HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

All living organisms produce their own kind. The process by which living things produce
their kind is called reproduction. When organisms reproduce, the adult gives birth to the
young, more or less with similar characteristics as the parents. Plants are living things. They
reproduce more plants of their own kind. Sexual reproduction in plants is possible
because of the flowers. Plants can also reproduce without the use of seeds. The process
of growing new plants without using seeds is called asexual reproduction.

Among animals, there are two major ways by which the young are produced; egg-laying
(oviparous) or young is given birth (viviparous) by the female. Chicken and other birds lay
eggs that hatch to become new chickens or birds. A female carabao, a goat, and a
dog give birth to live young. We call the young or baby animals in many ways. Among
humans, we use baby or child. Through reproduction, we get genes from our parents
expressed as traits or characteristics that we can observe or see. Genes are the genetic
factors that we inherit from our parents. For example, when one parent has dimples, you
might have them. Cataract runs in the family, so if either of your parents has it, you might
also have it. Take note that family members are not exactly alike but have similarities.

A farmer may choose big fruits of tomatoes as a source of seeds for his next planting
because the new plants may also bear big fruits. Sweet oranges come from sweet-tasting
fruits, and farmers use grafting of the stems to produce new plants. High-yielding rice
varieties are cultured by growers for the next planting season. In the market, you can see
labels of different rice varieties to choose from. A pig raiser chooses a sow that gives birth
to many piglets so they can give more heads for sale. Puppies with good breeds come
from parent dogs with desirable features. These examples show that offspring inherit some
traits from their parents.

Reproduction among plants could be sexual - involving male and female parts of the
flower to produce fruits and seeds. The seeds are the ones planted that will grow into
seedlings and eventually become a mature plant. Some plants reproduce by vegetative
means involving roots, stems and leaves, such as runners, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs and
adventitious plants. Rice seeds sown by farmers germinate and produce many tillers that
grow and bear flowers, then fruits and seeds. Man can also assist in producing new plants
through artificial means such as cuttings, marcotting or grafting. The variety of roses with
big flowers can be propagated not by seeds but by cuttings. Farmers and gardeners
propagate many other plants through vegetative means since the genes of the mother
plant are the same as in the cuttings.
 LIFE CYCLES OF PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND HUMANS

Life Cycle of Plants

All living organisms on Earth have a life cycle with a beginning point, growth,
reproduction, and an end of life. Like plants, they have life cycles, which is very
important to agriculture because crops are one of our food sources. Crops can be
sorted into annuals, biennials, and perennials. However, before we look into the
classification of some crops, let us first take a look at the plant life cycle.

In this discussion, we will focus on the life cycle of flowering plants. The life cycle of
flowering plants starts as tiny seeds. Seeds contain a plant with leaves, stems and roots.
The first step in the life cycle of plants is germination. Germination occurs when the plant
within the seed starts to grow with the assistance of water, soil and nutrients. As the
process occurs, the plant develops stems and roots. With the help of phototropism, the
stems push up toward the light. Roots grow down into the soil in response to gravitropism.
The leaves then begin to grow and unfold as they take in sunlight and produce food
through the process of photosynthesis. Plants begin to develop flowers. Many plants
produce flowers that are important in their reproduction through pollination. Pollination
happens when pollen from the stamen moves onto the pistil then the production of seeds
and fruits occurs in the later part.

Figure 1. Life cycle of a flowering plant

Plants can be classified as annuals, biennials, and perennials.

Annuals- Annuals are plants that have a life cycle lasting one year. Most annual plants
are planted as seeds in the spring, bloom in the summer and then die off in the fall. Annual
plants will not grow the following year unless replanted as seeds the following spring. One
example is a sunflower plant (Helianthus anuus).

Biennials- Biennials are plants with life cycles that take two years to complete. From the
word itself, "Bi" means "two". A biennial plant will be planted in the spring and grow its
roots, stem and leaves during the first year. The plant will then lay vegetative in the
summer and dormant in the fall and winter. It will flower during the second summer and
produce seeds before dying off during the fall season of its second year. Biennials require
dormant periods, which are caused by cold temperatures. One example is a carrot
(Daucus carota).

Perennials- Perennials are plants with a life cycle that lasts more than two years. The entire
plant remains intact in the fall. It will persist through the fall and winter seasons and regrow
from the same root system the following spring. One example is a Chrysanthemum sp.

a b c

Figure 2. (a) Helianthus anuus (b) Daucus carota (c) Chrysanthemum sp.
Life Cycle of Animals

The life cycle of animals varies depending on the species. However, they share common
stages that start from birth, growth, reproduction, and death. These four stages represent
the four stages of the life cycle of all animals. In order to understand the differences, let
us study the different life cycles of different organisms.

A. Life Cycle of a Frog

Figure 3. Life cycle of a frog

Frogs are considered amphibians, meaning they live in water and on land. The life cycle
of a frog undergoes multiple stages: egg, tadpole, tadpole with legs, froglet, and adult
frog.
Egg: A female frog lays many eggs in a pond, and the eggs
float on water in a jelly mass, or frogspawn.

Tadpole: The eggs will start to hatch to become tadpoles. A

tadpole looks like a fish, for it has gills which allow them to
breathe underwater. The tadpole can also swim, and its food
source is the plants and algae in the water. The tadpole will
grow for several weeks, and during this time of growth and
development, it will start to develop lungs to breathe on land
when it becomes an adult frog.

