An Instructional Material

for

Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching
EDUC 30073

DR. CECILIA R. ALAGON

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preliminaries Page
Title Page………………………………………………………………………… 1
Table of Contents………………………………………………….…………… 2

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UNIT 1: Metacognition
Metacognition……………...………………………………….…... 3
The Three Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge……………3
Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning…………………3
The 14 Psychological Principles………….………..………..….. 4
Assessment…………………………………………………………5
UNIT 2: Focus on the Learner
Theories Related to The Learner’s Development..……………. 6
Individual Differences….………………………………………… .8
Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences…...…….………… ..9
Global vs. Analytic Learner…………………………………… …11
Learning with Exceptionalities……………………...…….…… ...12
Assessment………………………………………………………...13
UNIT 3: Focus on Learning
Behaviorist Perspective………………….….…………….………15
Neo-Behaviorism…………………………………………………..17
Cognitive Perspective…………………………………..…………19
Gestalt Psychology……………....…………… …………….…...21
Information Processing…………………..……………………......26
Gagne’s Condition of Learning……………………………………27
Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal/Subsumption Theory…………….29
Bruner’s Constructivist Theory……………………………………31
Assessment…………… ……….…………………………………..32
UNIT 4: Cognitive Processes
Constructivism……………………………………..….….…..….…33
Transfer of Learning…….………………..…....………..………....35
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives..………………….36
Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model.. 37
Assessment…………………….……………………………………39
UNIT 5: Focus on Classroom Processes
Motivation……………………………….……………………………40
Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation…………………………43
Student Diversity in Motivation……………………………………..45
Human Environmental factors Affecting Motivation……………...46
The Classroom Climate……………………………………………..48
The Physical Learning Environment……………………………….49
Assessment Strategies that Can Increase Motivation…………...49
Assessment…………………………………………………………..51
Unit 1
Metacognition
Topics:
 Metacognition
 The 14 Psychological Principles

Overview

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This course explores the fundamental principles, processes, and practices anchored on learner-
centeredness and other educational psychologies as these apply to facilitate various teaching-
learning delivery modes to enhance learning.
Learning Objectives:
After a successful completion of the lesson, the students should be able to:
• explain metacognition in their own words
• apply metacognition strategies in student’s own initiative as a novice or expert learner
• advocate the use of 14 principles
Metacognition
 awareness or analysis of one’s own learning or thinking process
 thinking about thinking or learning how to learn
 becoming "aware of one's awareness" and higher-order thinking skills.
 coined by John Flavell
Three Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge
1. Knowledge of Person Variables
> Knowledge about how human beings learn and process information.
> For example, studying early in the morning and late at night.
> Working better in a quiet library rather than at home where there are lotof things that make it
hard for you to focus and concentrate.
2. Knowledge of Task Variables
> Knowledge about the nature of task.
> It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging itsdifficulty and knowing
the kind of effort it will demand for you.
> For example, being aware that you take more time in reading a book ineducational philosophy
than reading a novel.
3. Knowledge of Strategy Variables
> Involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic.
> Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task at hand.
Metacognition can help children to know who they are, through metacognition and its part.
Metacognition defines awareness or analysis of one’s own learning or thinking processes
METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES TO FACILITATE LEARNING
TQLR – it is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or a presentation.
T – TUNE IN It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is paying attention,
and that he is ready to learn.
Q – QUESTION The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about what he will soon
learn.
L – LISTEN The learner exerts effort to listen.
R – REMEMBER The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.
PQ4R – this strategy is used in a study of a unit or chapter
P – PREVIEW Scan the whole chapter before delving in each paragraph
Q – QUESTION Read the guide question provided, or think of your own questions about the
topic.
R – READ Check out sub headings as you read. Find out the meaning of words that are not
clear to you.
R – RECITE Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R – REVIEW Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read in order to understand better.
R – REFLECT
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

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The LCP were put together by the American Psychological Association. The following 14
psychological principles pertain to the learner and the earning process.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to:
– Cognitive and metacognitive
– Motivational and affective
– Developmental and social
– Individual difference factors
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR
1. Nature of Learning Process
the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process
the successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge
the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base.
4. Strategic Thinking
the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and concept
learning.
5. Thinking about thinking
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress towards these goals.
6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional
practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure can
enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along
with persistence over time.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR
10. Developmental influences on learning
learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.

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Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented
in an enjoyable and interesting way.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR
12. Individual differences in learning
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify
them, if necessary.
13. Learning and diversity
the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
14. Standards and assessment
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process.
Assessment
1. Surf the internet for additional readings on metacognition.
2. Make a collection of metacognitive strategies that can make learning more effective and
efficient.
3.Make a collection of teaching strategies that develop metacognition in students.
Reflection:
1. As a future educator how are you going to apply this 14 learner-centered principle to make
your teaching strategy effective?
Research Connection:
Read a research or study related to metacognition. Fill out the graphic organizer below.

Problem Research Methodology

Title and Source: (Complete APA bibliographical entry

format

Findings Conclusion

Unit 2
FOCUS ON THE LEARNER
Topics
• Review of Theories Related to the Learner’s Development
• Student Diversity
 Individual Differences
 Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences
 Learners with Exceptionalities

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Overview
One can be an effective facilitator of learning if one has a good working knowledge of the
learners’ development. This module aims to help you think about and review these theories that
you have taken up and connect them to learning.

Learning Objectives:
After a successful completion of the lesson, the students should be able to:
• Identify the salient concepts and principles of the major development theories and the different
factors that bring about diversity in the classroom.
• describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligence and basic categories
of exceptional learners
• apply these theories to teaching-learning situations

Introduction
Perhaps Freud’s single most enduring and important idea was that the human psyche
(personality) has more than one aspect. Freud (1923) saw the psyche structured into three parts
(i.e. tripartite), the id, ego and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives.

Sigmund Freud put forward the notion that a child goes through their development in
“Psychosexual Stages”. Freud viewed this theory as a child needing to change their erogenous
zones as they age. With this he claims that if a child transfers its libidinal energy, meaning the
emotional energy which is usually sexually related, successfully then the energy will move on to
the next zone. Yet if there are problems such as frustration or overindulgence, then the energy
will become either transfixed in the zone it is in or it will fall back to an earlier zone. This will
mean that development will be impaired.
There are altogether five stages in Freud’s theory, they are:
1. The Oral Stage. This is from birth to 18 months old.
2. The Anal Stage. This is from 18 months to 3-5 years old.
3. The Phallic Stage. This is from 3-5 to 6-8 years old.
4. The Latency Stage. This is from 6-8 to puberty.
5. The Benital Stage. This is from puberty to death.

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development as articulated by Erik Erikson, is

apsychoanalytic theory which identifes eight stages through which a healthily developing human
should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage, the person confronts, and hopefully
masters, new challenges. Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages.
The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems
in the future. However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage.
Erikson’s stage theory characterizes an individual advancing through the eight life stages as a
function of negotiating his or her biological forces and sociocultural forces. Each stage is
characterized by a psychosocial crisis of these two conflicting forces (as shown in the table
below). If an individual does indeed successfully reconcile these forces (favoring the frst
mentioned attribute in the crisis), he or she emerges from the stage with the corresponding
virtue. For example, if an infant enters into the toddler stage (autonomy vs. shame and doubt)
with more trust than mistrust, he or she carries the virtue of hope into the remaining life stages.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist who had a lifelong interest in how
individuals, especially children, use cognitive development to adapt to the world around them.
Piaget published his first paper by the age of 10, completed his bachelor’s degree by the age
of 18, and at the age of 22 received his PhD from the University of Neuchatel.Piaget spent
many years of his life researching the developmental and cognitive knowledge of children. The

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Theory of Cognitive Development places focus on human intelligence and developmental
thinking. “Influenced by his background in biology, Piaget (1950) viewed intelligence as
a process that helps an organism adapt to its environment” (Rider and Sigelman, 2006, p41.)
At an early age, and pretty much the rest of his life, Piaget devoted many years of his life to the
study of Cognitive development in children. According to Piaget, children use their own
interpretation of the world to help them solve problems.

After obtaining hundreds of responses to moral dilemmas, one groundbreaking cognitive-

developmental psychologist, Lawrence Kohlberg, proposed that the development of moral
reasoning is characterized by a sequence of six stages grouped into three general levels of
morality: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
Vygotsky’s theory development emphasizes sociocultural influences on development.Some
important elements of this theory include apprenticeship style learning, scaffolding,inner and
outer speech, and the zone of proximal development. According to Vygotsky,the most effective
teaching and learning goes on in a student’s Zone of Proximal Development. The ZND is a
spectrum which lies between two extremes: what the student can do independently and what
the student can do with maximal help from a teacher. Then a student is frst learning a concept,
the teacher provides a lot of hints and support. As the student masters the concept, this support
(called scaffolding) is gradually withdrawn. McCormick and Pressley 2007.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory shows how people can have influence on each other and, depending
on how close you are or what system you’re in, how much influence they can have on you.
I never really stopped to think about how people infuence me before I learned about
Bronfenbrenner’s theory. I never thought if the reason I was influenced by something was
because I thought the thing I was influenced by was important to me or not or if it was because
source of information that I got through a person who cared for me.

For example, mass media never really affected me much unless my friends said it was a cool
thing. I never really thought about how it was a tier system. How it affected me more because
my friends thought it was cool than if I had just found it on my own. Then after that I wanted
to see what it was. I never realized that the main reason I enjoyed whatever I was enjoying
so much was because my friends were enjoying it too. Whenever I think about how I’m going to
be a teacher one day, I realize that I will have an influence on children’s lives. That I could
be the difference between if a child succeeds or fails educationally. It makes me proud to know
that one day I could be a special part of somany kids’ lives. Brofenbrenner’s theory showed me
how and why I will affect these children and it was an eye opener.

