Photos by David Maxwell

1
 Lithic Technology
 Flaked Stone (aka Flintknapping)
 Cores & Flakes. falking stone involves production of flakes
(broken pieces of stone) by removing them
from cores (piece of rock you break off of)
 Suitable materials:
 Isotropic (uniform in all
orientations). doesn't matter how you hold it or how you hit it
 Cryptocrystalline. VERY fine grains -- breaks smoothly
 Produce conchoidal fractures. conchoidal = shell shaped
 Glass, obsidian, chert, flint, basalt,
andesite, chalcedony, quartzite.

(modified from Whittaker 1994:Figure 2.1) 2

Flaked Stone has Distinctive Breakage Patterns

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Diagram_showing_the_conchoidal_fracture_of_flint._Wellcome_M0015946.jpg

When a stone is knapped, it will fracture the surface into a shape much like a shell.
3
 Bulb of Percussion
 When a stone tool is produced, the impact of one stone upon another
produces a distinctive type of fracture.
 This is vaguely shell-shaped, and referred to as a “conchoidal (shell-shaped)
fracture” or a bulb of percussion.
 This type of breakage is extremely rare in naturally occurring breaks.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Lithic_flake.png
4
 Lithic Technology
Flaked Stone (Flintknapping) blade core -- twice as long as it is broad

 Cores
 Simple cords that have had flakes taken off

 Complex
 Prepared blade cores
 Levallois shaping the core in a way that you want it so when you break off the final flake it already has
the final shape

(Whittaker 1994:Figure 2.2)

Images courtesy of W. Karl Hutchings

5
 Flakes

 A flake is any piece of stone that

has been chipped away from
another piece of stone.
 Flakes occur in many different
forms.
 Flakes are a key part of stone tool
technology.

https://erareshide.github.io/lithics/docs/flakes/

6
 Flake Terminology
 Proximal End: end of the flake / blade where removal blow was struck. point of impact

 Contains the butt and the bulb of percussion and is therefore sometimes
referred to as a bulbar end.
 Distal End: the end of a flake or blade opposite the point of impact.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Lithic_flake.png 7
 Flake Terminology
 Dorsal Surface: outer or upper side of a flake or blade which carries the scars and
ridges of previous removals.
 Ventral Surface: surface of the flake or blade which originally faced into the
nodule/core. part that was most recently detachhed from the core

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Lithic_flake.png 8
 Flake Features
result of strking platform being hit
subjected to imapct

Bulb of Percussion Striking Platform

(modified from Crabtree1972:Figure 2.3) 9

 Flake Features
Arris flake scar lines that are produced by flakes
Cortex aprt of rock eposed to elements to the
longest period of time -- rough course
amterial of flake

(modified from Crabtree1972:Figure 2.3) 10

 Flake Features
Flake Orientation Flake Axis direction of flow of impact

end struck

Proximal

Dorsal

Lateral Lateral
either side of a
flask

Ventral

Distal
opposite to proximal
(modified from Crabtree1972:Figure 2.3) 11
 Flintknapping Techniques
hard hammer = stone you are hitting with is harder than the stone you are hitting

 Direct percussion:
 Hard-hammer. bipolar = flake produced by impacts
on both surfaces
 Soft-hammer.
 Bipolar. doi: 10.2190/NA.30.2.d

 Anvil technique.
 Indirect percussion.
http://calixtlahuaca.blogspot.ca/2011/08/bipolar-lithic-technology-at-post.html

 Pressure flaking.

not how hard you hit but how sharp it is

pressure -- use pressure with pointed surface to pop a piece you hit
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Orientation-of-pressure-flaking-tools-A-Large-bone-pressure-flaker-used-to-remove_fig5_344436117/download

12
 Lithic Technology
Unifacial Flaking Bifacial Flaking
flakes taken off both sides
flaking occurs on one side

(modified from Whittaker 1994:Figure 2.5) (modified from Whittaker 1994:Figure 2.6)

13
 Types of Flakes
 Primary
 First flakes off the core
 Have cortex of >50
 Secondary
 Second group of flakes off core
 Cortex is <50
 Tertiary
 No cortex present

Images courtesy of W. Karl Hutchings

14
 Retouch

 Intentional modification of a flake

or blade in order to shape it &
prepare it for use.
 May include:
 Sharpening an edge.
 Blunting an edge.
 Thinning a flake or blade.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Technique_du_coup_de_burin.png