Tadpole with legs: The tadpole then grows hind and front legs,
and the tail becomes shorter. It now has the ability to climb out
of the pond and breathe air through its lungs.

Froglet: It is almost a fully grown frog. The tail becomes shorter,

and the gills have disappeared already. The lungs have
enlarged which allows the froglet to leave the water and live
on land.

Frogs: The tails are entirely gone and will start to feed on insects
instead of the plants and algae from the water. Most of the
time, frogs live on land. However, they still return to the pond to
cool down on hot days. They are also known for their
cutaneous respiration, by which gas exchange occurs across
the frog's skin. The cycle repeats as the adult frog lays eggs on
the pond, and more tadpoles hatch.

Figure 4. Cutaneous respiration in amphibians

 B. Life Cycle of a Butterfly

Figure 5. Life cycle of a butterfly

A butterfly undergoes a process of development known as metamorphosis.

Metamorphosis is derived from a Greek word that means transformation or change. A
butterfly has a complete metamorphosis, unlike other insects with incomplete
metamorphosis. There are four stages in the metamorphosis of butterflies: egg, larva,
pupa, and adult.

Egg: An adult female butterfly will lay eggs on plants, and these
plants will then become the food of the hatching caterpillars.
Depending on the butterfly species, eggs can be laid in spring,
summer or fall.

Caterpillar: This is a feeding stage because the caterpillar

needs to eat for its growth. The skin will shed about 4 or 5 times
as the caterpillar grows. The food eaten will be stored and used
during its full adult development.
Pupa: This stage is known as the transition stage. When the
caterpillar stops eating, they become a pupa or known as the
chrysalis. Depending on the species, the pupa may be
suspended under a branch, buried underground, or hidden in
leaves. The pupal stage can last for only a few weeks or can
even last for a month or longer. During the pupa stage, many
changes are already occurring inside, such as the growth of an
adult butterfly's wings, legs, eyes, and other parts.

Adult: The adult stage is the reproductive stage of a

butterfly. It already has well-formed parts such as long
legs, long antennae, and compound eyes. They also have
large and colorful wings, which they use for flying. If the
job of the caterpillar stage is to eat, the adult job is to
mate and lay eggs. On average, most adult butterflies
only live for 15-29 days. However, different butterfly
species have different life spans.

C. Life cycle of a Chicken

Most of us might know how chickens are formed. Humans have been constant
consumers of chicken and eggs; hence, their life cycle is not new to us.

Egg: A hen's ovary holds numerous tiny ova, which are the future egg yolks. When it
matures, it will move out of the ovary into the oviduct. As it travels down the oviduct, it
will become covered with a white membrane known as the vitelline membrane and
some layers of egg white or albumen. It further travels through the isthmus, where shell
membrane fibers are produced. The egg then enters a shell gland where the formation
of shells occurs. This process is known as calcification since layers of calcium carbonate
are added to form the shell. The hen will then lay the eggs and hatch.

Chick: Hatching of the egg will occur, and this requires optimum temperature.
Naturally, the hen will sit on the eggs to maintain the optimum temperature; however, in
some cases, an incubator is needed to maintain the optimum temperature. The chick
inside the egg will use the egg yolk as nutrition during its growth. Pipping occurs when
the chick inside the egg uses its egg tooth to peck a hole in the egg shell around the air
sac to access oxygen. After it frees from the shell, it requires indoor space that is heated
up by the heat of an infrared lamp. A chick will continue to grow, develop, and learn
common behaviors such as roosting and foraging.

Chicken: It is a fully grown chicken which developed significant structures such as

feathers. Young hens are known as pullets and may be ready to lay an egg as young as
18 weeks.

Figure 6. Life cycle of a chicken

 D. Life Cycle of a Human

Life Cycle of Humans: Stages of Human Growth and Development

1. Fertilization - Union of egg cell and sperm cell

The process of human development begins with the process known as prenatal
development. It begins with the union of the egg cell and sperm cell in the process called
fertilization or conception. The chromosomes of the egg cell combine with the
chromosomes of the sperm cell to form a new cell called a zygote. The zygote, which
contains a combination of genetic material from both parents, develops into the
embryo. The embryo then develops embryonic and extra-embryonic tissues, later forming
the fetal membranes and the placenta. An embryo is a term used for the developing
organism from the third week of development until the end of the second month. A fetus
is a term used for the developing organism from the beginning of the third month to birth.
The amnion is a membrane that surrounds the developing organism and contains a clear
fluid that cushions the growing organism. The placenta is a structure through which
materials are exchanged between the blood of the fetus and that of the mother. The
umbilical cord attaches the fetus to the placenta, and blood vessels inside the cord
transport materials to and from the placenta.

2. Birth

During the first stage of labor, contractions of the uterus push the baby towards the cervix.
The cervix dilates, then during the second stage, the baby emerges, and the umbilical
cord is cut; in the third stage, the placenta and the amnion are forced outside the
mother's body by contractions of the uterus.

3. Infancy or Babyhood

After birth, the human undergoes different stages of physical growth and development.
Infancy and Babyhood Stage is the stage from birth to 2 years of age. This stage marks
rapid physical growth. It is considered one of the most remarkable and busiest times of
development. Physical growth occurs rapidly during the first two years of life.
Development occurs in gross and fine motor, language, emotions and temperament.