Individual Differences
You’ve probably heard someone say, “Everyone is unique.” Though it sounds really like a
clichẻ, one cannot ignore the truth in it. As a facilitator of learning, the teacher is asked to
consider the individual differences among the students in planning for effective instruction.
Factors that bring about student diversity
In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some way different from
them. It also comes from other factors like the following:
1. Socioeconomic status- a millionaire’s lifestyle is different from that of the middle or lower
income group
2. Thinking/learning style- some learn better by seeing; others by just listening; and others by
manipulating something

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3. Exceptionalities- in a class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language
comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
How student diversity enriches the learning environment
A teacher may be “challenged” to handle a class with diverse students. There may be students
having different cultural background, language abilities, attitudes, aptitudes and behaviors.
Some teachers might see this diversity as a difficult predicament. A wise teacher may choose to
respect and celebrate diversity! Discover the benefits and learning opportunities that student
diversity can bring to your classroom.
1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to others with
diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their awareness of
themselves. When they see how others are different, students are given reference points or
comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values and
behaviors.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The opportunity to gain access
to the perspectives of peers and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only,
may be especially important for promoting the cognitive development of learners. Supreme
Court Justice, William J. Brennan said: “The classroom is peculiarly the ‘marketplace of ideas.’
The depth and breadth of student learning are enhanced by exposure to others from diverse
backgrounds. Student diversity in the classroom brings about different points of view and varied
approaches to the learning process.
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible member of society
Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for instructional
strategies that capitalize on diversity: “The capacity to imagine situation or problems from all
perspective and to appreciate all aspects of diversity”. Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom
can provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the
classroom becames a ‘public place’ where community can be practiced.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into the
classroom teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious
race relations. Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be
encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another on learning tasks that emphasize unity
of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of backgrounds.
How to Bring Diversity into Classroom Settings
Since diversity is something that needs to be fostered in the classroom, here are a few tips that
teachers should keep in mind:
1. Understand your students
One of the best ways to foster an inclusive environment in the classroom is by understanding
each individual student. Take the time to understand the strengths, weaknesses, personality
traits, and learning styles of the students in your classroom.
As a teacher, this level of engagement with the students shows that you have a vested interest
in their success. Always remember that all students learn differently, so by taking the time to
understand each student, you’ll also make the teaching process easier on you.
2. Incorporate different teaching styles
As mentioned, each student learns in different ways. Some students may be more visual than
others, while some students may be more hands-on in terms of learning. By incorporating
different teaching styles to accommodate different ways of learning, not only do you ensure that
each student is learning the material effectively, you also broaden students’ abilities.
If students who typically learn better in one specific way are constantly exposed to a variety of
different learning methods they may become inclined to try different approaches to learning.
This will help them to push their limits and really step outside of their comfort zones.
3. Equal Access to Opportunities

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Make sure each student has an equal chance to participate and contribute to what’s going on in
the classroom. If you notice that some students aren’t contributing as much as others, it’s best
to find a way to get them more involved.
It might be helpful to introduce activities, lesson plans, and projects which mandate everyone’s
participation.
4. Celebrate diversity
Diversity is something which should be talked about and celebrated. The easiest way to bring
diversity into the classroom is by recognizing it and encouraging students to celebrate it.
In one classroom alone there is a tremendous amount of diversity present. Take the opportunity
to allow students to share their diversity with their peers. This allows others to benefit from the
experiences that they otherwise never have known or heard of.
5. Encourage Differing Perspectives
In the classroom, there will be ample opportunities for students to come together to solve
problems. Another great way to bring diversity into the classroom is to encourage students to
come up with different ways to solve the problems that they are faced with. Encouraging
different ways to solve problems allows students to come together and collectively contribute a
variety of solutions.
This practice also teaches students the invaluable lesson that there is often no one correct way
to do things. If students are encouraged to contribute different solutions to a problem, not only
will participation increase in the whole class, but students will also feel as if their input is
valuable. They’ll then be encouraged to challenge themselves to come up with solutions.
6. Include diverse learning materials
Wherever it is possible, teachers should try to include teaching material which represents the
rich diversity of the world. For instance, include material which represents multiple viewpoints
and perspectives. Think critically about material which touches upon things like nationality, race,
political views, backgrounds, different languages, abilities, personalities, sexuality, age, current
affairs, socio-economic matters, etc.
Including diverse learning material is a sure shot way to bring diversity into the four walls of a
classroom. In a short space of time you can expose students to an unimaginable variety of
different things.
Fostering diversity is incredibly important, and one of the best places to begin doing that is the
classroom. There are numerous ways to bring greater variety into the classroom; teachers must
take the initiative to take every step to bring diversity into the classroom.
Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences
Educators and researchers are always looking for innovative ways to improve student
performance. As a result, the education field is crowded with different theories about learning,
teaching, studying, and so on. Two of the most popular ones are the Multiple Intelligences
Theory and Learning Styles Theory.
No single theory or philosophy can fit every situation and meet every need. To make sure you
help your online school student learn and study effectively, review the details about these
theories below.
The Multiple Intelligences Theory
Psychologist Howard Gardner developed this theory in 1983. He claimed that people have eight
independent ways of processing information, which are:
Verbal–Linguistic (word smart) Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,
meanings and rhythms of words.
Logical–Mathematical (logic smart) The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the
capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns.
Visual–Spatial (picture smart) The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize
accurately and abstractly.

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Auditory–Musical (music smart) The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and
timbre.
Bodily–Kinesthetic (body smart) The ability to control one's body movements and to handle
objects skillfully.
Interpersonal (people smart) The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations and desires of others.
Intrapersonal (self smart) The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values,
beliefs and thinking processes.
Naturalistic (nature smart) The ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other
objects in nature.
It’s more accurate to think of the eight intelligences as abilities or strengths. The human brain is
extremely complex, and all of these types of “smarts” work together. Your student may have
several of these strengths.
Existential Intelligence (life smart) The sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about
human existence, such as the meaning of life, why we die and how we got here.
How to use the Multiple Intelligences Theory
To apply the Multiple Intelligences Theory to online school, use it to help your student develop
all of his or her strengths. Remember that there are activities that help develop more than one
ability at a time. For example, you can help your child do some creative learning activities, such
as:
 taking photos for the online school yearbook to exercise visual–spatial skills
 trying our leaf color chemistry activity to build nature smarts
 drawing a map to scale and exercising logic and visual–spatial smarts
 spending 10 minutes writing about one of his or her best attributes to integrate word
smarts and intrapersonal smarts
How Do We Benefit From Understanding Multiple Intelligences?
When educators are given the freedom to move away from the traditional, visually-based
methods of teaching, they will have the opportunity to reach more students, more effectively. By
teaching to the dominant learning intelligences, teachers will find students to be more
productive, more receptive and more willing to engage in the learning process.
As so many educators have already embraced this theory, it is time for educational
administrators to take notice of new techniques that can be successful based on the research of
Howard Gardner and the other researchers who have followed.
The Learning Styles Theory
Learning-style theory begins with Carl Jung (1927), who noted major differences in the way
people perceived (sensation versus intuition), the way they made decisions (logical thinking
versus imaginative feelings), and how active or reflective they were while interacting
(extroversion versus introversion). Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs (1977), who created the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and founded the Association of Psychological Type, applied Jung's
work and influenced a generation of researchers trying to understand specific differences in
human learning. Key researchers in this area include Anthony Gregorc (1985), Kathleen Butler
(1984), Bernice McCarthy (1982), and Harvey Silver and J. Robert Hanson (1995). Although
learning-style theorists interpret the personality in various ways, nearly all models have two
things in common:
 A focus on process. Learning-style models tend to concern themselves with the process
of learning: how individuals absorb information, think about information, and evaluate the
results.
 An emphasis on personality. Learning-style theorists generally believe that learning is
the result of a personal, individualized act of thought and feeling.

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Like the Multiple Intelligences Theory, the Learning Styles Theory focuses on the ways we
perceive information. The learning styles focus on how we process information using our
senses.
The theory’s three ways to learn information, or learning styles, are auditory (hearing), visual
(seeing), and tactile/kinesthetic (touching and moving). Learners most often prefer one learning
style over the others. As a result, there are:
 visual learners, who learn best by using images, graphs, maps, and drawings
 auditory learners, who prefer to learn by hearing and speaking information
 tactile/kinesthetic learners, who learn best by experiencing, touching, and performing
tasks
With this theory in mind, it makes sense that children who have a specific learning style can
learn more effectively if they use their preferred style more often. But don’t force it—using a
particular learning style is only effective if it also fits the subject matter.
For example, you can have your child practice counting money by giving him or her real coins,
which is a tactile/kinesthetic approach. To practice one-to-one correspondence with an
emergent reader, point to each word as you read it, which uses both auditory and visual skills.
To learn geography, study a map, which is a visual task. For vocabulary growth at any age, read
aloud regularly—which is an auditory and verbal–linguistic experience as well as great fun.
Global vs. Analytic Learner

Research into how people learn reveals that every student has a unique profile of skills and
strengths, and identifying and supporting these strengths lead to better outcomes. The Dunn
and Dunn Learning Styles Model, developed in the 1960s by professors Rita and Kenneth
Dunn, establishes five domains for successful learning: Environmental, Emotional, Sociological,
Physiological and Psychological. A key distinction in Dunn and Dunn's Psychological domain,
global and analytical learning styles, define how the brain processes information based on right
or left hemisphere dominance.
The Global Style
The global style of learning takes in information holistically. Linked to right-hemisphere
dominance in the brain, global learning begins with understanding concepts first, with mastery of
details to follow. Global learners tend to be bored by memorizing facts and prefer to relate
learning to personal experience, stories and anecdotes. These learners may work better in
groups than alone and prefer to work on multiple tasks at once. Music or other background
noise helps, rather than distracts, these learners, and they find learning easiest when
information relates to the real world.
The Analytical Style
Analytical learners take in information sequentially, preferring to learn a series of facts that lead
toward an understanding of a larger concept. Grounded in left-hemisphere dominance in the
brain, analytical learning requires orderly, quiet surroundings. Analytical learners tend to work
on one task to completion, preferring to study alone for long periods without interruption. These
learners thrive in traditional classroom settings.

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Implications for the Classroom
Understanding the key differences in student learning styles leads to better learning support.
Numerous assessment tests allow individuals to determine their own learning styles and help
parents and teachers find ways to encourage learning. Teachers can develop lesson plans that
accommodate both styles, such as incorporating narratives and group work into lesson plans to
accommodate global learners. At home, parents can better support their children's learning
needs, by providing a brightly-lit, quiet area for an analytical learner or playing music in the
background for a global learner.
Not Better, Different
Each style is different and offers its own particular strengths. You can support these strengths
by allowing your child to study in the way that feels more comfortable. Most importantly—don’t
expect your child to study the way you did or the way another child does. The result is likely to
be frustrating for both for you, and may even prevent your child from learning.
How to hold your student’s attention:
Global learners
 Explain your point by using a story or personal experience
 Use colorful drawings or lists to illustrate points
 Provide snacks
 Permit breaks when doing homework
 Allow your child to work with a friend
 Begin by explaining an overall concept, then move to the detail
Analytic learners
 Speak directly to the point, using clear understandable language
 Give directions in a step-by-step manner
 Use visual aids, e.g., written lists in addition to verbal directions
 Begin with the facts and move to a gradual understanding of the topic
Learners with Exceptionalities
Educators at all levels refer to special needs students as those with exceptionalities. In general,
exceptionalities fall in six broad catgories:
The term “exceptional learners” includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities,
behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and
giftedness. Any individuals whose physical, mental, or behavioral performance is so different
from the norm - either higher or lower - that additional services are needed to meet the
individuals' needs.
• Gifted and talented – learners with the abilities at the upper end of the continuum
• Intelligence – ability to acquire & use knowledge, solve problems & reason in the abstract and
adapt to new situations in our environments
You will encounter students with various degrees of intelligences
Disability- The limitation of a function, such as cognitive processing or physical or sensory
abilities.
Handicap- A condition imposed on a person with disabilities by society, the physical
environment, or the person's attitude.
Mental Retardation- A condition, usually present at birth, that results in below-average
intellectual skills and poor adaptive behavior.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)- An intelligence test score that should be near 100 for people of
average intelligence.
Learning Disabilities (LD) Disorders that impede academic progress of people who are not
mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed.

