journal of the Philosophical
Traditions of the East
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Yoga Sūtras
a
Sarasvati Chennakesavan
a
Emeritus Professor of Philosophy , Sri Venka‐teswara
University , Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh, India
Published online: 16 Jun 2008.

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International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, 2:2, 147-155, DOI:
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 Asian Philosophy, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1992 147

Yoga Sūtras

SARASVATI CHENNAKESAVAN

ABSTRACT The yoga system accepts the Sānkhya metaphysics, the fundamental varia-
tion being that consciousness is held to be supreme. The goal to be achieved is to attain
this final state of pure consciousness. All obstacles, mental and physical, are subjugated
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and transcended. The method is the development of concentration by controlling all

thought modes. It starts by the purification of the body by the control of posture and
breathing. The mind is purified by the rejection of hindrances to the development of
concentration. Both require a mandatory practice of the ethical ideals prescribed. The
final goal of samādhi is not a post-mortem state but realisable here and now. Many
extraordinary capabilities acquired due to concentration are mere hindrances which are
to be discarded. The Yoga Sūtras are four in number and made up pādās (steps). Only
the first two sūtras are explained in a very sketchy manner.

Yoga has recently become a much talked about subject both in the East and the West [1].
Next to the fatalism implied in the Indian doctrine of karma, the most important aspect
associated with daily life is the idea that yoga means yogasana. It conjures up in the minds
of people a mystic with a lean body and intense look who, after years of practice, can
perform a number of physical and mental feats like control of heart beat, fire walking,
lévitation and thought reading that challenge all known canons of medical science.
However, in modern times a number of yogis have propagated the view that it is
possible to produce instant concentration and ready-to-use methods of control. People
are told 'You can live how you please, do whatever you want, provided you sit for
some time daily and meditate'.
No doubt this is good, as far as the meditation part goes. However, it is unclear how
such concentrated meditation is made possible by living and acting as one pleases in this
world. Āsanas, or bodily postures, and pranayama, or breath control, are taught by these
people. But these are only the modus operandi for something else according to the Yoga
Sūtras. The Sutras themselves mention them, but not as an end in themselves [2].
The Yoga system derives its metaphysical basis from the Sankhya system. Before we
explain this a few words must be said on the source of the darsanas, or systems of
philosophy. All the orthodox systems claim the Upanisads as their source—some accept
the Upanisads while others are critical of it. The Vedas, of which the Upanisads form the
end portions, are books of knowledge. The Vedas contain all types of knowledge, right
from offering prayers and oblations to nature gods, to magical incantations or
vašīkaraņa vidya, to medical knowledge, astronomy, astrology, mathematics, and so on.
Actually the Upanisads were esoteric teachings open only to the few who qualified for
them. The qualifications were many and severe and few really qualified. The language of
the Upanisads is both archaic and couched in parables, myths and allegories. This
resulted in many commentaries and some of these have taken the shape of philosophic
Sutras. The Yoga and the Sankhya are two such expositions.
 148 Sarasvati Chennakesavan