4. Early and Later Childhood

The early childhood stage happens from two up to 6 years of age. Healthy children at
this stage exhibit significant growth and development in various areas such as social and
emotional, language and communication, movement and physical, and cognitive.
The Late Childhood Stage happens from six up to twelve years of age. Physical
development is slow and steady at this stage. The child gains greater control over his
body. Regarding social development, the child's relationship changes towards others
and generally has multiple social contacts outside the family. Emotionally, the child
controls and understands his emotions and becomes skilled in expressing his emotions.
Most of the child's cognitive development occurs in school as the brain continues
developing.

5. Adolescence

The adolescence stage happens from thirteen up to nineteen years of age. This stage is
considered the transition stage between childhood and adulthood stage. Sex
maturation and rapid physical development happen during this stage. Boys begin to
show secondary sexual traits such as deeper voice due to thickened vocal cords and
increased hair growth on the face, chest, armpits and pubic regions. Some parts of the
body may have more muscles and fats. Inside the body of the male, the testes enlarge
and produce sperm. Among females, secondary characteristics include enlargement of
the breast, development of hair in the armpits and pubic area, and the menstrual cycle.
The female can produce an egg one at a time in the 28-day cycle. Every month there
are changes in the uterus to prepare for the fertilization of the egg and pregnancy when
the egg is fertilized. This includes the thickening of the uterine walls due to increased
female hormones. When an egg is not fertilized, it is released with the lining of the uterus
as menstruation occurs.

6. Early Adulthood

The early adulthood stage happens from nineteen to forty years. This stage of life
generally consists of leaving home, completing education, beginning full-time work,
attaining financial independence, establishing a long-term intimate relationship and
starting a family.

7. Middle Age

The middle age stage happens between the ages of forty and above up to sixty-five. This
stage in life is the transition stage and physical adjustment stage. An individual may
experience a decline in physical and mental capabilities.
8. Old Age

The old age stage happens from sixty-five to death. In this stage, an individual could
experience rapid physical and mental decline and psychological and physical illness.

9. Death

This is the physical condition of the body when all the organs do not function to continue
life. This is sometimes called cellular or organ death. This state may only sometimes
happen after old age as some people die young.

Figure 7. Human life cycle

 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

A. Sexual Reproduction in Plants

The flower is the reproductive organ of a flowering plant. Some plants have flowers that
produce both male and female sex cells. Other kinds have flowers that produce either
male or female sex cells.

1. Pollination can take place only between plants of the same kind. For example, if the
pollen from a papaya blossom lands on guava, no pollination occurs. A mango flower
must be pollinated by pollen grains from another mango flower. When an insect or a
small bird visits a flower, that animal transfers the male sex cells from one flower to
another. This transfer is part of the process of sexual reproduction in flowers.

2. In fertilization, a male sex cell joins with a female sex cell to produce a fertilized cell.

3. After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds. The seed contains the embryo. Ovules
develop into mature seeds, while the ovary develops into a fruit. Fruit is a ripened ovary
that contains one or more mature seeds.

4. When conditions are proper for growth, seeds undergo germination. Germination is the
growth of an embryo into a young plant.

B. Asexual Reproduction or Vegetative Propagation in Plants

Many plants that produce seeds can also reproduce by asexual means. Asexual
reproduction involves only one parent. Asexual reproduction in seed plants is called
vegetative propagation. Vegetative propagation is the development of a new plant
from a parent plant's stem, root, or leaf. In this process, there is no union of an egg cell
and a sperm cell and no seed forms.

1. Use of cuttings

Cutting is a method by which a plant part has been removed from the parent plant and
it will be used to grow a new plant. The plant part used is often a stem with leaves
attached. The cutting may be placed in water, wet soil, or other wet substances. Once
the cutting is planted in the soil, it will grow new stems and leaves. Some essential food
plants such as sugar cane, sweet potato and many ornamental plants are grown from
stem cuttings.
2. Use of Grafting

Grafting is a method in which cutting from one plant is attached to the rooted stem of
another plant. As it grows, the cuttings become part of the rooted plant, but it retains its
traits. Grafting is usually done in trees to increase the amount of fruit a tree produces.
Grafting can also be used to grow fruits on trees that resist drought and disease.

Plant Reproduction: Non-Flowering Plants

Plants need to reproduce to maintain the existence of their species on Earth. Flowering
plants reproduce asexually and sexually, as you have already learned. Not all plants bear
flowers. Mosses, ferns, and pine trees are groups of plants that do not bear flowers for
reproduction. Among mosses, the mature plant produces spores enclosed in a capsule
and when mature, the capsule breaks to release spores, a kind of asexual reproduction.
These spores germinate and grow into mature plants, which you see in moist places like
flower pots, brick walls, forest floors, and river banks. In the mature plant, sex organs
produce either egg or sperm cells. Fertilization may occur to produce a zygote that will
grow into a young plant. A moss plant has parts that develop spores and sex cells. Mosses
then reproduce both sexually and asexually. Among ferns, the plants you see produce
spores on the underside of the leaflets. When the spores are ejected from the spore
cases, they hit moist places, germinate, and grow into heart-shaped gametophytes that
produce female and male sex cells. After fertilization, the zygote grows into a young plant
that is spore-bearing. The underground stems or rhizomes produce young plants. Ferns
are essential in home decorations, landscaping and for floral arrangements. Fiddleheads,
the newly formed leaves of fern, can be eaten as salads.

Conifers, like pine trees, are generally found in places like Baguio and cold countries.
They have needle-like leaves and produce seeds in cones of mature plants. There are
smaller male and bigger female cones that contain the reproductive cells. For conifers,
mature pollen grains are dispersed through wind.

