CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF

കോട്ടയം

The etymology origin of the name Kottayam takes us back to Thekkumkur

ruler where the royal palace was protected in a fort called Thaliyilkotta and
hence the name Kotta (fort) and akam (inside), combined form would be
Kottaykkakam (inside the fort). Kottayam is a district situated in central
Kerala, comprising 2208 sq.km bordered by the Western ghats on the east
and Vembanad Lake on the west. Kottayam is also called “Akshara Nagri ''
which means the “city of letters” considering its contribution to print and
media. It carries a significant history of trading in spices and commercial
crops with the Middle East which led to the boom in monoculture irrigation
in the district. The Manimala, Muvattupuzha and Meenachil are three
principal rivers of Kottayam which is dominated by tropical humid climates
with abundant rainfall. There are notable clues that the regions that make
up Kottayam were major players in international trade of ancient Kerala.
The Dutch and Portuguese maintained constant commercial ties with
Kingdoms of Thekkumkur and Vadakkumkur which were annexed by
Marthaana Varma of Travancore. The main items of export were mainly
Teakwood, sandalwood, Ivory, Peacock and Apes. Kottayam was formerly
a part of Travancore state which was once divided into two revenue
divisions south and north under the supervision of “Diwan Peshkar”. Two
other divisions Kollam and Kottayam were established in 1868. Devikulam
eventually merged with Kottayam. Following the 1949, unification of
Travancore and Cochin, the revenue divisions were designated as Districts
and replaced by District collectors. This led to establishment of Kottayam
district in the same year.

EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE IN KOTTAYAM

Agriculture is an area that is closely linked to the cultural life of Kerala. It

led to formation of tribes, folklores, endless variety of cultures, festivals and
traditions which shaped every district of Kerala. The villages of Kerala have
cultures formed by agrarian economy and grown in the culture of agrarian
culture and harvest season.
STONE AGE
(beginning of people and agriculture)
|
MAHASILA CULTURE
(human habitation began where fertile soil and water is available)

And the people continued their life in agriculture and interacted with the
environment in the most sustainable manner. But the repeated life situation
motivated the people to discover art which led to the earliest form of
farming songs. Such folk songs made significant contributions to the
development of the language. Gradually communities formed along the
riverbanks and then evolved into farming communities. Paddy was their
major crop. Agriculture became stronger with improvement of irrigation
systems and different sections of society based on agriculture. This led to
caste segregation, discrimination and unfair privileges to a certain
community. The agricultural development paved the way for work based on
gender segregation. The women became more restricted to the house
chores and childcare. The indigenous people of Kerala formed their own
traditions and laid the foundation for the real culture of Kerala. The influx of
Buddhist, Jains and migration of Brahmins brought about great change in
the agricultural practices and culture of Kerala. Measurements became
mandatory and thus a barter system introduced. Brahmins were considered
great landowners and hence great quality lands were under the ownership
of Brahmins and temples. This kept the farm from falling apart but on the
contrary such a system led to superiority of Brahmins and the birth of caste
system and monopoly of landlords.
With the introduction of Europeans in the sixteenth century, foreign plants
such as rubber, cashew, tea, spices etc were propagated in Kottayam.
Europeans had demand for spice hence cultivation of these spices and
crops became the main economic resource of this district. This rising
demand of crops in the market forced the system to change the method of
farming to produce in bulk quantity. When Indians became colony under
foreign domination, therefore the market’s production and agrarian system
changed drastically. Agriculture and forest resources are cornerstones of
both the economy and culture of every district in Kerala. Its unique
proportion of greater agriculture avenue to overall revenue explains that
industry plays a far diminutive role. The major connection of Malabar with
the Portuguese, Dutch and Middle east etc led to vital mutual trade which
paved the path for the external migration of these nationals to these
respective countries for better economic lifestyle. As the market widened
the demand for crops extended the limits of normal farming methods and
hence came the extensive use of monoculture. These kinds of irrigation
techniques have destroyed and critically declined the fertility and life of soil
to great extent. Now farming sectors are abandoned due to unstable job
security and minimal support of the government for the farmers' livelihood
and survival.
 BIODIVERSITY OF KOTTAYAM