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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder- A disorder characterized by difficulties maintaining
attention because of a limited ability to concentrate; includes impulsive actions and hyperactive
behavior.
Speech Disorders- Oral articulation problems, occurring most frequently among children in the
early elementary school grades.
Language Disorders- Impairments in one's ability to understand language or to express ideas
in one's native language.
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders- Exceptionalities characterized by problems with
learning, interpersonal relationships, and control of feelings and behavior.
Conduct Disorders- Socioemotional and behavioral disorders that are indicated in individuals
who, for example, are chronically disobedient or disruptive.
Autism- A category of disability that significantly affects social interaction, verbal and nonverbal
communication, and educational performance.
Sensory Impairments- Problems with the ability to receive information through the body's
senses.
Vision Loss -Degree of uncorrectable inability to see well.
Hearing Disabilities- Degree of deafness; uncorrectable inability to hear well.
Multiple. These students have a combination of conditions, such as orthopedically challenged
and visually impaired.
Although statistics are difficult to obtain, it has been estimated that between 10 and 13 percent
of the school-age population has exceptionalities. Thus, in an average-size classroom of 25
students, it is conceivable that 3 or 4 individuals will exhibit one or more exceptionalities.;

Activity
1. Research on at least two images of diversity in the classroom and explain what each image
communicates about diversity.

2.Describe the concept on individual differences by means of the following: (Choose only one)
Song, Poem, slide presentation, powerpoint

3. 5-minute non-stop writing.

From the Module on Individual Differences I realized that…

4. Research a study related to any type of exceptionalities. Fill out the matrix below.

Problem Research Methodology

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 Title and Source: (Complete APA bibliographical entry
format

Findings
Conclusions/Recommendations

Unit 3
FOCUS ON LEARNING
Topics
• Behaviorist Perspective
• Neo-Behaviorism

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•Cognitive Perspective
 Gestalt Psychology
 Information Processing
•Gagne’s Condition of Learning
•Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal/Subsumption Theory
•Bruner’s Constructivist Theory

Overview
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based on the idea
that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction
with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape
our actions.
Learning Objectives:
After a successful completion of the lesson, the students should be able to:
• explain the basic principles of behaviorism
• give specific applications of each theory in teaching
• list ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching learning process

Behaviorism Basic Assumptions

One has to be careful with “ism” words. They often have both loose and strict meanings. And
sometimes multiple meanings of each type. ‘Behaviorism’ is no exception. Loosely speaking,
behaviorism is an attitude – a way of conceiving of empirical constraints on psychological state
attribution. Strictly speaking, behaviorism is a doctrine – a way of doing psychological or
behavioral science itself. It has sometimes been said that “behave is what organisms do.”
Behaviorism is built on this assumption, and its goal is to promote the scientific study of
behavior. The behavior, in particular, of individual organisms. Not of social groups. Not of
cultures. But of persons and animals.
Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near
exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning.
We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as 'learning
theory'). Therefore, when born, our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).

Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people (and animals)
as controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of what we have
learned from our environment. The behaviorist perspective is concerned with how
environmental factors (called stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the response).

The behaviorist perspective proposes two main processes whereby people learn from their
environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning
involves learning by association, and operant conditioning involves learning from the
consequences of behavior.
Classical conditioning (CC) was studied by the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Though
looking into natural reflexes and neutral stimuli he managed to condition dogs to salivate to the
sound of a bell through repeated associated with the sound of the bell and food.
The principles of CC have been applied in many therapies. These include systematic
desensitization for phobias (step-by-step exposed to a feared stimulus at once) and aversion
therapy.
B.F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior. Skinner
felt that some behavior could be explained by the person's motive.Therefore, behavior occurs

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for a reason, and the three main behavior shaping techniques are positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, and punishment.

Implications of Operant Conditioning

1.Conditioning study behaviour: Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of
reinforcement, which expedite learning. For effective teaching teacher should arranged effective
contingencies
of reinforcement. Example: For Self learning of a student teacher should reinforce student
behaviour through variety of incentives such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting
on the back or by giving higher marks.
2. Conditioning and classroom behaviour: During learning process child acquire unpleasant
experiences also. This unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject and
the classroom and learner dislikes the subject and a teacher. Suitable behavioural
contingencies, atmosphere of recognition, acceptance, affection and esteem helps child in
approaching teacher and the subject. If student is not serious in studis, teacher make use of
negative reinforcement like showing negligence, criticising student etc. but if student is serious
in study, teacher make use of positive reinforcement like prize, medal, praise and smile.
3. Managing Problem Behaviour: Two types of behaviour is seen in the classroom viz
undesired behaviour and problematic behaviour. Operant conditioning is a behaviour therapy
technique that shape students behaviour. For this teacher should admit positive contingencies
like praise, encouragement etc. for learning. One should not admit negative contingencies.
Example punishment (student will run away from the dull and dreary classes – escape
stimulation.
4.Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: Through conditioning fear, anxieties,
prejudices, attitudes, perceptual meaning develops. Examples of anxiety are signals on the
road, siren blown during wartime, child receiving painful injection from a doctor. Anxiety is a
generalized fear response. To break the habits of fear, a teacher should use desensitization
techniques. Initially teacher should provide very weak form of conditioned stimulus. Gradually
the strength of stimulus should be increased.
5. Conditioning group behaviour: Conditioning makes entire group learn and complete
change in behaviour is seen due to reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial behaviour
too.
Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make teachers annoyed in such
circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class. Asking questions, active participation in
class discussion will make the teacher feel happy – interaction will increase and teaching
learning process becomes more effective.
6. Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is given in different form, for the
progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is correct, positive
reinforcement is given. Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month of January

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is rewarded in the month of December. To overcome this Programme instruction is used. In this
subject matter is broken down into steps. Organizing in logical sequence helps in learning.
Each step is build upon the preceding step. Progress is seen in the process of learning.
Immediate reinforcement is given at each step.
7. Shaping Complex Behaviour: Complex behaviour exists in formof a chain of small
behaviour. Control is required for such kind of behaviour. This extended form of learning is
shaping technique. Smallest Behaviour is controlled at initial stage. On behalf of different
contingencies, next order of chain of behaviours is controlled. Example: Vocabulary in English.
Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex form of behaviour.

The History of Behaviorism

 Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally st

udying digestion in dogs.
 Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of psychology, publishing an
article, Psychology as the behaviorist views it.
 Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to
fear a white rat.
 Thorndike (1905) formalized the Law of Effect.
 Skinner (1936) wrote The Behavior of Organisms and introduced the concepts of
operant conditioning and shaping.
 Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.
 B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian society
founded upon behaviorist principles.
 Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior begun in 1958.
 Chomsky (1959) published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal
Behavior."
 Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the Social Leaning Theory and Personality
development which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
 B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues
that free will is an illusion.

Neo-Behaviorism
An approach to psychology influenced by logical positivism that emphasized the development of
comprehensive theories and frameworks of behavior, such as those of Clark L. Hull and Edward
C. Tolman, through empirical observation of behavior and the use of consciousness and mental
events as explanatory devices. It thus contrasted with classical behaviorism, which was
concerned with freeing psychology of mentalistic concepts and explanations. According to
Sigmund Koch, neobehaviorism replaced classical behaviorism as the dominant 20th-century
program for experimental psychology around 1930; its influence began to wane in the 1950s.
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

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Purposive Behaviorism:
– it is also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often unite between behaviorism
and cognitive theory. Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves
forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that
knowledge through purposeful and goal directed behavior.
Tolman’s Key Concept
* Learning is always purposive and goal- directed
* Cognitive Maps-his famous experiments called “learn location”
* Latent Learning- kind of learning that stays with the individual unti needed.
* The concept of intervening variable- a variable that is not seen but serves as determinant od
behavior
* Reinforcement not essential for learning
ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. People learn
from one another such as observational learning, imitation and modeling.

General Principles Of Social Learning Theory

1. Learn by observing.
2. Learning can occur through observation alone, without a change in behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Transition between behaviorism and cognitive learning theory.
Environment Reinforces Modeling
1. By the model
2. By the third person
3. By the imitated behavior itself produce satisfying.
4. By the vicarious reinforcement.
Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Contemporary Theory purposes that reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on
learning.
2. Reinforcement and Punishment influence the result of individuals’ behavior that has been
learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes.
Cognitive Factors in Social Learning Theory
* Learning Without Performance
* Cognitive Processing During Learning
* Expectations
* Reciprocal Causation
* Modeling
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully
model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction
4. Motivation
Effects of Modeling on Behavior
* Modeling teaches new behaviors.

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* Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors. * Modeling may encourage
previously forbidden behaviors.
* Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. 2. Describing the
consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behavior and decrease
inappropriate ones. 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teacher new behavior. To
promote effective modeling a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist;
attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation. 4. Teachers and parents must model
appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors. 5.
Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially
important to break down traditional stereotypes.

Cognitive Perspective
When you see or hear something in your environment, how does your brain recognize what you
are seeing or hearing? This lesson introduces the cognitive perspective in psychology, including
the difference between sensation and perception. We'll also discuss the famous Gestalt
principles of perception that you do automatically every day but didn't necessarily know there
were names for what your brain was doing.
How your mind responds when a stimulus is presented in your environment is complicated, but at
the same time, these complicated responses are often automatic. The cognitive perspective in
psychology is an area of the field that studies how people acquire, perceive, remember and
communicate information. It includes how we respond to images we see or sounds we hear, how our
minds change these stimuli into meaningful ideas and how we remember these ideas later. Several
lessons will discuss the ideas of the cognitive perspective in psychology.

Sensation

Our five senses are vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell

We all have five senses: vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. All five senses work because
something in the environment sets off a sensory neuron in our bodies, and those neurons send
a signal to the brain. So, sensation is the process of an environmental stimulus starting the
chain of events from one of our five senses to our brain in order to b e recognized.

Let's think about touch as an example. When something touches any part of your skin that
signal sets off the end of a sensory neuron, which is a cell in your skin. The end of the cell

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moves slightly, which sets off an entire series of electrical and chemical signals that go all the
way to your brain. All of our five senses work in basically the same way. But in the process of
sensation, those signals haven't been transformed yet into recognizable ideas. That's where the
next step in the process begins.