The method of the Upanisads is one of dialogue, which more often than not was
dialectical. The teacher and the pupil engage in a dialogue. But the teacher must be
worthy and the student must be deserving. The teacher is worthy if he can rouse the
student to ask questions. The pupil is deserving if he can respond with appropriate
questions. The teacher is confident that he knows and can impart what he knows. The
pupil is one who knows that he can ask relevant questions and deduce useful knowledge
from the answers. This is the psychological preparation for all philosophical teaching of
the Upanisads. It is in this light that we have to study and understand Yoga teaching.
Although it is often said that the orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have the
Vedas and the Upanisads as their source it is not the case that they accept them in toto.
Such concepts that are accepted are subject to critical thought [3]. That is why we have
such varied philosophies, as the materialistic, pluralistic Nyaya-Vaisesika, the dualistic
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Sârikhya, the atheistic and ritualistic Purva Mīmāmsa and the different systems of
Vedānta.
I have said before that the Yoga system accepts the metaphysics of Sarikhya. The
word 'sankhya' means both knowledge and number and both meanings are applicable.
It derives the universe from prakrti which is not purusa. This prakŗti is, in its turn, a
combination of the three guņas, namely sattva, rajas and tamas. These three, in their
permutations and combinations produce the world.
In one part of Sankhya we seem to come across a new type of relation, where the
opposition between the qualities exists but there is nothing common forming the basis of
the opposition. This type of opposition relation is still considered new in Western logic.
Prakŗti is the symbol of the formed and the unformed substance of the whole universe. It
is the four dimensional continuum of space, time, matter and force. It is not a thing but a
process. It is not mere change as often described. It is alternation as well. The restless
dynamism and disequilibrium slowly emerge into a world of equilibrium. But this
happens only in the presence of purusa. There is no substratum called prakrti. It is made
up of the gunas and is the process resolving into the worldly things.
But what of purusa} It is said to be the pure conscious, inactive principle necessary
for the sprouting of activity of the prakŗti. Purusa is neither an evolvent nor an
evolution. Purusa is not God and prakŗti is not matter as usually interpreted. The
etymological meaning of the word purusa is that it is that which is bound by the body.
(This meaning of purusa is derived from Verse 41 of Sankhya Tattva Kaumudi, which
states "purtsate purusah".) It is suggestive that the ancient thinker is here proceeding
on an analogical way of thinking. Ordinarily without consciousness there can be no
knowledge. Without the active matter in the form of the body and sense-organs there
is no means for consciousness to acquire knowledge. Hence consciousness is not active
by itself and there can be no meaning for bodily actions unless they are referential to a
consciousness. This is the metaphysics of Yoga. Unless this is firmly understood there
is bound to be a misrepresentation of both the Yoga principles and the Sarikhya
philosophy of evolution. The most important reasons given for the postulation of
purusa is that even in ordinary life humans are always trying to achieve perfection.
Even a thief desires consciously to commit a perfect undiscoverable crime. Thus,
achieving perfection is the goal of human existence. But perfection is freedom. It is
freedom from the limiting influence of prakŗti. This strife for freedom and the final
achievement of perfection is moksa. It is present wherever there is life. But only in
man does it become self-conscious. Hence humans, knowing that they are bound by
their bodies and desiring to reach perfection, try to control and divert by using the
practical methodology given in the Yoga Sütras. Yoga then is the method of control, of
 Yoga Sutras 149