The seeds are naked or not enclosed by a fruit wall. When the female cones release the
seeds, they germinate in moist soil. Pine trees are sources of lumber, ornamental plants in
parks and Christmas decorations. The relatives of pines include the giant redwood tree
(the tallest and largest plant on Earth), bristlecone pine (the oldest plant, more than 5000
yrs. old), cycads, and ginkgos.
 BIODIVERSITY AND EVOLUTION

Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms on Earth. Animals and plants are found
almost everywhere on this planet. You have enjoyed the songs of birds, and the scent of
flowers, tasted fruits, and enjoyed taking care of your pets. You may have had the
chance to feed chickens in your backyard, ride on the back of a carabao, and catch
shrimps and fish in the fishponds. This module will introduce you to the world of plants and
animals, where they live, what structures they have to classify them, and the general
concept of biodiversity. Let us first look at the parts and functions of plants and animals
and how they contribute to our environment.

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS

Plants are the Earth's producers. They undergo photosynthesis by capturing the sun's
energy and converting it into sugars they need to survive. Ultimately, almost all Earth's
living forms depend on plants for survival and nutrition. Plants are photosynthetic
autotrophs, multicellular, and eukaryotic. They have cell walls and chloroplasts similar to
the ones found in algae. About 500 million years ago, small plants evolved and colonized
the land. Most of the plants we will refer to in this chapter are terrestrial, but some have
also returned to some aquatic habitats, like seagrasses.

The presence of land plants enabled other organisms, like animals, to survive the dry land.
Plants give off oxygen, provide nourishment, and some parts of a plant may even serve
as habitats for other populations of organisms.

• Plant Tissues

Tissues are composed of cells that form organs and organ systems. In any plant organ,
i.e., root, stem, and leaf, there are three basic tissues: dermal, vascular, and ground. Each
tissue system is continuous throughout each plant organ with detailed variations or
adaptations.
The outer protective covering of the plant body is the dermal tissue. It is the first line of
defense against damage and bacteria. The epidermis is a single tissue layer in non-
woody plants. A cuticle or waxy layer coats the epidermal tissue to prevent water loss.
Water droplets rush down the leaves when it rains due to the cuticle. Almost all plants
possess a waxy cuticle. Trichomes are unique hair-like structures from the epidermis such
as those hairy-like structures found in squash leaves.
The periderm is found in woody plants and consists of many layers of cells. In old trees,
the bark is made of the periderm.
The vascular tissue system functions to transport or conduct water and other materials
between the root and the shoot. To transport water from the roots to the upper portions
of the plant, xylem tissues are involved. Tracheids and vessels are the water-conducting
cells of the xylem. The phloem makes possible the upward and downward movement of
sugars and other solutes from the leaves and into growing parts of the plant. The phloem
consists of sieve tube elements, a chain of cells, like in the xylem tissue, that provide a
tubular pathway in which materials travel. A sieve tube member has an adjacent actual
living companion cell.
The term "stele" denotes a stem or root's vascular tissues (xylem and phloem). The
arrangement of vascular bundles in a stele differs between root and stem and whether
the plant is a monocot or dicot. Variations also occur in the arrangement of vascular
bundles in different species of plants.

The ground tissue system is neither dermal nor vascular. The pith is the ground tissue
internal to the vascular tissue. The cortex is the ground tissue or group of cells external to
the vascular tissue.

Plant cells or tissues that continue to divide to form new organs are called meristems.
Plants have indeterminate growth because portions of plants continue to produce new
leaves, stems, and flowers. Tips of roots and shoots that continue to lengthen and contain
apical meristems. The meristematic root tissues also respond to gravity. The shoot apical
meristem grows toward the light. Most dicots, such as the mung bean, santan, and the
Narra tree, have fast-growing apical meristems responsible for their upward growth.
These make possible primary growth in plants. Some plants that grow in thickness such as
large stems are capable of secondary growth. Lateral meristems, the vascular cambium,
and the cork cambium cause this.

• Plant Cell Types

In most plants, the three main cell types are parenchyma, collenchyma, and
sclerenchyma.
Parenchyma cells have walls that are thin and flexible. They lack secondary walls. A large
central vacuole occurs in parenchyma cells. They perform most metabolic functions in
plants. Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. Plastids store
starch found in the parenchyma of stems and roots. The fleshy part of the fruit is mainly
parenchyma.

Collenchyma cells have thicker primary walls. The cell walls are unevenly thickened.
These cells are grouped in strands and help support young parts of the plant.
Strands of collenchyma are found in young stems and petioles. Cells of collenchyma
provide flexible support in plants.
Sclerenchyma cells are very rigid with thick secondary walls containing lignin. This
indigestible polymer is the main component of wood. Sclerenchyma cells have stopped
elongating. Most are dead at functional maturity. Sclereids and fibers are the two types
of sclerenchyma for support. Hard seed coats contain sclereids, while long and tapered
fibres can be used commercially as hemp fibers.

• Plant Organs
Roots, stems, and leaves form root and shoot systems, respectively. Vascular plants
depend on both systems for survival. In general, roots are not photosynthetic, and they
depend on the shoot system. For nutrition, the shoot system, i.e., stems and leaves,
depends on nutrients the roots absorb from the soil. Vegetative growth refers to the
production of reproductive stems, roots, and leaves at one stage in the plant life cycle.
In angiosperms, reproductive shoots develop flowers consisting of leaves and other
structures for sexual reproduction.