Perception
After an electrical and chemical signal has gone all the way from a sensory neuron to the brain,
perception occurs. Perception is when your brain transforms sensory experiences into
meaningful ideas that can be processed and understood.
For example, when something touches your skin, the process of sensation sends a signal to
your brain, but perception is when you realize what just happened. What is it that touched you?
Was it something gentle, like a feather? Was it something hot, burning you? What part of your
body was touched? Another example of perception is with vision. On the sensation level, all that
happens is that the rods and cones inside your eyeball process light and color. But on the
perception level, your brain recognizes images, such as what your mother looks like compared
to your cat or when you look inside your fridge to decide what to eat. Perception is when your
mind decides what just happened to you, and what it means.
The sensation and perception processes occur so quickly and automatically that we don't need
to consciously think about them or even realize that they're happening. When your mind does
something so often that it occurs without your conscious thought process, it's
called automaticity. We have automaticity for certain well-practiced motions, like how to walk or
even how to drive after years of practice. We also have automaticity for sensation and
perception. However, this automaticity can lead to certain interesting mistakes, as well.

When viewing this optical illusion, you could perceive the image in different ways

For example, look again at this optical illusion. At first glance, your perception of
it might be that you interpret it in one way. However, when you look at it more
closely, you can realize that there's another way to see the same image. In the
early 1900s, a group of psychologists decided to identify some basic ways that
our minds automatically process stimuli. Typically, these tendencies help us
understand the world, but sometimes they lead to interesting illusions.

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Nature of Gestalt Theory:
Max Wertheimer is generally considered to be Gestalt psychology’s founding
father. The other pioneers in this field are Kohler, Koffka and Wolfgang. These
psychologists are called Gestalt psychologists. ‘Gestalt’ is a German word
whose equivalents in English are ‘form’ or ‘pattern’ or ‘configuration’. Max
Wertheimer has explained the term ‘Gestalt’ as, that the whole is greater than
the parts. For example, a flower is just not a total of sepals, petals, calyx,
corolla, colour, honey and fragrance but something more than that. The total of
the parts is not equal to the whole. This is known as Gestalt view-point.
They identified several rules or principles of perception organization. The
word Gestalt can be translated as essence, or sometimes people refer to the
Gestalt idea using the phrase, 'The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.'
The rules identified by the Gestalt psychologists are usually called the Gestalt
principles of organization. Let's go over some of these rules.
In the simplest terms, gestalt theory is based on the idea that the human brain will attempt to
simplify and organize complex images or designs that consist of many elements, by
subconsciously arranging the parts into an organized system that creates a whole, rather than
just a series of disparate elements. Our brains are built to see structure and patterns in order for
us to better understand the environment that we’re living in.
There are six individual principles commonly associated with gestalt theory: similarity,
continuation, closure, proximity, figure/ground, and symmetry & order (also called prägnanz).
There are also some additional, newer principles sometimes associated with gestalt, such as
common fate.
Similarity
It’s human nature to group like things together. In gestalt, similar elements are visually grouped,
regardless of their proximity to each other. They can be grouped by color, shape, or size.
Similarity can be used to tie together elements that might not be right next to each other in a
design.
Example of the gestalt principle of similarity

The squares here are all equally spaced and the same size, but we automatically group them by
color, even though there's no rhyme or reason to their placement.

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Continuation
The law of continuity posits that the human eye will follow the smoothest path when viewing
lines, regardless of how the lines were actually drawn.

The eye tends to want to follow the straight line from one end of this figure to the other, and the
curved line from the top to the bottom, even when the lines change color midway through.

This continuation can be a valuable tool when the goal is to guide a visitor’s eye in a certain
direction. They will follow the simplest path on the page, so make sure the most vital parts they
should see fall within that path.
Since the eye naturally follows a line, placing items in a series in a line will naturally draw the
eye from one item to the next. Horizontal sliders are one such example, as are related product
listings on sites like Amazon.

Closure
Closure is one of the coolest gestalt principles and one I already touched on at the beginning of
this piece. It’s the idea that your brain will fill in the missing parts of a design or image to create
a whole.
In its simplest form, the principle of closure allows your eye to follow something like a dotted line
to its end. But more complex applications are often seen in logos, like that for the World Wildlife
Fund. Large chunks of the outline for the panda are missing, but your brain has no problem
filling in the missing sections to see the whole animal.

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The gestalt principle of closure is illustrated beautifully in the World Wildlife Fund's panda logo.
The brain completes the white shapes, even though they're not well defined.

Closure is quite often used in logo design, with other examples including those for the USA
Network, NBC, Sun Microsystems, and even Adobe.
Another very important example of closure at work in UX and UI design is when you show a
partial image fading off the user’s screen in order to show them that there is more to be found if
they swipe left or right. Without a partial image, i.e., if only full images are shown, the brain
doesn’t immediately interpret that there might be more to be seen, and therefore your user is
less likely to scroll (since closure is already apparent).

Proximity
Proximity refers to how close elements are to one another. The strongest proximity relationships
are those between overlapping subjects, but just grouping objects into a single area can also
have a strong proximity effect.
The opposite is also true, of course. By putting space between elements, you can add
separation even when their other characteristics are the same.
Take this group of circles, for example:

The only thing differentiating the group on the left from those on the right is the proximity of the
lines. And yet your brain interprets the image on the right as three distinct groups.

Due to the field labels being closer to the fields under them, people would mistakenly believe
that's where the information goes for "c." and "d." Yet, the information is supposed to be
provided in the fields above the text labels.

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Proximity is most often used in order to get users to group certain things together without the
use of things like hard borders. By putting like things closer together, with space in between
each group, the viewer will immediately pick up on the organization and structure you want them
to perceive.
Figure/Ground
The figure/ground principle is similar to the closure principle in that it takes advantage of the
way the brain processes negative space. You’ve probably seen examples of this principle
floating around in memes on social media, or as part of logos (like the FedEx logo already
mentioned).
Your brain will distinguish between the objects it considers to be in the foreground of an image
(the figure, or focal point) and the background (the area on which the figures rest). Where things
get interesting is when the foreground and background actually contain two distinct images, like
this:

Some people will immediately see

the tree and birds when viewing
the logo for the Pittsburgh Zoo &
PPG Aquarium, while others will
see the gorilla and lion staring at
each other.

The figure/ground principle can be very handy when product designers want to highlight a focal
point, particularly when it is active or in use—for example, when a modal window pops up and
the rest of the site fades into the background, or when a search bar is clicked on and the
contrast is increased between it and the rest of the site.

Symmetry and Order

The law of symmetry and order is also known as prägnanz, the German word for “good figure.”
What this principle says is that your brain will perceive ambiguous shapes in as simple a
manner as possible. For example, a monochrome version of the Olympic logo is seen as a
series of overlapping circles rather than a collection of curved lines.

Your brain will interpret the image on the left as a rectangle, circle, and triangle, even when the
outlines of each are incomplete because those are simpler shapes than the overall image.

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Common Fate
While common fate was not originally included in gestalt theory, it has since been added. In UX
design, its usefulness can’t be overlooked. This principle states that people will group together
things that point to or are moving in the same direction.

In nature, we see this in things like flocks of birds or schools of fish. They are made up of a
bunch of individual elements, but because they move seemingly as one, our brains group them
together and consider them a single stimulus.

A flock of birds is viewed as a single unit when flying in the same direction and thereby sharing
a common fate.
This is very useful as animated effects become more prevalent in modern design. Note that
elements don’t actually have to be moving in order to benefit from this principle, but they do
have to give the impression of motion.
The primary goal of the Gestalt Theory is to encourage the brain to view not just the whole, but
also the parts that make up that whole. For example, when someone is looking at a tree, is he
just staring at this tree, or does he also see the leaves, the branches, and the trunk? The whole
and the sum of its parts are two entirely different things, and learning can be achieved if
learners are able to cognitively process how parts can make up this whole.

The main principles of the Gestalt Theory

The main principles of the Gestalt Theory in Learning are:
1. Teachers should encourage their students to discover the relationship of the
elements that make up a problem
2. Incongruities, gaps, or disturbances are essential stimuli in the learning process
3. Educational instruction should be based on the Laws of Organization
In a learning environment, the Gestalt Theory applies to problem solving and perception.
However, it can be used in all aspects of education. A perfect example was provided by
Wertheimer himself, when he asked children to find the area of a parallelogram. He suggested

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that, as long as parallelograms had a normal shape, the children could apply the standard
procedure in order to determine the area. However, if the parallelogram had an irregular shape,
children could not apply the same logic or principles, but had to solve the problem by
understanding the actual structure of the shape.

Information Processing
At the very heart of cognitive psychology is the idea of information processing.
Cognitive psychology sees the individual as a processor of information, in much the same way
that a computer takes in information and follows a program to produce an output.
George A. Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to cognitive
psychology and the information processing framework.
The first concept is “chunking” and the capacity of short term memory. Miller (1956) presented
the idea that short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus
two) where a chunk is any meaningful unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions,
or people’s faces. The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short term memory
became a basic element of all subsequent theories of memory.
The information processing theory is based on the idea that humans actively process the
information they receive from their senses, like a computer does. Learning is what is happening
when our brains recieve information, record it, mould it and store it.
In information processing theory, as the student takes in information, that information is first
briefly stored as sensory storage; then moved to the short term or working memory; and then
either forgotten or transferred to the long term memory, as:
 semantic memories (concepts and general information)
 procedural memories (processes)
 images
For learning to occur, it's critical that information is transferred from the short term memory to
the long term memory, because if we have more than seven pieces of information in our short
term memory at one time, we get an overload (referred to as cognitive overload).
So how to we avoid cognitive overload with students? If teachers prioritizing the information they
give students, they help students to work our the critical elements of the information.
Make sure you have the students’ attention, and help students to make connections between
new material and what they already know. (Image to the right adapted from Cognitive Approach
to Learning.)

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Basic Assumptions
The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions, including:
(1) information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing
systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory);
(2) these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways;
(3) the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive
performance;
(4) information processing in humans resembles that in computers.

The development of the computer in the 1950s and 1960s had an important influence on
psychology and was, in part, responsible for the cognitive approach becoming the dominant
approach in modern psychology (taking over from Behaviorism).
The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor, or analogy, to which they could
compare human mental processing. The use of the computer as a tool for thinking how the
human mind handles information is known as the computer analogy.
Essentially, a computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores information, uses information,
and produces an output (retrieves info). The idea of information processing was adopted by
cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.
For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural
activity which is fed back to the brain where it is “stored” and “coded”. This information is can be
used by other parts of the brain relating to mental activities such as memory, perception and
attention. The output (i.e. behavior) might be, for example, to read what you can see on a
printed page.
Hence the information processing approach characterizes thinking as the environment providing
input of data, which is then transformed by our senses. The information can be stored, retrieved
and transformed using “mental programs”, with the results being behavioral responses.
Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of
study to produce, for example, social learning theory, cognitive neuropsychology and artificial
intelligence (AI).
Gagne’s Condition of Learning
This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance
of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne

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identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for
each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a
chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be
exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.
Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy
according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of
terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The
primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to
facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a
learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.

Gagne cited 9 important events that are necessary for effective learning and should guide a
teacher's instructional design. The steps include:
1. Gain Attention: This step is necessary to draw the student into the content and to grab
their attention.
2. Inform the Learner of the Objective: This piece is important to prepare students for
what they are about to learn. When students don't know what they're about to learn, it
would be similar to going to see a movie you know nothing about.