putting together body and mind in such a manner that consciousness or ātman is
realised. This is not a post-mortem stage to be reached in some 'hereafter'. Moksa is
freedom from sorrow and suffering and their twins, sensuous pleasure and happiness.
The one pair is never without the other. We shall now see what practical teaching Yoga
provides to achieve this freedom.
What follows is a sketchy account of what is to be found in the first two pādās of
Yoga Sütras. To give in detail all the four pādās and discuss the import of all their
intricate points, would require a separate book. There are commentaries on Yoga
Sūtras, but they are traditional and difficult to understand in the light of modern
knowledge. Each commentary interprets the Sūtras according to its own belief. So to
get a clear idea of what the Sütras mean one has to think for one's self and go to the
source itself.
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The text of the Yoga Sütras consists of four pādas. Pāda is a footstep and it is also
that ground which is covered by a footstep. Patanjali, the Yoga sūtrakāra intends us to
understand that his word does not merely indicate the steps to be followed but also the
ground to be covered by the aspirant in his journey to understand his innermost self,
the ātman. There might be a guru or teacher to guide him, but the effort is his and his
alone. Here no one can help. To be one's own self is the law of one's being. Thus the
Upanisads enjoin atmānām viddhi (know thyself). This method of knowing is the
Yogic method.
The first pāda is called samādhi pāda. The first sütra of this pāda says 'atha yoga
anus'āsanam'. The word atha is both an instruction and a command. On laying down
a command we mean 'we ought to do this or thaf. Does this mean that the Yoga
Sūtras merely lay down the command and leave it at that? No, it means that by
practice, abhyasa, an 'ought' becomes 'is'. But there is a provision: only those who
are fit to carry this out can achieve the transition. Hence the sütra begins with 'atha':
now'. It indicates a beginning after something else has been achieved. Here it means
certain preparatory considerations. The pupil must have lived with his guru in
brahmacarya, šraddhā and tapas. These three are sense-control, attention and sus-
tained meditation on what has been taught. These three are a must in any educational
programme.
Yoga is next defined as citta vŗtti nirodhah. The citta and vŗtti are technical words
which require explanation. Let us take citta first. It is translated as 'mind'. But the
constant question today is: is the mind the same as the brain? If not, where is it
situated? An interesting discussion of this question and suggested answer is to be found
in Gilbert Ryle's Concept of Mind [4]. The Yoga answer is illuminating. It states that
mind, or citta, is a name given to that physiological instrument which is capable of
conscious activities such as thinking, feeling, willing. This definition of citta is more
implicit in the sūtras than explicit. Evolution of the Sahkhya principles takes place
gradually by the permutations and combinations of the threefold gunas making
manifest consciousness which is innate in the beginning. Ordinarily mind or citta can
not be seen as separate from its material bondage. Now the doubt arises: is conscious-
ness or mind present in all matter? Yoga implies a positive answer. In the lower forms
of matter there is no knowledge of consciousness. Gradually, as evolution progresses,
the awareness of being conscious in the forms of feeling, willing and thinking become
manifest. In humans finally, it not only reaches its full manifestation in these three
forms, but also becomes self-conscious. Only humans can articulate the thought 'I am a
person'. This is not an identity established by recognition or memory or mere
physiological identity. It is something which humans experience directly. No interme-
 150 Sarasvati Chennakesavan

diary activity is ever required for humans to say 'I am a person1. But to say 'I am not
an elephant', the intermediation of memory and recognition become necessary.
Next in the definition of Yoga, is the word vŗtti; while citta is the conscious aspect,
vŗtti is a transformation. Citta is the general cognitive organ which is that aspect of
mind, manas, which merely objectifies the object by fixing attention on it and reaching
out to establish contact with it. This aspect of objectification requires a little more
explaining. In the course of the day many sensations reach us, but not all of them
become meaningful. Only those that reach us and acquire a meaning transform
themselves into a name and a form, which then become an object. That is, the object
must be a known part of our experience before it can be knowledge for us. This is a
tautological statement, but true. If I understand the scientific philosopher Poincaré
correctly, he maintains that sensations which are aroused by sense activity must be
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recognised as ours first and then they convey a particular meaning to us. Similarly, no
object appears exactly the same either qualitatively or in any other manner to all
people. Each person has his own understanding of the object perceived. It is his own.
Until it becomes this, he has no knowledge of it. All perceptual errors are attributable
to this fact. There is no objective object. All are only subjectively orientated and
determined objects. This does not imply subjectivism. It only means that whatever is
out there must become a part of ourselves in the form of meaningful sensations before
we can have a knowledge of it.
According to Yoga this process, by means of which we own our experience of the
object, is the activity of the principle of ahamkāra. Then buddhi, the discriminative
aspect, comes into play. This is the reason which decides on the course of action
consequent to the perceptual understanding of the object. All these three aspects are
known as citta. Now vŗtti is the transformation of this thinking principle. For example
when I pick up a pen to write, citta begins to act, giving rise to a vŗtti or reasoned
action such as writing. Such actions are citta vrttis. To give another example: I see a
person who arouses in me hostile reactions and I plan to harm him or I try to control
the hostility and act normally. All these actions are citta vrttis. At this stage a note of
caution has to be sounded. We should be very careful in distinguishing the self or the
conscious ātman from the citta vŗttis. The very language we use for the latter indicates
this difference. We indicate the possession of a mind separate from ourselves when we
say, 'my mind is wandering' or 'I am thinking, don't disturb me' or 'I did not listen, my
mind was elsewhere'. We imply that the T is independent of the mind, though
dependent on the mind to acquire new knowledge. These activities of the mind,
sometimes working through sense-organs and sometimes independently, indicate that
these citta vŗttis are the cause of the acquisition of new knowledge in the person. These
are the transformations of vŗttis of the mind. Since citta is an evolute of prakŗti it is
material. It can be said to be an equivalent of the brain and vŗttis are the changes that
take place in it. Later on in the Yoga Sūtras it is established that these vŗttis leave
indelible traces in the citta which constitute memory and are responsible for recollec-
tion and recognition.
Since in the first pāda we are only dealing with the definition of Yoga, let us
consider the third word in it, namely nirodhah. The transformations of the mind-
matter have to be either controlled, redirected or obstructed. If we do not want to be
agitated, depressed or even feel exuberant and happy then we should so organise the
mental transformations that such feelings and disturbances do not arise. Hence Yoga is
defined as the nirodhah of the activities of the mind. Many writers on Yoga use the
word 'suppression' as a translation for nirodah. This word has attained such a wide
 Yoga Sutras 151