Roots
A root anchors a plant in the soil. It absorbs water and minerals and may store
carbohydrates. A taproot consists of one vertical primary root, giving rise to lateral roots.
The fleshy part of the carrot is a taproot. Plants with taproots elongate deep into the soil
where the groundwater is not shallow. A fibrous root system occurs in grasses. Many small
roots emerge from the stem. These roots are called "adventitious" and may arise from
stems or leaves. Fibrous roots do not contain a primary root, but small short roots arise.
Root hairs increase the root's surface area to absorb water and minerals.

Some modifications and adaptations of roots are as follows:

1. Storage roots- modified roots for storage of starch and water
2. Prop roots - aerial roots which support the tall, top-heavy trees such as in the
banyan tree
3. Pneumatophores-air roots produced by mangroves in tidal swamps
4. Aerial roots - germinate in branches of tall trees of other species and grow
numerous roots to the ground. Mangroves have aerial roots.
5. Buttress roots- aerial roots that give structural support to the main trunk of a tree,
such as those in kapok trees

Stems
The shoot system of a plant consists of stems, leaves, and other branches. The stem holds
the plant upward and spreads the leaves to catch the sunlight. In dicots, a stem has an
alternating system of nodes and internodes. The node is the point of attachment of a leaf
to the stem. An axillary bud in the upper portion can form a lateral shoot or a branch. The
shoot tip consists of an apical bud with developing leaves and a compact series of nodes
and internodes. Some modified stems include rhizomes (ginger), bulbs (onion), tubers
(potatoes), and stolons, horizontal shoots in a strawberry, which enable the plant to
reproduce asexually, forming plantlets.

Leaves
The leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of a plant with a flattened blade and a stalk
called the petiole. The petiole is connected to the stem at a node. Monocots lack
petioles; the base of a leaf forms a structure that envelops the stem. Veins are the
vascular tissues of leaves which differ in monocots and eudicots. Monocots have parallel
venation, while eudicots have a branched net of major veins. Plants of the grass family
(rice, corn, sorghum) are monocots. Taxonomists rely on leaf and floral morphology in
identifying angiosperms. Most leaves function for photosynthesis. Some have adaptations
that enable the plant to perform other functions. These are:
1. Tendrils in the pea plant, are modified leaves. They extend and cling for support.
2. Spines in cactus plants
3. Storage leaves with nutrients in the water, such as the onion
4. Bracts in the poinsettia are modified leaves, mistaken for petals. These colored
leaves attract pollination.
5. Reproductive leaves produce adventitious plantlets that fall off the leaf and take root
in the soil. Examples are those in African violet and begonia.

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF ANIMALS

Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that lack cell walls. Unlike plants, they
cannot produce their food. Animals eat other living organisms, ingest them, and use
enzymes to break down the food to be used by our body. Energy in the form of
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) will be used for different cellular and organismic processes.

We belong to the animal kingdom. During the last billion years of evolution, animals
probably originated from a group of protists called choanoflagellates. This is verified by
morphological and molecular evidence. In this chapter, we will discuss the parts and
functions of animals with particular reference to the human body. Organ systems are
composed of organs, which are composed of tissues and specialized cells.

Parts of an animal can be better understood if we trace its development. Sperms fertilize
eggs, and the resulting zygote undergoes development by subsequent mitotic divisions
or cleavage. A blastula is formed, which further differentiates into a gastrula, a structure
with three layers of cells, the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. The ectoderm gives
rise to the outer layer of the animal, such as skin, fur, hair, and horns. It also gives rise to
the central nervous system. The endoderm is the innermost layer and gives rise to various
internal organs. The mesoderm's middle layer gives rise to the muscles, bones, and other
connective tissues. In some animals, the gastrula further develops into an embryo,
exhibiting rapid growth and further tissue differentiation to become a fetus and, finally, a
newborn baby. Some animals have larval stages which undergo metamorphosis.

Differential gene expression leads to the formation and maturation of specialized tissues
in the animal, which eventually produce organs and organ systems.

Animal Specialized Tissues

Animal tissues arise from the gastrula. Some animal tissues include the epithelium,
connective and blood tissues, muscle, and bone. The epithelium is the outer, protective
covering of the animal body. In humans, the skin is composed of an outer layer of cells
called the epidermis. In plants, the epidermis is just a single layer of cells. Epithelial cells
are referred to as squamous, cuboidal, or columnar. A simple epithelium consists of only
one layer of cells. If there are two or more layers of cells, it is called stratified.

Connective tissues include the blood, cartilage, bone, and connective tissue proper.

Blood is a tissue composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and a liquid
portion called the plasma. Red blood cells supply oxygen to all body cells. White blood
cells fight invading bacteria and viruses. Platelets are essential in blood clotting. The
blood serves to transport nutrients throughout the body. They also carry hormones
secreted by the endocrine glands for proper metabolic processes. The blood plasma
carries vitamins, essential compounds, and ions. Blood is filtered by the kidneys, which
form urine, to eliminate toxic wastes from the body.

Cartilages are found in joints and special parts of the body. Cartilage cells are called
chondrocytes embedded in a matrix. During development, cartilage hardens to
become bone tissue, with cells called osteocytes.

Connective tissue proper may be loose or dense. Both contain cells, fibers, and ground
substances. The dermis is a connective tissue. Dense connective tissue has more layers
of protein fibers, such as collagen, reticulin, and elastin. Tendons and ligaments are
examples of dense connective tissues.
 ANIMAL HABITATS

Water or aquatic animals such as fishes, clams, starfish, squid,

sharks, and tilapia live in water. They have a different body
covering- such as scales, shells, and skin. Fishes and sharks have
fins for swimming, while squids and octopuses have tentacles.
Water animals also have various sizes, colors and shapes.