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 3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge: Making connections to prior knowledge builds a
solid foundation in new learning. Recalling what students already know and connecting it
to knew knowledge really solidifies meaning.
4. Present the Material: Delivering material to students must be done systematically and
must be task-analyzed, or chunked. Giving too much information at one time can cause
confusion, not retention.
5. Provide Guidance: This is where the techer shows the student exactly what to do, or,
models.
6. Elicit Performance: Learners learn by doing. Letting students try it for themselves is a
huge part of their learning.
7. Provide Feedback: Giving students feedback on their performance is good for the
student and the teacher. Helping students to fix mistakes or praising them specifically for
their achievement is very important.
8. Assess Performance: A check for understanding, whether formal or informal, is
necessary to find out whether students have mastered the objective.
9. Enhance Retention and Transfer: This step is truly important. Getting students to be
able to use their learned skill in various situations is crucial.
Benefits of Gagne's Model
Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning model gives trainers and educators a checklist to use before
they engage in teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that
aids the learning process. When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely
to be engaged and to retain the information or skills that they're being taught.
If you use this approach before any type of training session or presentation, you'll remember
how to structure your session so that your people get the best possible learning experience.

Ausubel's Learning Theory

David Paul Ausubel was an American psychologist whose most significant contribution to the
fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education. Ausubel believed
that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning.
Similarly, he believed in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to rote memorization. The
most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. This led
Ausubel to develop an interesting theory of meaningful learning and advance organizers
Learning Theory
Ausubel's believes that learning of new knowledge relies on what is already known. That is,
construction of knowledge begins with our observation and recognition of events and objects
through concepts we already have. We learn by constructing a network of concepts and adding
to them.
Ausubel also stresses the importance of reception rather than discovery learning, and
meaningful rather than rote learning. He declares that his theory applies only to reception
learning in school settings. He didn’t say, however, that discovery learning doesn’t work; but
rather that it was not efficient. In other words, Ausubel believed that understanding concepts,
principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning.
Ausubel was influenced by the teachings of Jean Piaget. Similar to Piaget’s ideas of conceptual
schemes, Ausubel related this to his explanation of how people acquire knowledge.
Meaningful learning
Ausebel’s theory also focuses on meaningful learning. According to his theory, to learn
meaningfully, individuals must relate new knowledge to relevant concepts they already know.
New knowledge must interact with the learner’s knowledge structure. Meaningful learning can

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be contrasted with rote learning. he believed in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to
rote memorization. The latter can also incorporate new information into the pre-existing
knowledge structure but without interaction. Rote memory is used to recall sequences of
objects, such as phone numbers. However, it is of no use to the learner in understanding the
relationships between the objects.
Because meaningful learning involves a recognition of the links between concepts, it has the
privilege of being transferred to long-term memory. The most crucial element in meaningful
learning is how the new information is integrated into the old knowledge structure. Accordingly,
Ausubel believes that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful
to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already known

Advance Organizers
Ausubel advocates the use of advance organizers as a mechanism to help to link new learning
material with existing related ideas. Advance organizers are helpful in the way that they help the
process of learning when difficult and complex material are introduced. This is satisfied through
two conditions:
1. The student must process and understand the information presented in the organizer-- this
increases the effectiveness of the organizer itself.
2. The organizer must indicate the relations among the basic concepts and terms that will be
used Ausubel’s theory of advance organizers fall into two categories: comparative and
expository
Subsumption Theory:
Ausubel subsumption theory is based on the idea that an individual's existing cognitive structure
(organization, stability and clarity of knowledge in a particular subject) is the principal and basic
factor influencing the learning and retention of meaningful new mats the importance of relating
new ideas to a student’s existing knowledge base before the new material is presented. This
theory is applied in the 'advance organizer' strategy developed by Ausubel. From Ausubel’s
perspective, this is the meaning of learning.

When information is subsumed into the learner's cognitive structure it is organized

hierarchically. New material can be subsumed in two different ways, and for both of these, no
meaningful learning takes place unless a stable cognitive structure exists. This existing structure
provides a framework into which the new learning is related, hierarchically, to the previous
information or concepts in the individual's cognitive structure. Ausubel, whose theories are
particularly relevant for educators, considered neo-behaviorist views inadequate.

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Although he recognized other forms of learning, his work focused on verbal
learning. He dealt with the nature of meaning, and believes the external world
acquires meaning only as it is converted into the content of consciousness by
the learner.

Application:

Ausubel indicates that his theory applies to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He
distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't
involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must
discover information through problem solving.

Principles for Application:

1- The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively
differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.

2- Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented
information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner)

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in
which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The
learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions,
relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models)
provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to “go beyond the
information given”.

As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover
principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e.,
socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a
format appropriate to the learner’s current state of understanding. Curriculum should be
organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already
learned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1)
predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so
that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to
present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for
structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing
the manipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to
encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.

Application
Bruner’s constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of
cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget ). The
ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math
learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs
for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning

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processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on
language learning in young children.
Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and
Bruner’s theory represents one particular perspective.
Example
This example is taken from Bruner (1973):
“The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through
construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and
columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-
column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These
patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step
to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed
mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can
be visualized.”
Principles
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student
willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).
Activity
1. Read more about classical and operant conditioning. Find out about their similarities and
differences. Prepare a concept map or graphic organizer to highlight these similarities and
differences.
2. Choose five learning theories then state how you apply the concept as you teach. Use the
table provided for this purpose.
3 Learning Theories How I apply it in my teaching
1. 1.1

1.2
2. 2.1

2.2

3. 3.1

3.2
4. 4.1

4.2
5. 5.1

5.2
3. List at least 5 ways to apply gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning process.
4. Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.

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 Unit 4
Cognitive Processes
Topics
• Constructivism
• Transfer of Learning
• Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
• Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model

Overview
A cognitive structure is defined as the mental processes which offer the learner the ability to
organize experiences and derive meaning from them. These cognitive structures allow the
learner to push past the given information in constructing their new concepts. The learner, often
a child, will take pieces of their past knowledge and experiences and organize them to make
sense of what they know, then base further concepts and solve additional problems based upon
a combination of what they already processed and what they think should be processed next.

Learning Objectives:

After a successful completion of the lesson, the students should be able to:
• explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning.
• formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of the revised taxonomy.
• demonstrate enjoyment of working on WICS-based tasks and activities

Constructivism
The teacher resources used should be focused on that of encouragement, aiding and allowing
the student to uncover the main principles on their own. Communication between the learner
and teacher is the key concept. Socratic learning is suggested as the best method of
communication in this theoretical framework, as it allows the teacher to actively note any study
skills the learner verbalizes, their progression, their frustrations, and form a rubric of their
current learning state based on the dialogue. Seeing as this theory takes known information and
expounds upon it, any teacher lesson plans, teacher worksheets, or resources should in fact be
constantly building the learner's knowledge in a spiral manner.

The four major principles of Bruner's theory on constructivism encompass 1) a predilection

toward learning. The second, how a grouping of knowledge is able to be constructed to best be
understood by the learner. The third is effective manners for the teacher to present said material
to the learner, with the fourth and final aspect being the progression of rewards as well as
punishments.

Bruner is poignant about language and how this affects cognition within this theory of learning
development. It is pertinent to any success of a child to identify the differences between adult
language and the language used by children. With the child being younger, they need time to
advance not only their conceptual learning but their language as well. Thus, teachers and
parents alike are encouraged to envelop the "scaffolding" method of communication which is a
strategy aimed to simplifying tasks within learning by making smaller steps, all leading to the

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final outcome. This aids in maintaining any frustration while keeping in mind what is important
throughout the learning process.

When evaluating study skills of the child, Bruner's theory suggests that the teachers be explicit
regarding organization, help the learner to focus on the larger task at hand as well as the goals,
instead of getting caught on minor details or frustrations. They are encouraged to praise the
efforts put out by the learners while reminding them, helping them focus on relevant items, and
encouraging them to practice and rehearse what they have learned. Social as well as cultural
contingencies of learning were adapted into Bruner's later work, theorizing how these affected
learning.

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Strict adherence to a fixed curriculum Pursuit of student questions and

is highly valued. interests is valued.

Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what

the student already knows.

Teacher-centered. Student-centered.

Teachers disseminate information to Teachers have a dialogue with students,

students; students are recipients of helping students construct their own
knowledge (passive learning). knowledge (active learning).

Teacher's role is directive, rooted in Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in

authority. negotiation.

Students work primarily alone Students work primarily in groups

(competitive). (cooperative).
What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?
 The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving
environment where students become active participants in their own learning.

 From this perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor.
 The teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and
guides the activity to address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).

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In education Transfer of learning or transfer of knowledge or transfer refers to learning in
one context and applying it to another, i.e. the capacity to apply acquired knowledge and skills
to new situations. “Transfer of training is of paramount concern for training researchers and
practitioners. Despite research efforts, there is a growing concern over the "transfer
problem.” (Baldwin and Ford, 2006).
“There are three kinds of transfer: from prior knowledge to learning, from learning to new
learning, and from learning to application” (Simons, 1999).
The issue of transfer of learning is a central issue in both education and learning psychology.
There is probably a subtle difference between transfer of learning (that addresses what is learnt
in school) and transfer of knowledge (that addresses the general issue of applying knowledge to
new situations). Transfer of knowledge is very much related to the problem of knowledge
integration, knowledge application and knowledge use in "the real world". As such it usually is a
component of general instructional design models, e.g. Merrill's first principles of instruction.
Another related topic is conceptual change and concept learning in general.
Alternative definitions not discussed here: Knowledge transfer or transfer can have many other
meanings: It can be synonym for teaching, in particular direct instruction. It also can refer to
development problems of the third world, etc.
Conditions and Principles of Transfer
Factors Affecting Transfer of Principle of Transfer Implication
learning
Similarity betweentwo The more similar the Involve students in learning
learning situations situations are, the greater situations and tasks that are
chances that learning fom one similar as possible to the
situation will be transferred to situations where they would
the other situation. apply the tasks.
Degree of meaningfulness/ Meaningful learning leads to Remember to provide
relevance of learning greater transferthan rote opportunities for learners to
learning. link new material to what they
learned in the past.
Length of instructional time The longer the time spent in To ensure transfer, teach a
instruction, the greater the few topics in depth rather than
probability of transfer. many topics tackled in shallow
manner.
Variety of learning Exposure to many and varied Illustrate new concepts nd
experiences examples and opportunities principles with a variety of
for practice encourages examples. Plan activities that
transfer. allow your learners to practice
their newly learned skills.
Context for learner’s Transfer of learning is most Relate a topic in one subject
experiences likely to happen when learners to topics or disciplines. Relate
discover that what they it also to real life situations.
learned is applicable to
various contexts.
Focus on principles rather Principles transfer easier than Zero in on principles related to
than tasks facts. each topic together with
strategies based on those
principles.
Emphasis on metacognition Student reflection improves Encourage students to take
transfer of learning. responsibility for their own
learning, and to reflect on
what they learned.