15
 Expedient Tools
 Flakes produced opportunistically from informal cores (amorphous).
 Tools are not retouched & often only used once in one activity & discarded.
 Most common in sedentary societies.

http://cas.anthropology.txstate.edu/zatopec/analyses/lithics/exptools.html#&gid=1&pid=1 16
 Functional Analysis
 Identifying actual tool use, rather than guessing use based on shape or form.
 Requires experimentation & use-wear analysis, often under magnification.
scrapers sharpened on one side

Photos courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Peterson

17
 Spatial Analysis
 Particular kinds of tools often indicative of certain types of activities or are predominant in certain
types of sites.
 Microliths are often associated with kill sites & hunting camps. used for cutting things up
 Scrapers, borers & other processing tools often associated with habitation (living) sites.
used for different functions

Photos courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Peterson

18
 Ground Stone Technology
 Traditionally associated with the
Neolithic; predates agriculture.
 Two basic varieties:
1. Grinding stones
2. Polished ground artifacts
 Both extremely time & labour
intensive.
 Both produce artifacts with
substantially longer use-life span
than flaked stone.
Examples of grinding stones, used for processing
maize (corn) & other materials into flour, meal, or
similar form.
Photo by David Maxwell
19
 Polished Ground Stone
 Extremely time & labour intensive.
 Earliest polished ground stone
tools likely used for wood working,
particularly for felling trees.
 Flaked stone is very inefficient for
this task.
 Must constantly be re-sharpened.
 Results in rapid destruction of
flaked stone tools.
Photo by David Maxwell

Examples of polished ground stone wood working tools.

20
 Pecked Ground Stone
 Pecking is the process of pounding
away at a particular spot on a
stone, until the desired shape is
achieved.
 Used in a variety of contexts,
including dressing stone for
construction at Stonehenge.
 Also used in creating detailed
stone artifacts, such as those
Examples of
shown to the right. pecked ground
stone artifacts

Photos by David Maxwell

21
Photos by David Maxwell 1
 Ceramic Technology

 Uses:
 Early ceramics related to brewing
beer in West Asia.
 Storage (rodent-proof grain
storage), cooking, water transport,
evaporative water cooling .
 Non-utilitarian uses:
 Funerary urns.
 Symbolic / status items.
 Aesthetics / artistic elaboration. http://mayaarchaeologist.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/mayachocolatepot.jpg

Maya Chocolate Pot

2
 Ceramic Technology
 Characteristics:
 Ceramics are plastic: they vary in shape,
colour, decoration and function.
 Additive technology; resulting piece is
pretty much what artisan intended.
 Highly subject to temporal variation
(change in styles over time).
 Ceramics are ubiquitous: very common,
cheap, people make lots (fragile, easily &
often broken).
 Ceramics are indestructible: somewhat
erosion resistant, do not rot, good
preservation.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Chaco_Anasazi_bowl%2C_NPS.jpg  Often associated with graves (food
Ancestral Puebloan pottery, American Southwest offerings).
3
 Ceramic Technology

 Clay alone insufficient – cracks or explodes when fired.

 Temper added to strengthen ceramics & reduce shrinking.
 Can be any non-plastic, solid material (a lot of clays have natural
temper inclusions).
 American Southwest: sand (Western Ancestral Puebloan), crushed
rock (Eastern Ancestral Puebloans), shell, sherds (later Eastern
Ancestral Puebloan).
 Arctic: feathers.
 Africa: blood.
4
 Ceramic Technology
 Firing Atmosphere is key.
 Reducing atmosphere:
 No air: black / grey ceramics.

 Oxidizing atmosphere: https://swvirtualmuseum.nau.edu/wp/index.php/artifacts/pottery/tusayan-white-ware/kayenta-black-on-white/

 Open kiln (lots of air): reddening /

red / brown / buff.
 Coal produces warm orange /
yellows; Pueblo IV Hopi (after ~
A.D. 1500).