Thervarmala sacred grove is located in central Kerala, near Kayyur, in

theBharananganam panchayat of Kottayam revenue district, the grove is
situated on the top of a small hill called Thevarmala and hence the name .
The grove is associated with a temple dedicated to Lord Sankaranarayana
and Pandavas. The natural vegetation of the sacred grove is of mixed
deciduous type. During the rainy season the canopy looks similar to that of
semi-evergreen forests and during the dry season some of the trees shed
their leaves and reveal its deciduous nature. Albizia odoratissima, Ceiba
pentandra, Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Strychnos
nuxvomica, Terminalia paniculata, Vitex altissima, Wrightia tinctoria etc are
the dominating trees. Undergrowth is dominated by Allophylus cobbe,
Breynia retusa, Alston, Canthium coromandelicum, Chassalia curviflora
,Psilanthus travancorensis etc.
Aganosma cymosa , Dioscorea oppositifolia L., Jasminum coarctatum
Roxb, Spatholobus parviflorus, Strychnos minor Dennst., Toxocarpus kleinii
Wight & Arn, Zehneria maysorensis etc. are the major climbers

Analysis of dominant Angiosperm families in Thevarmala sacred grove.

Endemic plant species identified - Andrographis atropurpurea, Artocarpus

hirsutus, Cinnamomum malabatrum, Curcuma neilgherrensis, Habenaria
longicornu, Vateria indica, Dendrobium barbatulum etc
Another example of conserving biodiversity is Puthettu Sarppakkavu,
located at the heart of Kottayam town is owned by the 'Puthettu
Kudumbam', Kodimatha Kottayam. The ‘Kavu', which has a history of many
centuries, housed Hindu serpent deities which were worshiped by the
ancestors of Puthettu family. The vegetation around any kaavus are never
to be touched or altered for maintenance .

Mango Meadows is an agricultural theme park in Kaduthuruthy, Kerala,

India. With more than 4800 species of plants, including 1900 species of
medicinal plants, 700 species of trees, and 900 species of flowering plants,
it is one of the most biodiverse places on earth. Rare species like the Ficus
alii tree or Ficus maclellandii, Beggar’s bowl or Calabash, Camphor tree or
Cinnamomum camphora, Damas tree or Conocarpus lancifolius,
Kattupoovarash or Rhododendron arboreum, Rudraksha or Elaeocarpus
ganitrus are present in the park. In the midst of 35 acres of land, a large
pond is the abode of more than 65 varieties of fish species. A few meters
away, a temple pond proclaims the rich traditions of the past. Near to it, a
'sarppakavu' (a place considered as abode of snakes) reminds about
traditional culture of conservation of biodiversity.

CMS COLLEGE was under spotlight during last year for the vast amount of
butterfly species discovered there. Dr. Vargheese C Joshuva, the former
Principal of CMS College Kottayam, revealed that within this nature-friendly
haven, 1,650 species of plants and trees thrived in the premises. According
to ANI, 30 butterfly species can be seen in the green cover at the CMS
College campus in Kottayam
 MIGRATION AND AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATION IN
KOTTAYAM