connotation in Western psychology that it is not applicable here. There is no

undesirable and unwilling suppression, ever waiting like a snake, to raise its head
again. Here nirodah is willing control of mental modes or vŗttis in such a manner that
it leads to the desired end of fully wiping them out.
Citta, as we have already stated, is made up of four aspects. They are manas, mind-
principle, which is responsible generally for all cognitions and is fundamental. Citta is
the idea which fixes itself upon any external point, envelopes it and makes it its own
by individualising it or objectifying it. But this objectiflcation acquires no meaning
unless it connects with the individualising principle ahamkara. Then comes into force
the buddhi, which means the discriminative principle, which determines the manner
and the direction in which the action should go. Nirodah means the controlling of all
these aspects of citta. It is not an unconscious act. It is a conscious, positive stopping
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which leads man to become what he really is, a natural state of being, pure
consciousness. Even the will, which is the first transformation of the thinking
principle, is sought to be removed. This does not mean that the Yogin annihilates
himself but he does reach a state where man attains the natural state of being, pure
consciousness. This state is known as samädhi. This is a state in which the 'seer abides
in himself, 'Tādā dŗastuh svarūpe avasthānām and is called the 'witness self in the
Vedānta. That is, this self sees everything but does not get involved in what it sees.
One who lives in this poise and contentment, without being distracted by any activity,
the Gītā calls 'stithah prajna'. This state is like the ocean, which remains the same
under all conditions, and is like the mountain which is a witness to changes but does
not change itself. This is a state of poise in pleasure and pain and is sukha duhkha
samatvam. This is a stithi which is an ingredient and condition of excellence in action.
If this were not so, man would always be alternating between irrationality, emotion and
rationality and calmness. Thus beginning with what ought to be done to become a
Yogin, the Sūtras arrive at a definition of Yoga as samādhi. Citta vŗtti nirodah is
another name for samādhi.
Now we have to examine how this is done. From here on Yoga becomes a s'āstra, a
science, using empirical methods to achieve its goal. Though Yoga itself is not a
natural science it uses the methods of classification and description. Particularly here,
its method is dichotomous in describing all vrttis as either painful, klista, or non-
painful aklista. The whole of modern civilisation is based on the fundamental fact that
man always seeks pleasure and avoids pain. The Yogic seer, aware of this, even at the
dawn of civilisation, said that the first step in achieving this state was to replace the
painful by that which gives pleasure. The klista vŗttis must be replaced by aklista
vŗttis. Our thoughts of anger, desire and consequent dissapointment must deliberately
be replaced by thoughts of love, generosity truth and hope. However, this is not
enough. Just as painful thoughts create disturbances which lead to sorrow and
suffering, so also pleasurable thoughts cause disturbances in the citta mind. All citta
vŗttis are mental modes and they have to be controlled to achieve a state of sthiti where
there is equanimity of mind. All the mental modes are divided into five. They are
pramāņa, right knowledge, viparyaya, wrong knowledge, vikalpa, fancy or imagina-
tion, nidrā, sleep and smrtl, memory. The first two are logical and the next three are
psychological. All these lead to disturbance of the citta and so have to be removed. It is
not possible to go into detail about these principles here. It is sufficient to understand
that they are citta vŗttis, transformations of the thinking principle. They are constantly
used in the acquiring of knowledge. But they must all be controlled and directed
towards the acquiring of knowledge of one's own consciousness. Even such control is a
 152 Sarasvati Chennakesavan