5
https://www.nps.gov/cagr/learn/kidsyouth/what-they-traded-for.htm
 Ceramic Technology

 Construction
 Handmade
 Coiling
 Slab
 Wheel-made
 Mould-made
 Surface alteration & decoration

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Bahrain_Pottery_Creator.jpg

6
Maya Ceramic Production & Distribution Systems
 How many production centres were
there?
 Did each centre make all the various
classes of pottery, or was there
specialization?
 Was ceramic distribution
centralized?
 Was it under state control?
 Was there a market system?
 Locating pottery production centres
in the Maya lowlands has proven
extremely difficult.
 The Maya did not use kilns, nor
discard large quantities of waste
sherds during production.
https://fajina.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/central-lowlands.gif
7
Maya Production and Distribution Systems
 A probable production centre is
known from Group 4G-1.
 Large quantities of rarely used items,
including wall inserts, figurines,
figurine molds, whistles, and
common ceramics.
 XRF was used on Tikal sherds to
attempt to recognize different
production centres.
 The results were disappointing.
 They do show that a wide variety of
pottery was produced at Group 4G-1,
including polychrome pottery, but
offered little other info on production
centres. https://ajpem.wordpress.com/tikal-2/

8
 Production and Distribution Systems

 The wide distribution of sherds

from this one centre is taken as
evidence of a distribution system
more complex than simple
neighbourhood barter.
Courtesy of Laura Kosakowsky
 One particular ceramic variant,
Tinaja Pink Ceramics from Tikal
Tinaja pink, appears to have been
manufactured at only a single, still
undiscovered, location,

9
 Production and Distribution Systems
 Additional evidence for centres of
production:
 Both polychrome & monochrome
ceramic vessels drop off in
frequency as you move away from
areas (like Tikal) that are thought
to be centres of production.
 This is less surprising for
polychrome pots, which
theoretically require a higher
degree of skill to produce.
 Finding the same pattern in
monochrome pottery is more of a
surprise.
 Further, monochrome is more
restricted in spatial distribution
than polychrome.
10
 Differential Use of Ceramics

 Among the Maya, there are few

pottery forms that appear to have
been restricted to use by certain
social classes.
 A handful of varieties are
restricted to particular contexts,
such as caches or burials.
 Surprisingly, these vessels seldom
overlap.
Courtesy of Laura Kosakowsky

Balanaza Black Ceramics are restricted to caches.

11
 Differential Use of Ceramics
 Caches are thought to be votive
offerings, or perhaps the remains
of various types of ritual
behaviour.
 Despite the huge quantity of
wealth objects in many caches,
most cache vessels are crudely
made and very plain.
 They are certainly not examples of
“expensive” ceramics.
Courtesy of Laura Kosakowsky

Aguila Orange bowls are limited to caches & occasional burials.

12
 Differential Use of Ceramics

 There are a few examples of Imix

(Late Classic) ceramics, typically
restricted to burial contexts, that
include figural representations of
humans, as well as text passages.
 These are rarely seen outside of
city centres, although a few are
known from agricultural contexts!
Photo by David Maxwell

Tikal Polychrome Mug

Burial 196 Ruler 27 Yik'in Chan K'awiil
AD 754 13
 Differential Use of Ceramics
 Quantitative analysis of vessel
shape & construction suggests that
the Maya elite (based on
residential location) used fancier
pots than the average person.
 However, at least at Tikal, even
ordinary residences yielded high
numbers of polychrome pots,
suggesting a relatively high
standard of living
Courtesy of Laura Kosakowsky

Dos Arroyos Polychrome

14
 Differential Use of Ceramics
 Elite burials of the Early  Cylindrical tripods and other types
Classic have a unique pattern of vessels also show similar
of special ceramic placement. frequencies and positioning,
 Censors, effigies, and other suggesting an as yet unexplained
unusual forms are found near pattern of ritual behaviour.
the head, on the left side of
the burial, in 74-82% of
analyzed burials from centres
known to have had
connecting political
histories.

15
Photos by David Maxwell
 Differential Use of Ceramics
 Numbers of vessels included with
elite burials also shows strong
temporal patterning.
 During the Ik ceramic phase
(Hiatus period), there is a strong
preference for using 4 vessels, and
avoiding using 3 vessels.
 During the succeeding Imix
ceramic phase (Late Classic), this
pattern changes.
 3 vessels are the preferred number
during this period, and 2 vessels
are avoided.
 The reasons for such patterning
are unclear, and appear to be
limited to Tikal.
16
Tikal Burial 116, Lord Chocolate (Ah Cacao)

Terrible Photos by David Maxwell

17
Photos by David Maxwell

1
 Bone & Antler Technology
 Bone as a raw material appears
surprisingly late in the
archaeological record, less than
100,000 years ago.
 Unlikely to be preservation bias, as
there is lots of bone in general
from sites dating to that era and
far older.
 Most bone tools produced by
grinding into desired shape, and
occasionally by cutting with stone
tools.
Photos by David Maxwell 2
Bone & Antler Technology