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Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for
their students (learning objectives). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom,
an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently
updated to include the following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure
the learning objectives, lessons, and assessments of your course.

Revised Bloom’s taxonomy emphasizes students’ learning outcomes through the use of
refined terms. The revised taxonomy is a refreshed take on Bloom’s Taxonomy from 1956,
which examined cognitive skills and learning behavior. Changes to terminology, structure and
emphasis are a part of the revised approach. Nouns such as evaluation or synthesis are now
replaced with verbs such as creating or evaluating, respectively. With structure, “creating” now
becomes the highest level—the area meant for generating ideas or constructing a new point of
view. Emphasis has also changed, whereby the taxonomy is aimed at wider audiences and
attempts to be more universal beyond grade school.

Revised Bloom’s taxonomy refers to the emphasis on two learning domains that make up
educational objectives: cognitive (knowledge) and affective (attitude). The revised taxonomy
focuses on six levels: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and create. These verbs
refer to the cognitive process that students encounter and the knowledge that they work with.
For instance, a verb under the “remember” category may ask students to recall how to perform
CPR where a verb under the “create” category may ask students to design an effective project
workflow.

Bloom’s Taxonomy- original

How Bloom’s works with learning objectives

Fortunately, there are “verb tables” to help identify which action verbs align with each level in
Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Adding to this confusion, you can locate Bloom’s verb charts that will list
verbs at levels different from what we list below. Just keep in mind that it
is the skill, action or activity you will teach using that verb that
determines the Bloom’s Taxonomy level.

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 Bloom’s
Level Key Verbs (keywords) Example Learning Objective

By the end of this lesson, the student will

design, formulate, build, invent, be able to design an original homework
create, compose, generate, problem dealing with the principle of
Create derive, modify, develop. conservation of energy.

choose, support, relate,
determine, defend, judge,
grade, compare, contrast,
argue, justify, support,
Evaluate convince, select, evaluate.
By the end of this lesson, the student will
be able to determine whether using
conservation of energy or conservation of
momentum would be more appropriate for
solving a dynamics problem.

classify, break down,

categorize, analyze, diagram, By the end of this lesson, the student will
illustrate, criticize, simplify, be able to differentiate between potential
Analyze associate. and kinetic energy.

calculate, predict, apply, solve,

illustrate, use, demonstrate, By the end of this lesson, the student will
determine, model, perform, be able to calculate the kinetic energy of a
Apply present. projectile.

describe, explain, paraphrase,

restate, give original examples By the end of this lesson, the student will
of, summarize, contrast, be able to describe Newton’s three laws of
Understand interpret, discuss. motion to in her/his own words

list, recite, outline, define, By the end of this lesson, the student will
name, match, quote, recall, be able to recite Newton’s three laws of
Remember identify, label, recognize. motion.

Learning objective examples adapted from, Nelson Baker at Georgia Tech:

nelson.baker@pe.gatech.edu

Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory

Sternberg (2005) argued that in order for a person to be successfully intelligent he must have
the following: (Sternberg, 2005, direct quotation)

 Ability to achieve one’s goal in life, given one’s sociocultural context

 [ability to capitalize] on strengths and correcting or compensating for weaknesses

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 [ability] to adapt to, shape and select environments; and
 [ability to combine] analytical, creative and practical abilities
Sternberg (1997) also stated that to be a successful intelligent person, one must combine and
balance the three abilities: analytical, creativity and practicality. Moreover, he instills that
“successful intelligent people don’t just have abilities, they reflect on when and how to use these
abilities effectively.”

Analytical Intelligence
Analytical intelligence involves analyzation (from the word itself), evaluation, judgment or
comparison and contrast. (Sternberg, 2005). This is widely used in our schooling time. Actually,
according to Sternberg (1997) this ability is “…valued in tests and in classroom”. This is also
sometimes the basis of intelligence by other people. Sometimes the other abilities are forgotten
and just focused on this ability.

Creative Intelligence
This is the ability I like the most. It is much like thinking out of the box. It is ability to pursue
endless possibilities of thinking and imagination. And this also, for me, is the ability that could
help an adult to cope, excel and develop to his/her working environment. Sternberg (2005) puts
this into: “one [that] goes beyond the range of unconventionality…” of things that surrounds the
learner or the person.

Practical Intelligence
Lastly, practical intelligence refers to the ability to relate the learning or knowledge to the real
world. According to Sternberg (2005) it “…involves individuals applying their abilities to the kind
of problems that confront them in daily life, such as on the job or in the home.” Moreover, this is
the ability for an individual to acknowledge and cope with the demands of his/her surroundings.
(Meunier, 2003)

The triarchic theory of intelligence is based on a broader definition of intelligence than is

typically used. In this theory, intelligence is defined in terms of the ability to achieve success in
life based on one's personal standards–and within one's sociocultural context. The ability to
achieve success depends on the ability to capitalize on one's strengths and to correct or
compensate for one's weaknesses. Success is attained through a balance of analytical,
creative, and practical abilities–a balance that is achieved in order to adapt to, shape, and select
environments.

The WICS model

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The overall model for liberal education is called WICS, which is an acronym for Wisdom,
Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. The basic idea is that citizens of the world need
creativity to form a vision of where they want to go and to cope with change in the environment,
analytical intelligence to ascertain whether their creative ideas are good ones, practical
intelligence to implement their ideas and to persuade others of the value of those ideas, and
wisdom in order to ensure that the ideas will help achieve some ethically based common good,
over the long and short terms, rather than just what is good for them and their families and
friends.
The WICS model differs from the traditional model for liberal education, which emphasizes
primarily memory and analytical skills. Traditional methods of teaching as well as tests of
conventional ability and achievement tend to emphasize stored knowledge of facts and basic
skills. Such knowledge and skills are important. One cannot think creatively to go beyond what
is known, for example, if one does not have the knowledge to move forward. Similarly, one
cannot apply what one knows if one knows nothing. The problem is that stored knowledge can
be inert and essentially unusable. Analytical skills can help one evaluate existing ideas, but they
cannot help one come up with ideas of one’s own; nor can they help one adjust to a world that is
changing rapidly and that leaves behind people who cannot flexibly adapt to its shifting
demands.
The risk of the traditional system is that it creates self-fulfilling prophecies, whereby those who
do not test well are not given full opportunities in college to succeed. WICS is a framework that
can help us get beyond self-fulfilling prophecies in admissions, instruction, and assessment.

Exercises
1. Having studied about constructivism and its application in teaching, give at least five
characteristics of a constructivist teacher. You may express your answer by writing a poem, or a
drawing, or a clip art.
2.Think of a topic you are really interested to teach. Formulate learning outcomes for a unit on
this topic.

Topic:____________________________________Year /Level_____________

Learning Learning Outcomes

Outcome
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6

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3. Think of a topic you are interested to teach. Based on the WICS model, prepare a unit guide by
writing the tasks and activities you will give to your students.

Topic______________________________________________Grade Level________________
Subject: _____________________________________________________________________
WICS Model Tasks or Activities for Your Learners (at least three each)
Teaching analytically

Teaching practically

Teaching for wisdom

Teaching creatively

40 | P A G E
 Unit 5
Focus on Classroom Processes

Topics
• Motivation
• Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation
• Student Diversity in Motivation
• Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation
• The Classroom Climate
• The Physical Learning Environment
• Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation

Overview
The classroom, the place designed for teaching and learning, is a social setting. Pianta and
Hamre (2009) noted that classrooms are hotspot as states and districts scramble to find the
right mix of curriculum, professional development, and instructional supports that will raise
students’ achievement. Classroom processes encompass teacher and the learner(s) behaviours
in the classroom as well as some other factors such as classroom climate, teacher/learner
relationship and so on, that can make or mar the teaching/learning process. That is, all that
transpires between the teacher and the learner(s) in the course of teaching and learning in the
classroom.

Learning Objectives:
After a successful completion of the lesson, the students should be able to:
• distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
• reflect on your own experiences as you read through situations given in this module
• create a conducive classroom in a simulation
• cite ways to make assessment more motivating for students

Introduction
Classroom processes are implicated as significant moderators of treatment effects in highly
controlled experimental work (Battistich et al. in Pianta & Hamre, 2009; Briggs & Ololube, 2014).
Huitt (2003) subdivided classroom processes into three subcategories: Teacher Behaviour,
Student Behaviour, Other/Miscellaneous.
The teacher is a key player in the teaching/learning process. Teachers have the singular honour
to interpret and implement the curriculum package handed over to them. They play a major role
in determining the value of the classroom environment for students’ learning and development.
Being a teacher is more about enabling students to learn than disseminating information (Aunio,
2012). Apart from their traditional role of helping the learners to acquire knowledge and skills,
teachers also help learners to define who they are. From daily interactions with teachers, they
get to know whether they are important or not, bright or slow, etc. All these affect their
development. To be a successful teacher, a teacher must attend to what students do, what they
say and how they perform.

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Motivation in Education
We all come into the world with a natural curiosity and a motivation to learn, yet some lose
those abilities as they grow older. Many factors shape our individual inclinations toward the
process of learning, and education is a critical context that can influence our later attitudes
toward the acquisition of knowledge and growth.
True learning is a life-long process. But to continuously achieve, our children must find it
enjoyable and rewarding to learn so they can develop a sustained level of motivation necessary
for long-term achievement.
Curiosity and motivation to learn is the force that enables students to seek out intellectual and
experiential novelty and encourages students to approach unfamiliar and often challenging
circumstances with anticipation of growth and expectation to succeed.
What is intrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic motivation is doing something for the sake of personal satisfaction. The primary
motivator is internal (i.e. you don’t expect to get anything in return). You are intrinsically
motivated when you do something simply because it makes you feel good, is personally
challenging, and/or leads to a sense of accomplishment. For example, a student may be
intrinsically motivated to read because it satisfies their curiosity about the world and brings them
a sense of calm. Intrinsic motivation is doing something “just because.”
So how can teachers spark their students’ intrinsic motivation?
The word intrinsic means to come from inside, so it seems counterintuitive to imply that we can
train a student to be intrinsically motivated. While we cannot change who a student is as an
individual, we can can create the optimum environment to encourage students to develop their
own motivation muscles. Here are a few suggestions to get you started.
1. Know your students.
Get to know your kids as individuals and discover what they’re interested in and how they learn
best. Then design your instruction around these motivating factors. Change up your instruction
to keep kids engaged and interested. Provide a mix of independent, partner, and group work.
Use technology. Incorporate art. Keep your finger on the pulse of your students and adjust as
necessary.
2. Give them ownership of their environment.
Involve your students in creating the guiding principles of your classroom community. Work
together to establish the optimal learning environment for that particular group of individuals.
Like all humans, your students are more likely to take care of something they helped to create.
3. Make sure they have a solid foundation.
Explicitly teach basic skills so that students have a solid foundation of knowledge to build upon.
Intrinsic motivation will come from being able to tackle complex tasks. Build up students’
confidence and make sure they have the resources they need before they begin.
4. Practice setting goals.
Tap into the power of setting goals with—not for—your students. According to literacy
consultant Lindsey Barrett, “Research spanning decades shows that setting student goals
improves both motivation and achievement, encourages a growth mindset, and also supports
the development of skills students need to be prepared for their future careers.”
5. Give specific feedback.
Give students feedback that focuses on their strengths instead of their weaknesses and be as
specific as you possibly can. Instead of saying “great job!” or “you’re so smart,” tie your
comments directly to the student’s effort. For example, “Your essay turned out so well because
you created an excellent outline to work from,” or “Your conclusion from the science lab was so
insightful because you made very keen observations.”