conscious act. But there is a difference. Control of the means of acquiring knowledge
and redirecting it to a different path must be consciously done. The self knows it is
controlling. Hence it is of the nature of a higher consciousness. We have to be careful
here not to make the assumption that there are different types of consciousness. There
is only one, which is viewed from different angles.
What is the nature of that method by which the citta vrttis are stopped and the
method used to replace one type of mental mode by another? These are said to be
abhyasa 'practice' and vairagya, 'non-attachment'. Let us take these one by one.
Abhyasa means practice. But it is a practice where one seeks to replace the unpleasant
by the pleasant, in the mind. Hate is replaced by love and unkindness by charity, and
so on. This is not easy. The practitioner must will this. He must make an effort. This
is yatna. Hence yatna is a precondition for abhyasa. It must be a vigilant act which
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becomes a habit. The habit starts by making all external activities quiescent and calm.
This is an external calmness in regard to limbs, speech, breath and sense-organs. It
does not make for inward peace. The mind might be in a turmoil while externally one
appears calm and relaxed. Hence the practice of mauna. This is not ignorance, but an
inner silence that has been constantly acquired by vicāra or ceaseless enquiring into
yuktayukta. This is a fundamental enquiry into what is real and what is not real. Along
with such a knowledge arises vairagya or non-attachment. This is defined in Yoga as
the discovery of the unimportance of both worldly and spiritual things. That is, a
desire for all things including heavenly bliss, as described in the Purānas, is discarded.
Pride in being virtuous and good caused by desire, causes disturbances. Thus abhyasa
and vairagya are methods of attaining nirodah, which leads to samādhi.
Now an instruction is given in the Yoga Sūtras which is an outstanding contribution
to human enquiry and speaks for the boldness of the Yogasütrakära. How many of us
are capable of attaining samādhi by citta vrtti nirodah} It requires steady and
progressive practice accompanied by vairagya. Hence the oga gives a series of 'ors'. An
'or' indicates merely either this or that, whereas the Sanskrit word va means any of the
methods which follow. To attain the goal of samādhi the means are many, for people
differ in their mental capabilities.
After abhyasa and vairagya, the first of the many means is īšvara praņidhāna,
surrender to God. This is, let us not forget, only one of the means, i.e. the existence of
God is said to be only an alternative. This īšvara is defined as a purusa visesa. That is,
the qualities of such a purusa make him supreme, untouched by affliction or desire, and
the results of such motivated actions do not touch him. He is unconditioned by time.
It is necessary to point out here that one who practices vairagya by abhyasa can
attain siddhis or extraordinary powers. But the sense of egoity of Tness is still present.
īšvara is seen to be something other than one's self. Even now we have to consider that
meditation or surrender is not possible for many people. Not anyone can say, 'not my
will, but Thy will be done'. Hence the next method given and which normally goes by
the name of Yoga is pranäyama, which technically means 'restraint of breath'. In both
these states of surrender and breath control, one type of mental mode is replaced by
either concentration on īšvara or breath control.
If, as some Western philosophers argue [5], there is no consciousness as such but
only a life principle which is physiological, then we find a counter in Yoga which
maintains that all organisms have life and consciousness. The latter becomes more and
more patent as evolution produces increasingly complex species, until in humans
consciousness becomes completely dominant in all aspects of life. The word jīva
denotes a conscious person. So to control the conscious activities of a living person, a
 Yoga Sutras 153

control of prāņa is necessary. Breathing, which is an unconscious action, becomes