Photos by David Maxwell

3
 Bone & Antler Technology
 Antler tines may have been used
without modification, but many
cultures modified antler into
specific shapes, largely through
grinding and occasional cutting.
 In the Pacific Northwest, antler
was frequently used as raw
material for marine mammal
hunting tools (harpoons), as well
as for wood working tools (wedges
for splitting logs).
 Antler was also used as a raw
material for artwork, such as the
antler spoon pictured.
Photos by David Maxwell 4
 Basketry and Cordage Technology

 Early New World basketry:

 Fishbone Cave, Nevada
(~11,200)
 Fort Rock Cave, Oregon
(sandals ~ 9000 BP)

http://natural-history.uoregon.edu/collections/web-galleries/great-basin-sandals

5
 Basketry and Cordage Technology

 Basketry construction:
red = weft
 Weaving
 Warp (structural element)
 Weft (moving element) weft runs weft to wright
 Plaiting
 Twining

https://www.wildernesscollege.com/native-american-basket-weaving.html
6
 Basketry and Cordage Technology
 Basketry construction:
 Coiling
 Much simpler than woven
 Also known as “sewn” basketry
 Warp and weft have no meaning with
reference to coiled basketry
 Watch spring coil; elongated watch
spring; parallel; slatted bottom
 Foundation:
 Individual continuous coils contain a
“foundation” of 1 or more elements called
“rods”
 Foundation/bundle is continuously
wrapped and stitched to the coil below https://www.wildernesscollege.com/native-american-basket-weaving.html

 Normal wrap stitch; split stitch

7
 Basketry and Cordage Technology

 Cordage construction:
 Composed of long sticky “fibres”:
hemp, wool, some barks, animal hair
 These in turn are twisted together to
produce “strands” or “yarns”
 2 or more strands twisted together
comprise a “string” or “cord”
 Twist: “S”-twist vs. “Z”-twist

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Yarn_twist_S-Left_Z-Right.png

8
 Metal Technology

 Metallurgy
 “Hard” metals.
 Copper, tin, iron.
 Precious metals.
 Silver, gold.

 Copper
 Chalcolithic (“Copper Age”).
 Annealing (heating and slow
cooling).
 Old Copper Culture:
 ~3000-3500 years ago.
 Woodlands Canada.
 Status & ceremonial items.
cold hammering -- ponder into shape you want it https://www.copperagates.com/home/native-copper-artifacts

9
 Bronze
 Lower melting point, is harder, stronger,
more durable than copper.
 Tin bronze made in SW Asia by 5000
years ago; but tin is scarce in SW Asia.
 Some new dates (5500 years ago) from
Southeast Asia (specifically, Thailand),
where tin is plentiful begs the question
of origins: independent invention vs.
diffusion.
 Regardless of origins, bronze technology
spread swiftly.
 Some of the most impressive bronze
casting comes from China during the https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Weapon_Handle_in_the_Form_of_a_Dragon%2C_China%2C_Shang_dynasty%2C_14th-
11th_century_BC%2C_bronze_with_turquoise_inlay_-_Arthur_M._Sackler_Museum%2C_Harvard_University_-_DSC00788.jpg

Shang Dynasty (~2100 – 1027 BC).

10
 Metal Technology
 Iron
 Meteoric iron
 Carburization
 Forged iron is relatively soft and not
terribly useful.
 Introducing carbon
(“carburization”) from charcoal fire
significantly strengthens the iron
producing steel.
 By the end of 2nd millennium BC, SW
Asian metallurgists were producing Photo by David Maxwell

“steeled” iron tools – “Iron Age”. Iron keys, Olympia, Greece

11
 Metal Technology
 Iron
 Quenching
 Rapid cooling of carburised iron in
water adds strength but increases
brittleness.
 Tempering
 By 4th century BC) reheating
quenched iron to temperature
below 727C (~1340°F) significantly
reduces the brittleness. http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0305/figc.gif

Roman wrought-iron cleaver

12
https://www.nps.gov/cagr/learn/kidsyouth/what-is-trade.htmc 1
 Trade & Exchange
 Occurs on several different levels
with different functions.
 For example:
 Exchange based on equal value -
give and receive.
 Exchange as a sign of respect.
 Symbolic exchange - gifts.

https://www.nps.gov/cagr/learn/kidsyouth/what-is-trade.htmc

2
 Recognition Of Trade Goods
 Archaeologists must determine: exotic = not local

 Source locations for raw materials of artifacts and ecofacts.