Mussels are attached to rock or reared in bamboo poles, while

clams have shells that protect the inside soft body from solid
waves. These are found burrowing on sandy or muddy shores.

Frogs live in rice paddies, ponds, and rivers and are classified as
land-water animals. They have four legs with webbed feet for
swimming but also use the same for walking on moist soil. Their
skin protects them when they leave the water for a short time.

Some animals fly and stay in tree branches like most birds and
insects. Both have wings moving from one place to another. Birds
have light-weight bodies covered by feathers and strong claws
to hold onto branches. Insects are generally small yet can fly
long distances to look for food at the same time, pollinate
flowers. These are aerial animals.
 PLANT HABITATS

Land plants are naturally found in

grasslands, forests and deserts, and
artificial communities like farms and
regenerated forests. A typical plant
has roots, stems, and leaves. Roots
anchor the plants to the ground as
well as absorb water that is needed
for growth. Some roots spread over
the vast surface, while other plants
have roots that grow deep in the soil.
Among desert plants, the roots are
very shallow to gather as much water
when it rains very quickly. These plants
also have succulent stems and leaves
to reduce the plant's water loss. Stems
grow upright that connect the roots
to the leaves. Among vines such as grapes and ampalaya, they have tendrils that curl
around the fence or other plants for support. Some underground stems store food like
rhizomes of ginger, tubers of potatoes and bulbs in onion and garlic. Sugarcane stores
food in its stems. Leaves are the plant's food factory; hence these are usually found
above the ground, where they are exposed to sunlight and can absorb gases for food
production. Plants need stored food for their body functions. Leaves vary in size, shape
and arrangement on the stem. The spines of cacti are specialized leaves adapted to
survive scorching areas. Aloe vera and several species of cactus have fleshy leaves.

Most aquatic plants are algae that grow in the sea or

freshwater ponds and lakes.
These plants have no vascular tissues to transport water to
plant body parts, hence the need to live in water. The
leaves can produce food during photosynthesis. Water lily
has broad leaves that stay on the water surface for
greater exposure to sunlight needed to produce food but
have roots that anchor the plant. Water hyacinth has
porous leaf stalks that enable the plant to float and
submerge roots.
 Orchids develop roots that anchor them on stems above the
ground. These absorb moisture from the air. These are referred
to as aerial plants. Some ferns grow on tree trunks since they
have roots that anchor them. Nutrients for their growth are
derived from moisture in the air and those trapped at the base
of the plant.

ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

Human beings are classified as mammals, along with

goats, cows, dogs, cats, and mice. Mammals have
external and internal sex organs. Recall that among
female and male human beings, there is external
genitalia that scientists use to identify whether the
newly born individual is a male or a female. This is also
true for cows, dogs, cats, and other mammals. There
are internal female and male reproductive structures in
humans that we have learned in the previous module.
There are similarities in the structures of the other
mammals that produce the sex cells, such as the ovary
and the testis. Internal fertilization of the egg by the
sperm occurs when the male and female individuals
are mated. Gestation occurs inside the female uterus until an offspring is born.

Among birds, such as chickens, the male or

rooster can be identified by the comb
on its head and its prominent tail feathers.
Hens have smaller comb and tail feathers.
During mating, the rooster transfers the sperm
to the hen by rubbing its cloaca against
that of the female resulting in internal
fertilization. The cloaca is an opening in the
bird through which sperm and egg pass.
Frogs have paired gonads and oviducts found inside the
body connected to the cloacae (plural of cloaca).

The female fish has paired ovaries that produce eggs

released through the oviducts to the uterus or the body
cavity. The male fish has paired testes that produce
the sperm.

Earthworms are hermaphrodites. They have both male and female

sex organs in one individual. An individual can produce sperm and
eggs; during mating, either one can provide the egg or sperm that
is fertilized.

In insects such as bees, the testis produces sperm in males, and the
ovaries produce eggs in females. The oviducts provide space for sex
cells to travel to the uterus. Female insects may store sperm in the
spermatheca (an accessory organ).

Some animals do not have sexual organs for

reproduction. In the case of hydra, a coelenterate growing in freshwater, a
new animal is produced by a "bud" from its main body, which eventually
grows and separates from the parent body.

PLANT REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

Most plants you see around have flowers which are the sex organs of these
plants. An individual produces male and female cones among non-flowering plants like
pine trees. In ferns, the spores formed in the leaves germinate into heart-shaped
plants that contain sex cells. Mosses have spores that germinate into young moss
plants but grow into male or female, producing sex cells. Plant parts like leaves, stems,
and roots give rise to new plants.