Kerala has been known for internal and external migration since the 19th
century. Internal migration has always been characterized by the movement
of the peasantry and landless laborers across the regions of Tranvancore,
Cochin and Malabar in Kerala and external migration to Malaysia, Sri
Lanka, West Asia and Middle-east were prominently evident.
The peasant migration took place between 1920 an1960 within Kerala and
labor out migration got accelerated with the ‘gulf boom’ in the late 1970’s
which transformed the economy forever. The internal migration from
Travancore to Malabar led to annihilation of tribal communities and
destroyed the foundation of tribal economy and hence uprooted from their
traditional culture, biodiversity and settlement. The initial reason for the
movement was due to the exhaustion of land in central and eastern
Travancore hence the Syrian Christians mostly small farmers migrated to
British Malabar which turned out to be the best economic option for them.
These migrants cleared the jungle and converted them into paddy fields
and plantations of rubber, coffee, tea and orchards. Naturally these
migrants introduced those crops that fetched the maximum yield in terms of
value and discontinued the regional crops that did not command good
prices in the market. On seeing the success of the venture the native
inhabitants too adapted these monoculture techniques and opened
plantations of Rubber, tea, spices etc.
 EVOLUTION OF PADDY CULTIVATION IN
KOTTAYAM

In Central Kerala, there was 65% fall in the wetland area under paddy in
the last 30 years. Unabated massive conversion still continues and that
may result in total abandonment of rice cultivation in the near future.The
State’s agrarian economy has undergone radical and far reaching changes.
In the name of development, the hills are mined, sacred groves are
desecrated and destroyed and rare medical plants exterminated paddy
fields in the valley reclaimed and consequently the sources of perennial
water streams of Panchayat dried up. Conversion of paddies means
abandoning a highly developed and complex wetland agro-ecosystem. It
involves irreversible transformation of the ecosystem . While the conversion
benefits go exclusively to private owners, the society in general and those
who depend on land for their livelihood in particular bear the brunt of
disruption of the fragile ecological balance. It is cautioned that the recently
promulgated government order permitting reclamation of paddy fields for
construction purposes may augment the process of conversion which may
result in vanishing of the remaining paddy in the near future. Such a
large-scale conversion of paddy fields and enclosure of the adjoining
common property and common access resources are denied to the local
people. These kinds of harsh agricultural techniques will cause acute
drinking water scarcity in hill areas and drastically affect livelihood
conditions. On the contrary, farmers and their organization argued for
conversion due to problems such as low profitability, scarcity of labor and
high wages for rice cultivation. They refuse to accept the fact that paddy
fields do have unique ecological and environmental features. On the other
hand, Wetlands are mainly used for rice cultivation. Rice cultivation is an
activity which does not alter the ecological characteristics of the valleys, the
essential nature of the landform unit is maintained. But the economic
compulsions of land owners inspired them to maximize returns from the
land by conversion to more productive uses. Keeping this in mind there are
various functions of the Wetland paddy field that contribute to the balance
of the ecosystem like maintenance of fertility and productivity, hydrological
function - ground water recharge and discharge, Water purification
functions, Habitat of plants, predators and microorganisms, economic
services to human utilization etc. These paddy fields are ideal breeding
sites due to the presence of standing water and foraging sites too. Several
studies suggest that a good paddy field is home to a variety of flora and
fauna. Since the large number of people belonging to different agency
statuses are involved in the land use, the cost and benefits of conversion
also vary widely among the agents. Landowners may use the converted
piece of land for purposes of their choice depending on the location.Though
these conversion may initially give employment opportunities, the poor
people in the locality lose access to the fresh water flowing through springs
and side canals of paddy field when the converted land gets enclosed.
Then the financial burden on the welfare government will rise regarding
availability of safe drinking water especially in summers .

Therefore we can understand that this kind of development leads to

obstruction in flow of water. These are water logging in some areas and
water scarcity in others. It also depletes small fishes and regional creatures
from the paddy land.Hence we can conclude that the issue of paddy
conversion in all over Kerala is complex matter to delve into and it involves
economic, ecological, socio-cultural, structural and class dimensions.
 THE LAND OF LATEX

In the beginning the rubber plantation idea was introduced in our indian
system due to our exporting relationship developed with the west. Rubber
is an important globally recognised commercial crop and its a source of
revenue from many countries. It is cultivated mainly for the production of
latex. The demand for latex led to a drastic change in the agrarian system
of India and this paved the path for thousands of acres of rubber plantation
in Kerala especially Kottayam. Hence Kottayam is known as the “Land of
Latex”. The socioeconomic and environmental impacts of rubber plantation
has led to rehabilitation of tribe’s people habitation and also disrupted the
soil quality , ground water reserve and extinction of biodiversity etc. But the
major reason for the continued development of this sector in Kottayam is
due to the economic profit associated with this as it is a source of livelihood
for a larger part of people in Kottayam .