conscious only when our attention is focused on it. But pranäyama is not just control
of inhaling and exhaling. These go on automatically. But in between these two, breath
is retained in the body for a little time. It is this retention—and control—of breath
within the body that constitutes conscious breath control. The power that arises from
such control, the Yoga Sütras say, is one that stills the mind and its activities. This
stage is known as kumbhaka. But cultivation of this power is not the purpose of Yoga.
The full control of kumbhaka known as kevala kumbhaka is the stage where the
aspirant dispenses with breathing itself as respiration. When this happens the Yogi
enters samādhi. That is, prāņa, which is indicated by breathing and which is essential
for the activity of the mental mode, is controlled by a conscious effort of will.
The Yoga Sūtras sound a note of warning here. The purpose of pranäyama is not
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mere breath control for the sake of achieving a strong and vital body. It is the life
principle that is to be controlled, for it is from this that consciousness evolves.
Following the principle that, if the source is controlled, that which has evolved from it
is also controllable, Yoga requires that prāņa be controlled so that the mental modes
which are dependent on it for their existence can also be controlled. Such control leads
to a one-point meditation which is ekāgra samādhi, the goal of Yoga.
There are also other methods of achieving samādhi mentioned in the Yoga Sūtras.
These alternatives limit the practice of Yoga to concentration and meditation regard-
less of what the object is. The result of this meditation makes the cognising subject and
the cognised object become one with cognition. For example, when a person is
concentrating on listening to good music, the person and the individual sounds which
produce the music are all lost in the totality of enjoying the music. The knower, the
known are both lost as individuals in the consciousness of knowledge of the words
produced, which is bliss or ānanda. I have mentioned only the most important
alternatives discussed in the Sütras. All these alternatives limit Yoga to concentration
on anything, provided concentration is done with a singly focused mind. In fact the
Yoga says, 'or meditation according to one's disposition': 'yathabhimata dhyanadva"
thus leaving the method of practising concentration to the capacity of the individual.
This is where the first pāda ends.
The second pāda, known as kriya yoga, kles'as, is the one that seeks to remove
psychological afflictions of the mind. In the first pāda the definition and the meanings
of Yoga are given. In the second pāda the methods to be adopted for achieving the
goals stipulated in the first pāda are detailed. These means are the yogangas. The word
ahga means a limb or a branch. Hence the ahgas for the achievement of Yoga are
given. These are ethical commandments, the do's and dont's of moral life. They are
yama, niyama, āsana, pranäyama, prathyahara, dhāraņa and dhyana. The first two
are the positive and negative aspects of moral life and are therefore given priority.
They generally apply to all mankind, whether they are aspirants of Yoga or not.
In between the postulation of the yogangas and the final achievement of samādhi, a
series of kles'as is enumerated and methods of getting rid of these kles'as are also stated.
However, this would be possible only if the yogangas were practised. We shall find that
almost all the sūtrakāras adopt the system and Patanjali is no exception... stating the
goal first, then the obstructions to them and whether they be logical or psychological.
Then the practical method of getting them over is expounded. Thus we have the
definition of the goal of Yoga, the kles'as, which are the obstructions, and the yogangas
as a practical pathway to getting rid of the obstruction and achieving the goal.
Yama is control over the mind and includes abstinence from all social evils; niyama
 154 Sarasvati Chennakesavan