Animal Classification
There are millions of different species of animals in many places around the world.
They differ in size, body covering and other features. One way to classify animals is
by its body structure and presence of backbones. Animals with backbones are referred
to vertebrates, and those without are the invertebrates. Vertebrates have bony
endoskeleton or backbone. There are five major groups of vertebrates, mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians and fishes. Below is a summary of the differences among
vertebrates:

Table 1. Classification of Vertebrates

CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALS BIRDS REPTILES AMPHIBIANS FISHES
BODY Fur or hair Feather Scales Skin Scales
COVERING
BREATHING Lungs Lungs Lungs Gills (young) Gills
ORGAN Lungs
(Adult)
WARM OR COLD Warm Warm Cold Cold Cold
BLOODED
REPRODUCTION Give birth Lay eggs Most lay Lay eggs Most lay eggs
to young that hatch eggs that hatch
(except outside the
platypus body
and
echidna)
HABITAT Terrestrial: Woodland, Aquatic Aquatic Aquatic
desert, aquatic, and and
tropical scrub-shrub, terrestrial terrestrial
rainforest, and open
polar habitats
icecaps

EXAMPLES Human, Eagle, Owl, Snake, Toad, Newt, Shark, Koi,

horse, Gull Iguana, Frog, Salmon
tarsier, Alligator, Salamander
monkey Tortoise
Invertebrates are composed of several major phyla or groups. The table below shows a
summary:
Table 2. Classification of Invertebrates
GROUP UNIQUE FEATURE OF HABITAT EXAMPLES
THE BODY

Porifera Sessile, body is loosely Water Venus flower basket

organized

Cnidarians Radially symmetrical, Water Jellyfish, hydra, corals

presence of stinging
cells, tentacles

Platyhelminthes Flat bodies, two body

Water, for parasites Tapeworm, planaria
segments species they are
found inside cow
and pig
Nematodes Unsegmented round Soil, water, inside Ascaris, pinworms
body human intestine
(parasite)
Annelids Segmented, soft Moist soil, water Earthworm, leech
body
Molluscs Soft body Water, land Snail, clam, slug
Arthropods Presence of Land, water, air Shrimp, crab, spider
exoskeleton, body is
divided into three
segments with paired
legs that vary in
number

Echinoderms Radially symmetrical Water Sea star, sea urchin,

body, move by sea cucumber
means of tube feet
Plant Classification
Plants, like animals, are placed in groups based on specific characteristics. Plants
have two general groups, vascular and non-vascular plants. Vascular plants have
tube-like structures that transport water and nutrients in the plant body.
The non-vascular plants have no well-developed transport parts. There are other
characteristics as the basis of sorting plants, such as (a) with flowers or without, (b) spore
seed-bearing, (c) habitat where they grow, (d) plant habit and (d) need
for water. Furthermore, flowering plants may be classified according to the number of
cotyledons, leaf venation, number of flower parts, arrangement of vascular tissues and
type of root system. The table below presents the basic information on plant groups.

Table 3. Classification of Plants

Group Major Characteristics Examples
Non vascular plants: Low growing, plants live in Mosses, liverworts,
Bryophytes moist places, lack well hornworts
developed roots, stems,
and leaves
Vascular Plants:
Tracheophytes
a. Ferns Seedless, spore bearing, Tree ferns, maiden hair fern,
live in moist places and tree horsetail, club moss
trunks, reproduce sexually
and asexually
b. Gymnosperms Non-flowering, mostly with Gnetophyte, cycad,
seeds found in cones, conifers
conifers with needle-like
leaves, grow in cool and
dry places
c. Angiosperms: True flowers, seed bearing, Rice, corn, banana,
Monocot one cotyledon, parallel coconut, onion
leaf veins, flower parts in
multiple of three, vascular
tissue scattered in the stem,
fibrous roots
d. Angiosperms: Dicot True flowers, seed bearing, Ilang-ilang, cinnamon,
two cotyledons, netted sunflower, daisy, marigold
leaf veins, flower parts in
multiple of five, vascular
tissue arranged in a circle in
the stem, taproot system
An ecosystem refers to the interactions that exist among organisms and between
organisms and their physical environment. In the environment, each organism finds what
it needs to survive. Together with the other organisms in the environment, plants and
animals form a dynamic, healthy community. This module will introduce you to the
interactions of organisms in different types of ecosystems. The module also presents how
organisms obtain their food and energy and how to conserve and protect the
environment.

Interactions of organisms in the environment may be beneficial or harmful. The

interaction is beneficial if one or more organisms benefit from the interaction. On
the other hand, if the interaction harms the organism, then it is harmful
interaction.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
Mutualism is a symbiosis in which both organisms benefit from the interaction. A sea
anemone living on the shell of a hermit crab is an example of mutualism. The sea
anemone hides the hermit crab and helps to protect it from predators. A sea anemone
cannot move from place to place on its own. When the hermit crab moves around, it
carries the sea anemone. This increases the area in which the anemone can feed.

Commensalism is a symbiotic interaction in which one organism is helped, and the other
is neither helped nor harmed. An orchid living in a tree is an example of commensalism.
The orchid has a place to live. The tree is not affected by the orchid.

Parasitism is a harmful interaction. In this type of interaction, the organism that benefits
are called the parasite. The organism that is harmed is called the host. A parasite lives in
or on the body of the host. An example of parasitism is the tick living on the dog. The dog
on which the tick lives is the host, while the tick is the parasite. The tick gets nutrients from
the blood of the dog. The dog may be weakened by the loss of nutrients from the
presence of many ticks.

Predation is another example of a harmful interaction. It involves the eating of one living
organism by another. It is also known as the predator-prey relationship. The organism that
is eaten is called the prey, and the organism that kills and eats the other organism is called
the predator. Examples of predation are snakes feeding on chicks, eagle feeding on
monkeys and shark feeding on small fish.
Competition is another example of a harmful interaction. Plants may compete for
available nutrients, water, sunlight and soil. Animals compete with members of the same
species and other species for resources, food and hiding places to avoid predators. If the
competition is between organisms of the same species, it is called intraspecific
competition. On the other hand, interspecific competition is between organisms of
different species.