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6. Tap into their innate curiosity.
Encourage students to take on assignments simply because they want to know more, instead of
feeling required to do so just to receive a grade. Establish a Genius Hour as part of your
curriculum to give students the opportunity to direct their own learning.
7. As much as possible, allow students choice in their work.
In his book The Highly Engaged Classroom, Dr. Robert Marzano touts the importance of
student choice. He states that when students are given choices, they perceive classroom
activities as more important. This increases their intrinsic motivation for putting in effort and
going deeper with their learning.
8. Make the connection between classroom activities and real-world situations.
Maybe one of your students wants to be an engineer when they grow up. If so, they need to
have a solid understanding of math concepts. Knowing that what they’re studying will help them
meet their goals in the future will boost your students’ intrinsic motivation.
9. Get out of the way.
Trust your students to find their own way as often as possible. Your work as a teacher is to lay
the groundwork and provide a framework for the work to be done. Michael Linsin shares this
gentle but powerful way to increase students’ learning, motivation and independence: “Prepare
them for success with spot-on instruction, to be sure,” he advises. “But then fade into the
background. Independent practice is critical to learning, and offering too much help is often
more problematic than not giving enough.”
Students who are intrinsically motivated might say things like the following.
 “Literature interests me.”
 “Learning math enables me to think clearly.”
 “I feel good when I succeed in class.”

Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to build this
kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often
focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.
Disadvantages: On the other hand, efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect
behavior and can require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety
of approaches may be needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what
interests one’s students in order to connect these interests with the subject matter. This requires
getting to know one’s students. Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the subject to begin
with!

What is extrinsic motivation?

Extrinsic motivation is doing something to earn a reward or to avoid a punishment. The primary
motivator is external (i.e. you expect to get something for completing a certain task, or you want
to avoid a consequence for not doing something). For example, a student studies for a test
because they want to earn a good grade. Or they mind their behavior because they don’t want
to lose their recess. Students choose behaviors not because they enjoy them or find them
satisfying, but in order to get something in return or avoid an adverse outcome.
Extrinsic motivators include parental expectations, expectations of other trusted role models,
earning potential of a course of study, and grades (which keep scholarships coming).
Students who are extrinsically motivated might say things like the following.
 “I need a B- in statistics to get into business school.”
 “If I flunk chemistry, I will lose my scholarship.”
 “Our instructor will bring us donuts if we do well on today’s quiz.”

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Advantages: Extrinsic motivators more readily produce behavior changes and typically involve
relatively little effort or preparation. Also, efforts at applying extrinsic motivators often do not
require extensive knowledge of individual students.
Disadvantages: On the other hand, extrinsic motivators can often distract students from
learning the subject at hand. It can be challenging to devise appropriate rewards and
punishments for student behaviors. Often, one needs to escalate the rewards and punishments
over time to maintain a certain effect level. Also, extrinsic motivators typically do not work over
the long term. Once the rewards or punishments are removed, students lose their motivation.
Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation
Students' educational motivation may be different from student to student, depending on the
age or even the mood of the child. Children cannot truly understand why learning local history is
important. An important task is then to figure out how a child’s motivation can be raised.
Unfortunately, there is no universal method to do this, since each child has its own personality
that must be taken into account. Elementary school programs are focused on new knowledge
acquisition and learning process in general. By the end of elementary school, learning interest is
decreasing due to a range of psychological factors, one of them being inability to find practical
appliance of theoretical knowledge (Eccles et al., 1998).

Self-efficacy and competence perceptions

First of all the role of self-efficacy in the regulation of motivation should be defined. Perceptions
of self-efficacy refer to students’ beliefs about their ability to successfully accomplish tasks they
are given, and have been related to students’ successful engagement and persistence in tasks
(Bandura, 1993; Schunk, 1994). Students’ judgments about how likely it is to successfully
accomplish tasks must be based on their perceptions of task requirements.
When people expect to do well, they tend to try hard, persist, and perform better (Pintrich &
Schunk, 2002). Students who believe they can and will do well are much more likely to be
motivated in terms of effort, persistence, and behavior than students who believe they are less
able to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Eccles et al., 1998; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).
Competition is another important possibility. By setting a specific goal that can be achieved in a
limited period of time, by one class or by a group within a class, teachers can put the pupils’
competition spirit to work (busyteacher.org).

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Attributions and control beliefs
The basic construct refers to beliefs about the causes of success and failure, and how much
perceived control one needs to affect outcomes or to control one’s behavior (Skinner, 1996;
Weiner, 1986). Students must believe that their efforts will lead to success. This assurance
enables them to manage their activities and emotions. Students who believe they are in control
of their own learning and behavior are more likely to do well and perform at high levels than
students who do not feel in control (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Skinner, Zimmer-Gembeck &
Connell, 1998)
Higher level of interest
High levels of both personal and situational interest are associated with more cognitive
engagement, more learning, and higher levels of achievement (Eccles et al., 1998; Hidi, 1990;
Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Schiefele, Krapp & Winteler, 1992).
Students’ interest refers to the intrinsic pleasure students draw from completing the activity
(Schiefele, 1991; Viau, 1999). Students can only judge if the task is interesting or not, or a task’s
utility in terms of their understanding of task purposes.
Classroom environment
Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2001) distinguish between the objective qualities of a classroom
environment that might impact on motivation and students’ subjective perceptions of those
same environmental conditions. They note that stronger links have been found between
achievement and students’ perceptions of classrooms than between achievement and
objectively defined classroom qualities. Thus, it appears that teachers can influence learning
processes and outcomes by structuring learning environments. They must however attend to
how students perceive those environments to achieve the intended effects.
Home Situation
Home situations affect pupils' motivation in the classroom. If children come from homes where
they are loved and encouraged, they will approach classroom work with eagerness and with a
willingness to learn. If the pupils do not have a positive home environment, they attend school
with a disadvantage and a lack of motivation because of physical or emotional problems.
Teaching approach
Learning can be more enjoyable and be tailored to a larger degree when the pupils become
part of the learning process. Students can be motivated when teachers help them to see what
they are learning in a different context. If the pupils are currently learning about a historical
figure or event, then it could be motivating to read novels or short stories that takes place in the
same time period. As long as the historical scenes are accurate, fiction stories can draw
students into the historical setting and make the era come alive. When students connect better
with what they are learning, motivation often increases.
Interactive activities
Using interactive activities can be a motivating factors for positive classroom participation. Also,
the use of puzzles, games, special speakers and visiting museums may motivate pupils to go
beyond the official and predefined teaching routine and take steps to learn more about the
subject than what is taught in school.

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Higher levels of value
Task value refers to students’ opinion about the utility, or how interesting they find a task given
the goals that are being pursued (Pintrich & Schrauben, 1992; Viau, 1999). Clearly students’
perceptions of task value are predicated on their interpretation of tasks.
Students must understand how important it is to do well on the task. Parents and teachers need
to provide support to the pupils’ understanding of value. Higher value of oncoming result
increases sense of responsibility and overall interest in the task.
Goals and goal orientation
Setting goals is a key point in the learning process. Encouraging students to set goals in the
classroom can also provide motivation. Goal content approaches (Ford, 1992; Wentzel, 2000)
assume that there are multiple goals that students can pursue in a classroom.
Student Diversity in Motivation
Students motivation is likely to vary as a function of age, culture, gender, socioeconomic
background and special education needs. There is no single best method of motivating learners.
From the module of Student’s Diversity in Motivation, we will be able to know how these factors
influences student’s motivation.
Diversity- the quality or state of having different forms, types, ideas, etc.-the state of having
people who are different races or who have different cultures in a group or organization.
Motivation- the act or process of giving someone a reason for doing something.
Our students’ motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural, socioeconomic
backgrounds, and special education needs. Our class is a conglomerate of students with
varying ages, and gender and most especially cultural background and socioeconomic status.
Our students’ motivational drives reflect the elements of the culture in which they grow up – their
family, their friends, school, church, and books. To motivate all of them for learning, it is best to
employ differentiated approaches. “Different folks, different strokes”. What is medicine for one
may be poison for another.
How can we motivate students of both genders?
 Having posters or talking about equal male and female careers
 Encourage female students to perform the same jobs as would be typically seen as a male
profession
 Avoid language such as “boys and girls”. Instead speak more neutrally, such as “everyone
or grade ___”
 When teaching history lessons, teachers tend to spend a lot of time learning about heroic
male figures, inventors etc. Include an equal amount of female figures in your history
lessons
 Maintain a zero tolerance policy for sexual harassment
 For classroom activities mix the teams up when doing group work
 Classroom seating, place students with a different sex classmate

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 Speak to your school faculty about co-ed sports teams. Ensure students of both genders are
equally included in sports activities/clubs/teams
 Similarly with art/dance clubs. Encourage male students to participate
 Avoid gender stereotypes (e.g. pink is not just a color females can wear, cars and
superheroes are not only toys for boys etc.)
 Avoid stereotyping subjects in the classroom (e.g. boys are better at math and science, girls
are better at English and art)
If gender equity is respected in the classroom, students will be more motivated to perform at
their best. They will feel unrestricted by gender barriers, as they will understand that they can
accomplish anything they put their minds to. Girls will feel more motivated to try out for sports
teams, succeed in subjects like mathematics whereas before they might never have considered
doing such things. Boys might feel more motivated to achieve in areas such as dance and wear
“female colored clothing” if gender normativity does not exist in your classroom. Students will be
more motivated to be themselves.
Two principles to consider regarding social and cultural influences on motivation are:
1. Students are most likely to model the behaviours they believe are relevant to their situation.
2. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like themselves performing
the task successfully. (Ormrod, 2004)
What conclusion can be derived from the two principles? “Students need models who are
similar themselves in terms of race, cultural background, socioeconomic status, gender, and (if
applicable) disability. (Ormrod, 2004.). Then it must be good to expose our student to models of
their age and models who come from similar cultural, socioeconomic backgrounds.Do we have
to limit ourselves to line models? Not necessarily. We can make our students read biographies
and autobiographies of successful individuals who were in situations similar to them.
Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation
It is a common notation that environmental is defined as the sum total of one’s surroundings.
Environment also plays a major part on a learner’s motivation. However, it has to be taken into
consideration that human factors can aalso affect motivation. The immediate human factors that
surround the learner such as the teacher, students, and the parents.
Studies suggest that management and instructional processes are thekey in facilitating learning.
In a study that was conducted, the results show that teacher’s affective characteristic or social
and emotional behaviors are also akey to motivate students aside from the pedagogical
practice. Some teachers were motivating and inspiring and some were not.
Researchers cited the following affective characteristics of effective teachers:
1.Caring
-Sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside theclassroom but more about
students’ life in general
-Understanding of students’ questions and concerns
-Knowing students individually, their likes and dislikes, andpersonal situations affecting behavior
and performance