is observance of such practices that bring about social good. A human being is a social
being. He never lives alone. His activities must be so directed that they are useful in
sustaining the society in which he lives. All acts which are antisocial and which would
hurt others and bring sorrow and suffering to them, must be avoided. Such behaviour
must also be avoided in thought and word. It is only when man lives at peace with
himself and his society that pranayama and āsana are prescribed. There seems to be
some repetition here. Pranayama was formerly described as concentration bringing
about sāmādhi. Here it is described as a means to achieve that concentration. Thus it is
said to be both a means and an end. The next yogahga is āsana which is explained as a
state of the body which is steady, effortless and pleasant ÇSthira sukham'). According
to Hatha Yoga Pradīpikā many âsanas are prescribed and elaborated. However, that is
not our concern here. According to Patanjali, āsana is poise of the body, an arrested
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movement. Mortification of the flesh can never lead to concentration of the mind. It is
only when the body is comfortable and the mind is freed from worry that it can
concentrate. So an āsana must be comfortable, steady and easy to assume, devoid of
any violent effort which gives rise to pain and unsteadiness. When the proper posture,
whatever it be, is fully mastered and practised, no dualities like sorrow and suffering,
happiness and pleasure bother the mind. What remains is a state of calmness,
accompanied by equilibrium and a mental state which gives a poise to the mind. Now
the body and mind can work together to achieve vairagya leading to samādhi. Here an
āsana must be both a physical and mental posture. Purely physical postures for the
sake of showmanship are like gymnastics and do not usually serve the purpose of
achieving the samādhi state.
Samādhi and Yoga are used in the initial pādas as interchangeable words. But later
samādhi is seen to have a twofold meaning. One a lower one and the other a higher
one, samprajnāta and asamprajnāta. In the first, the mind is at rest only for a limited
time. This is purely a state of citta vŗtti niroda where the mental modes are subjugated
along with all their root causes. In the second there is a total destruction of all psycho-
physical afflictions along with their root cause. This is a state of complete conscious-
ness and possesses knowledge which is total. The self which is pure consciousness is
withdrawn from its association with the citta. This is its original state which the Yoga
system calls kaivalya or moksa.
In the middle of the second pāda and also at the beginning of the third, there is a
discussion about dhyana and dhārana about which it is essential to say a few words.
Dhyana is meditation and dhārana is the voluntary limitation and fixation of the mind
on an object of choice. These two go together. There can be no meditation unless we
choose to meditate on something. The choice of the object controls the type of
meditation. It has the property of making the mind one with the object of contempla-
tion. However, we must understand that dhyana cannot be defined as there are no
differentia for definition. To know dhyana is to be in dhyana. While there is dhyana
on any object there is self-forgetfulness and absorption in the object without which it
cannot be dhyana; while in ordinary knowledge the object of knowledge becomes one's
own object of knowledge. As already described, in meditation or dhyana one who
meditates or is in dhyana becomes that on which he performs dhyana. To give a loose
analogy, if one goes on imitating another, slowly without even conscious awareness the
imitator acquires that which he imitates, as his own. Dhyana, when described thus
seems to be easy. But during the real and zealous performance of dhyana the mind
achieves tremendous power. Many supersensuous and para-psychological powers are
attained by means of dhyana. The person, by constant practice can enter a state of
 Yoga Sutras 155

dhyana at will and as easily get out of it. Often the powers attained in dhyana are
described as Yogic powers. But to the real Yogin, who is interested only in kaivalya,
such results of dhyana and dhārana are also kle'sas, to be discarded on the way; he does
not succumb to the power they endow him with.

Professor Sarasvati Chennakesavan, Emeritus Professor of Philosophy, Sri Venka-

teswara University, Tirupathi, Andhra Pradesh, India.

NOTES
[1] Many centres for Yoga practices and teaching have been established in the last two decades. The most
well-known and popular ones are (1) the Rajneesh School, (2) the Maheshyogi of Transcendental
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Meditation, and (3) the School of Krishna Consciousness.

[2] Yoga Sutras II, pādās 46-51. Original text with translation and commentary by M. N. DWIVEDI.
Revised and edited by PANDIT S. SUBRAHMANYA SASTRI, IIIrd edn (Madras, Theosophical Publishing
House, 1934).
[3] RADHAKRISHNAN, S. & MOORE, CHARLES (eds) A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (New Jersey,
Princeton University Press, 1957), p. 350.
[4] RYLE, GILBERT, Concept of Mind (London, Hutchinson, 1949).
[5] I refer here to the whole gamut of Western philosophers whose thinking about the mind is neurological,
reductionist and behavioural. Their main contention is that mind is equal to the brain and that there is
no conciousness required to explain its behaviour. Several symposiums have been conducted on these
ideas. See for instance ECCLES, JOHN (ed.) Brain and Conscious Experience (New York, Springer-
Verlag, 1966); KOESTLER, ARTHUR Beyond Reductionism (New York, Random Books, 1969).