When a number of species live together in a habitat, we call this a biotic community.
Ecosystems vary in size (small body of a cat with ticks and mites, a big one like a rain
forest of the Amazon) and where these are found. Different ecosystems compose a
biome, and biomes compose the biosphere. The living world is the biosphere. Let us
discuss further examples of ecosystems found in the Philippines.

Mangrove swamps are found on

many coastal shores of the country. In
Panay, for example, several
mangrove forests include century-old
sturdy trees. Mangrove trees can live
in salty water like Rhizophora,
Sonneratia and Avicennia. They have
special roots, such as prop, cable,
knee, and plank, that enable them to
survive. Some species even release
salt particles in their leaves. Fishes,
crabs, snails, oysters, shipworms,
prawns and shrimps are plenty in Figure 8. Mangrove swamps in Panay Island
mangrove swamps. Several interactions occur in mangroves - hermit crabs borrow empty
shells of snails as shelter, milkfish compete with other species for food, ants make nests in
tree trunks, and birds feed on fruits of the trees. Mangroves protect the coasts from being
eroded by storm surges. Commercially essential species use mangroves as breeding or
nursery grounds. Mangroves are nature's chest of food for humans, including medicines
and dye, materials for shelter, boats and lumber for furniture. Stands of nipa palm are
established for roofing materials, and rows of bakhaw or Rhizophora are planted for
firewood and lumber. Extensive roots of mangroves remove silt and debris, making the
water clean. The mangroves are natural air cleaners using carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and releasing oxygen.
Coral reefs are the most beautiful
underwater ecosystem in the sea.
A reef is made of hard corals
known as the hermatypic corals.
Extensive colonies over the years
can form mounds of reefs. The
Philippines is home to the
Tubbataha Reef, a world heritage
natural formation. This is
home to thousands of animal
species like crabs, sea slugs, eels,
soft corals, stony corals, jellyfishes,
shellfishes and different species of Figure 9. Tubbataha Reef
sea stars and fishes.

The tropical rain forest consist of trees like

Narra, lauan, molave and associated
species like abaca, orchids, bamboo, vines,
ferns and shrubs. Monkeys, fruit bats, snakes,
butterflies and other insects, spiders, birds,
tree frogs, monitor lizards and many more
are found in the forest. The forest floor may
be covered by thick mats of mosses,
liverworts, and crawling millipedes and
centipedes that find food. The country also
Figure 10. Palawan Rain Forest has mossy forests where the common plants
are mosses on the forest floor or in masses in tree trunks and branches. Interactions in
forests are those between abiotic and biotic factors. Water, sunlight, soil, minerals, gases
and elements of climate are factors needed by biotic components. For example, a tree
needs sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce food. A woodpecker needs a tree
trunk for shelter, to build nests and capture food from its surroundings. A butterfly sucks
nectar from orchid flowers and distributes pollen grains to other orchids. A fruit bat feeds
on ripe fruits and distributes undigested seeds. Mosquitoes bite human beings in the
forest. Ear fungi decompose dead trunks of trees. In these cases, plants are producers,
animals are consumers (herbivores that feed on plants, carnivores that feed on animals,
and omnivores that feed on both plants and animals), and fungi are decomposers. The
relationships or interactions are varied in ecosystems. Grasslands or meadows abound in
our country and are also ecosystems on land. Other parts of the world are deserts,
temperate forests, tundra, taiga and scrub forests.
Disturbances in ecosystems are either natural or artificial occur. For example, typhoons
may bring about landslides, floods, and storm surges that destroy habitats and wipe out
organisms. Forests were converted to agricultural uses limiting the habitat of the forest
animals. Human activities have endangered many species- logging, mining, hunting,
and tourism. Many fishponds and coastal areas that were not protected by buffer zones
of mangroves were destroyed by storm surges. As the human population increases, it puts
pressure on resources from mangroves, like the overharvesting of fishery and forestry
products. Man dredges and fills in the edges of mangroves to expand land, and the
mangrove swamps are gone. Roads and buildings for residential and commercial uses
fill up the area in many cities. The estuaries receive pollutants from oil slicks and spills.

Maintaining balance and sustainability is a major challenge in our studied ecosystems.

While we have artificial ecosystems (farms, cities, fishponds, dams, and Seaports), we
must have conservation practices. There are government laws and resources
management that the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the Local
Government and the community people have to work together for proper
implementation. It is the Philippine Environment Code (P.D. 1152) that began the crafting
of laws dedicated to the environment. LGS have various ordinances, programs and
awards for the environment. Along coastal areas, you might pass by a sign that this
particular barangay is a marine sanctuary. There are protected areas like parks and
wildlife. People may involve in tree farming for land and mangrove forests. They are also
critical players in integrated coastal resource management programs. Schools have
various initiatives such as tree planting, landscaping, environmental quiz contests, and
green school awards to intensify knowledge and improve practices for environmental
protection.

References:

Bilbao, P., Jusayan, S., Morano, L., & Tingson, L. (2019). Teaching Science in the
Elementary Grades (Vol. 1) [Review of Teaching Science in the Elementary
Grades]. LORI MAR.

Butterfly Life Cycle. (n.d.). The Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University.
https://ansp.org/exhibits/online-exhibits/butterflies/lifecycle/

School Learning Zone - Animal Life Cycles. (n.d.). https://school-

learningzone.co.uk/key_stage_two/ks2_science/the_living_world/animal_li
fe_cycles/animal_life_cycles.html