Effects on Biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity is one of the major dangers associated with the
extensive rubber plantation. The unhampered growth of rubber has an
overwhelming effect on the microclimate of the ecosystem due to the root
root system and leaf coverage of rubber plants in general. For these
plantations, forests are cleared which directly affect the habitat and survival
of the native species (flora and fauna).

Effect on Water availability and Soil health

Rubber plants require more water and depletes water share of nearby
growing plants. This kind of growth affects the groundwater drastically and
leads to a crisis in water availability. These latex processing industries
discharging partly treated and untreated wastewater into the surrounding
contaminate the environment and lead to dramatic degeneration of fish
species resulting in health crises of fish, shrimps, turtles, shellfish and
edible stream bank vegetation. Intensive rubber plantation systems like
these lead to soil erosion and reduce erodibility of soil. Oxidation of soil
organic matter reduces drastically due to the shading of rubber plantation
and lowers the soil temperature.
 PILGRIMAGE TO SABARIMALA

With millions of pilgrims of all religions coming from all over the nation and
the world each year, together with its unique geographic, ceremonial, and
economic qualities, the pilgrimage to Sabarimala has evolved into an
intriguing phenomenon. The essence of the pilgrimage can be noticed by
the dress codes and mannerisms of the pilgrims. Every pilgrim, regardless
of age, wealth, or status, wears a black mundu and the majority of them
choose to walk barefoot through the wild forest to the sacred site with
chants like “Swamiye Saranam Ayyappa”. The pilgrims survive on the
barest essentials of life, such clean water to drink and bathe in, restrooms,
basic food and needs. Initially these kinds of penances were performed
since the route to Ayyapan wasn't developed and they had to walk through
a dense forest full of wild animals. It was believed that the pilgrims offered
these penances to Ayyapan in exchange for their protection. As pilgrimage
numbers have increased and consumption habits have changed, the
demand for essential services has grown, and its effects on the available
resources have become evident. The forest ecosystem, river health etc are
impacted by the waste dumped by the pilgrims. Despite the controls and
monitoring at various levels by various agencies ultimately, the pilgrims do
not get water to drink or bathe at Sabarimala and lack sufficient toilet
facilities making water in River Pampa highly polluted. These poorly treated
sewage and wastewater still reaches other river bodies and leads to solid
waste accumulation hence harboring fly menace, diseases and
environmental trauma.

Impacts in Erumely, Kottayam

The name Erumely is derived from Erumakolli ('killed the buffalo').
According to mythology, Lord Ayyappa killed 'Eruma' in this place on the
way to collect a tiger's milk. 'Eruma' means buffalo in Malayalam and hence
the name extract 'erumakolli'. Erumely is the gateway to Sabarimala. The
Sabarimala Pilgrimage's geography maps and rituals heavily rely on
Erumely Panchayat. Before entering Sabarimala, first-time devotees (Kanni
Ayyappan) are expected to perform the Petta Thullal ceremony. Petta
Thullal is a symbolic representation of a community against injustice.
According to customs, these devotees are also expected to take a holy dip
in the Erumely Thodu in the Valiyambalam fountain. Coloured powders
known as "Kalabham" (Bhasm) and "Sindooram" (Kumkum), which pilgrims
apply to their bodies during the Petta thullal are rinsed away in the Erumely
thodu during their ritual bath. This causes the water to be highly
contaminated. The ecological imbalances at Erumely affect the whole of
Kuttanad and Vembanad through River Pampa which drains into it.