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2.Fairness and respect
-Treating students as people
-Avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in whichstudents lose respect in front of
their peers
-Practicing gender, racial and ethnic fairness
-Providing students with opportunities for them to participateand succeed
3.Social interactions with students
-Consistently behaving in a friendly, personal manner while maintaining professional distance
with students
-Working with students not for the students
-Interacting productively by giving students responsibility and respect
-Allowing students to participate in decision making
-Willing to participate in class activities and demonstrating asense of fun
-Having a sense of humor and willing to share jokes
4.Enthusiasm and motivation for learning
-Encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning
-Maintaining an organized classroom environment
-Setting high standards-Assigning appropriate challenges
-Providing reinforcement and encouragement during tasks
5.Attitude toward the teaching profession
-Having dual commitment to personal learning and to share students’ learning anchored on the
belief that all students canlearn
-Helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction
-Working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
-Serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/her students and colleagues
6.Positive expectations of students
-Striving to make all students feel competent
-Communicating positive expectations to students
-Having high personal teaching efficacy shown in their belief thatthey can cause all students to
learn
7.Reflective practice
-Reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process
-Eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching and learning.
Classmates- Bullying and the Need to Belong
Students form part of the himan environment of the learner. In fact, thay far outnumber the
teachers in the learning environment.
The need to belong is a basic human need. Students who are accepted by teachers and
classmates feel they belong to the class. Students who feel that they are part of the class look
forward to attending and participating in class. The sense of belongingness enhances their
learning and performance. The prevalence of bullying, however, obstructs the creation of a
learning community where everyone feel that they belong. With bullying in schools, the learning
environment cannot be safe. Then by all means, bullying should be eliminated in schools.

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Bullying takes on several forms. It can be mild, intense or deeply-seated and higly violent.
Today, safety in schools is being raised all over the world.
Parents as a part of the learners’ human learning environment
The learner spends at least six hours in school. The rest, the learner spends at home. Parents,
therefore, are supposed to have more opportunity to be with their children than teachers. How
many of our parents use this opportunity to support their children in their studies?
Parents who are supportive of their children’s learning are observed to do the following:
-Follow up status of their children’s performance
-Supervise their children in their homework/project
-Check their children’s notebooks
-Review their chidren’s corrected seat works and test papers
-Attend conferences for Parents, Teachers and Community Association
-Are willing to spend on children’s projects and involvement in school activities.
-Participate actively in school community projects.
-Confer with children’s teachers when necessary.
-Are aware of their children’s activities in school
-Meet the friends of their children
-Invite their children’s friends at home
Conclusion
The interaction between the learner and the teacher, among the learners, and among the
learner, teacher and parents gives rise to the learning climate in the classroom. Whether the
climate that comes as a by-product of the interactions nurtures or obstructs learning depends on
the quality of these interactions.

The Classroom Climate

Why Consider Classroom Climate?
Classroom climate is affected not only by blatant instances of inequality directed towards a
person or group of people, but also by smaller, more subtle "micro-inequities" that can
accumulate and have significant negative impacts on learning (Hall, 1982).
Incivilities that are not addressed properly not only negatively impact learning within the course
in which they are experienced, but may also negatively influence a student's success at an
institution (Hirschy & Braxton, 2004).
Climate regulates the circulation and construction of knowledge. For instance, in an
inclusive climate all students are more likely to volunteer different perspectives and thus enrich
discussions; conversely, if some students or groups feel that their contributions are not as
valued as those of others, they will withdraw from the conversation. As an example, women in
technical fields often report feeling undervalued compared to their male peers.
Climate engenders emotions that impact learning. In a productive class, the learning
experience is characterized by excitement for discovery, joy, satisfaction and pride at one’s
accomplishments. All these positive emotions have the effect of motivating students for further
learning. Conversely, if the predominant emotions in a class are fear, shame or embarrassment
for being wrong, or boredom and apathy about the content, these negative emotions will be
highly demotivating to students (Ford, 1992).

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Climate can channel energies away from learning or toward it. For instance, if gay or
lesbian students feel it is not safe for them to be out in class, they tend to carefully monitor their
participation for fear of inadvertently exposing themselves, limiting their engagement with the
material. Conversely, in classes where they feel free to be themselves, they often capitalize on
their personal experience of having challenged conventional assumptions by engaging with the
material in creative ways (Renn, 1998).
Climate impacts student persistence. When the cumulative direct and indirect messages
students perceive communicate that they are not as able as other students and don’t belong in
the course, students are less likely to stay in the course, the major, and even in the university
(Tinto, 1993).
The Physical Learning Environment
The physical environment can impact on how students learn. Inappropriate learning
environments can create barriers to learning (for example, a noisy classroom can impede both
concentration and ability to hear the lecturer). Good physical environments can aid student
learning.
An inclusive learning environment is accessible to all students, pleasant to work in, and
appropriate for the teaching and learning methodologies used.
Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching Environments:
General Accessibility:
-Ensure all students can physically access your teaching and administrative spaces.
-Ensure there is space to manoeuvre around classes and offices with a wheelchair. Consider
the width of the doorway.
-Consider whether the current set up would mean a wheelchair user would be excluded from a
class discussion because they are unable sit with their peers.
Classroom Environment:
-Ensure you can hear, and be heard, clearly by all. Ask students for feedback.
-Ensure suitable lighting. Can all your students see you and any teaching props you may use.
-Position boards videos and screens where they can be viewed in comfort by all.
-When using new rooms use IT Services Facilities page, which includes information on
classroom equipment and lighting.
Timetabling
-Ensure timetabling gives all students sufficient time to move between teaching venues.
Remember, some students, particularly those with certain disabilities or health problems, will
take longer to travel between lectures than others.
Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation
"An indispensable part of the teaching learning process is assessment. It is usually at the end of
alesson plan termed "evaluation". A lesson plan is not complete without an assessment. The
instructional cycle indeed is not complete without assessment.
Assessment is at the service of learning, thus the phrase assessment for learning. Assessment
is meant to ensure that learning takes place. This is possible only when the assessment
process motivates students to learn. Unfortunately, in many instances, assessment as a

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process does not motivate, instead threatens. How can we make assessment a motivating and
a facilitating experience is the concern of this module."
How to Use Assessment to Motivate Students
As teachers, we often spend countless hours grading papers and writing comments inmargins,
only to have our students look at the grade and then toss the paper in thewastebasket. While
we must evaluate our students’ work, we also need to develop opportunities for our students to
think about their work and use our corrective feedback to develop next stepsfor meeting the
learning targets we have set."
So, the question becomes how can educators help their students understand the purpose
behind regularly administered classroom assessments and gain motivation through that
understanding? Here are five classroom tips:
1. Create Student-Centered Classroom Assessments
For many students who struggle with motivation, giving them more ownership and opportunity to
offer their own opinions can be helpful. Take advantage of this fact, and work to make your
assessments more student-driven. For instance, if your assessment involves a writing
assignment, start by having each student or groups of students analyze both an excellent
writing assignment and a poor one. Then, instead of telling them yourself, ask your students to
identify what makes the good example strong and the poor example weak. This encourages
them to practice analytical skills and form arguments rather than simply taking in and repeating
back information. It also helps your students prepare for their own future writing assignments in
an active manner.
2. Tap into Intrinsic Motivation
Interest and motivation go hand in hand. So, when creating your classroom exams, try to make
questions as relevant to your students’ personal interests as possible. Brainstorm things that
your students care about and get excited about – the topics that they discuss in casual
conversations with their classmates and friends. Maybe this includes box-office movie hits,
popular singers, favorite sports teams, or the latest tech trends. Integrate these topics into your
lessons and eventual assessments to pique your students’ interest and get them to engage with
the underlying concepts and material.
3. Give Students a Say
Letting your students make some decisions about their assessments is a great way to give them
more ownership over their learning – and reap the motivational benefits that can provide.
Consider giving your students some choice in the format that they are assessed in, and switch
up the format you use to accommodate different students’ preferences. This also gives your
students the chance to display their knowledge of various concepts in different ways. For
example, if you’re teaching a unit on the Civil Rights Movement, some students may excel at
explaining the underlying causes and effects of the movement on an essay-based exam. Others
may have an equally strong grasp of the content, but better communicate it through a more
project-based approach like developing a basic website or collaborating with classmates to
create a short performance.
4. Take the Time to Personalize

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Taking the time to work individually with students and tailoring elements of your lessons to their
needs can go a long way in increasing their motivation for classroom assessments. When you
see that students are doing well with material, challenge them slightly beyond grade level to
keep them engaged. Similarly, take the time to work with your struggling students. Help them
with those concepts they are finding the most challenging, and offer them learning strategies to
take in material in a way that aligns with their strengths.
5. Encourage Students to Monitor Their Own Progress
When students are able to see their progress towards various academic goals it can be a
significant motivating factor. Consider having each student keep a chart of their assessment
performance throughout the grading period. This gives your students a continuous visual of their
assessment outcomes to date and can help them to recognize steps they need to take to
improve their performance moving forward. Additionally, consider holding “student-led
conferences” with each student and their parents or caregivers. Giving your students the chance
to explain their own class and assessment progress to someone they care about can be more
motivating than a conversation led by you.
Exercise

1. Distinguish extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, Give an example for each.

2. In not more than 100 words write your reflections on your very own experiences in relation to
the following research findings.

A.Young children often want to gain teachers’ approval to be motivated while the oldr ones are
typically more interested in gaining the approval of peers.(Juvonen and Weiner,1993 quoted by
Omrod, 2004)

B. Elementary students tend to attribute their successes to effortand hardwork. By adolescence

however, students attribute success and failure more to an ability that is fairly stable and
uncontrollable. Effort becomes a sin of low ability..(Nicholls, 1990; Paris & Cunningham, 1996
quoted by Omrad 2004).

C.Students from low-income families are among those most likely to be at risk of failing and
dropping out of school. A pattern of failure may start quite early for many lower-income students
especially if they have not had the early experiences upon which school learning often builds.

4. With the use of a graphic organizer, list down behavioral traits of parents who are supportive
of children’s studies.

5.In your own words, give the condition that give rise to a classroom climate that is conducive
for learning.

6. List three things I should do to make assessment increase students’ motivation.

1. ___________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________

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List three things I should NEVER do to make assessment non-threatening
1. __________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________

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