Sanitation facility in Erumely

The ecosystem is under a lot of stress when a large number of pilgrims try
to accommodate in a niche town like Erumely which leads to air, land, and
water pollution etc.
Existing system in Erumely
1- Toilet and bathroom facilities: There are about 500 toilets approximately
in the town claimed to be funded by different sources. But none of the
urinals provided are separate and most of the systems are either on repair
or under construction. The provided facility cannot accommodate the
millions of pilgrims hence leaving them with no option and resorts for open
defecation. The whole place becomes, in the pilgrim season, a single open
air latrine.

2- Sewage Treatment system : Unfortunately, the sewage system and toilet

facilities are built and maintained near the Koratty river (Manimala River) of
Erumely. In Fact there is currently no system in place to handle the human
waste from the latrines, and all of their tanks flow into the Koratty River
making an inhumane condition for residents of Erumely and leaving a
significant mark of environmental trauma.

ONAM

Onam is an annual harvest and cultural festival related to Hinduism but in

Kerala every home will be celebrating this festival extravagantly
irrespective of religious beliefs etc. This 10 day harvest festival unites the
whole state for reminiscing about some of the significant rituals of our
history. This festival consists of one of the most delicious meals of the
entire year; Onamsadhya which is a vegetarian feast of 26-28 dishes
served on a banana leaf, where all these varieties of curries and delicacies
are made from the regional biodiversity available there as it is the harvest
season of the year.
Vallam kali
Vallam kali is a traditional boat race conducted during the season of the
harvest festival Onam in spring.

Kumarakom Boat Race of Kottayam

The Sree Narayana Jayanthi Vallam Kali or Kumarakom Boat race Kerala
is held in September every year during Onam festival. More than 1,000
oarsmen in boats of different sizes and shapes participate. Even though
snake boats participate in this race, the importance given here is for
iruttukuthi, in which about 50 oarsmen canoes together.

The successful iruttu kuthi wins the Sree Narayana Ever Rolling Trophy. In
1903 the Sree Narayana Guru arrived at Kumarakom to consecrate an idol
of Sri Balasubrahmonia Swami at the Kumarakom.To commemorate this
event, for the past many decades, a boat race, preceded by a boat
procession are held as part of the Sri Narayana Jayanthi celebrations at
Kumarakom.
Thiruvathirakali

Thiruvathirakali or Kaikottikaliis a unique dance performed in Kerala on the

auspicious day of Thiruvathira, the birthday of Lord Shiva. It is performed
by women who seek blessings for eternal marital bliss. It is majorly played
along with Onam and Vishu festival as this commemorates the death of
Kamadeva, the Hindu god of erotic desire. There is another version of this
found in Christianity too like Margam kali. It's considered a counterpart to
this tradition.

Margamkali
Margamkali is an ancient Indian round dance of the St. Thomas Christians
community (Maargam vaasikal) based in Kerala state (southist christians)
which was practiced even before the arrival of Portuguese missionaries in
Kerala. The etymology suggests "Margam" means path or way or solution in
Malayalam, but in the religious context it is known as the path to attain
salvation. The process of conversion to Christianity was known as "Margam
Koodal". This dance form describes the introduction of Christianity or the
Christian way ( Marga) of worship into Kerala.
So just like Thiruvathira, Margam kali is a traditional folk dance woven around
the religious history of St Thomas Apostle.

Thirunakkara temple

The Thirunakkara Mahadevar Temple situated in the heart of Kottayam is

one of the 108 revered Shivalayas in central Kerala, India. The temple is
about 500 years old and records indicate that it was built by the King of
Thekkumkoor. The temple also includes an anakottil (elephant camp) and a
Kodimaram (flag mast). The main offerings made here are oil and lotus
flowers. The vast availability of lotus and water lilies available in Malarikkal
(which is 7km away) could be one of the factor why its being offered in the
temple. Malarikkal is home to 650 acres of paddy fields that come alive
with pink and white water lilies and lotus flowers.
REFERENCES

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Kerala, India’ (2017)
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Watershed Region,” Centre for Development Studies,
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