 Recognition of exotic materials (stone, animal & plant remains, marine shells)
& identification of ancient quarries, mines, & other acquisition areas.
 Local vs. non-local determined by: stylistic attributes, form attributes,
constituent analysis.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian_use_in_Mesoamerica#/media/File:Mesoamerican_obsidian_sourc.png

3
Recognition Of Trade Goods
 Archaeologists must determine:
 The manufacturing place for
artifacts.
 Reconstructed by discovery of
workshop sites or indirectly from
recovery of manufacturing debris
in other associations, such as
middens.
 Areas of use for both artifacts
and ecofacts.
 Area of use is inferred to be the
© Thames & Hudson site of discovery if the evidence is
found in primary context.
4
Three Principal Types Of Exchange Transactions:
1. Reciprocity
2. Redistribution
3. Market system
1 2
3

© Thames & Hudson

5
 Reciprocity
 Exchange between individuals with
symmetrical relationship.
 Positive: one way with no
expectation of indebtedness.
i have X, i give you
 Altruistic gift giving – usually X and dont expect
anything back
within kin structure.
 One supports another. i have X

 Balanced: equal value transaction. you have

Y, lets
trade

 Negative: intentional indebtedness

or someone trying to get best deal.
 Serves integrating function.
 Builds alliances.

© Thames & Hudson

 Facilitates flow of information.
6
 Redistribution
 Goods flow into central
redistribution centre and then
are distributed.
 Requires central organisation.
 Predominately found in
chiefdoms and with state level
organisation.
 Larger population with
geographical diversity.
 Requires coordination.
 Can be employed to balance
specialized economies.
© Thames & Hudson 7
 Market System

 Involves competitive bargaining and

price fixing.
 Characteristic of highly centralized
systems (i.e., states).

8
© Thames & Hudson
 5 Functions of Trade & Exchange

Chalcedony Flint
1. Social integration.
2. Alliances.
Pipestone
3. Information flow. Galena
Flint
4. Ideological & status-related Grizzly Bear
Teeth
functions. Quartz
Mica Crystal
5. Economic considerations.

Marine Shells Marine Shells

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopewell_tradition#/medi
9
Shark and Alligator Teeth
a/File:Hopewell_Exchange_Network_HRoe_2010.jpg
 Social integration & Alliances
 Social integration:
 Balanced and positive redistribution
strengthens social ties.

 Alliances:
 Often involve formal exchange.
 Example: Kula Ring (Solomon
Islands, Melanesia): shell necklaces
and armbands.
 Often involves trade with no real
economic benefit to either party.
© Thames & Hudson  Spousal exchange to strengthen
Kula network of Melanesia: necklaces exchanged for relationships (creates “family”
shell arm bands; shell arm bands exchanged for alliances).
necklaces. Cycle cemented relations among the
islanders.
10
Information Flow & Ideology/Status
 Information flow
 Markets have a social function.
 Example: Kula Ring: ideas and
news travel with goods during
contact and exchange.

 Ideologies and status

 Valuable items (locally scarce) can
be used to enhance status.
 Rare and valuable items often used
as icons in ideological/religious
systems.
http://mexicanart.info/mayans.htm

11
http://puttingzone.com/graphics/IndianMapsImages/Hopewell.jpg

1
 Interaction Spheres
 Cultural similarities over geographic distance.
 Regional traditions seem to predate interaction
spheres.
 Localized variants appear before there is evidence
for long distance similarities.
 Separate societies interacting within & beyond the
boundaries of their respective regional traditions.
 Typically, funerary & mortuary artifacts are
extremely similar – sometimes nearly identical –
over great distances.
 Exchange of valuables is far more important than
the exchange of ordinary commodities.
 Everyday items are bulky, difficult to transport,
and available locally.
 Valuable items were smaller, generally portable,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopewell_tradition#/media/File:Hopewell_Exchange_Network_HRoe_2010.jpg and apparently of great importance 2
Hopewell Figurines: Similarities Over Geographic Distance

http://www.bartowdig.com/mannsite.html

Mann Site, Indiana https://peachstatearchaeologicalsociety.org/images/stories/Effi

gyFigures/ClayFigures/mann%20site%20figurine.jpg
http://users.stlcc.edu/mfuller/MellorFigurines.html

Mellor Site, Missouri Mann Site, Indiana

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-
pages/2009februarysnyderssitepage3.htm

Knight Mound, Illinois

http://www.bartowdig.com/mannsite.html

http://www.bartowdig.com/mannsite.htmlc Leake Site, Indiana 3

 Hopewell
 Vast, complex earthworks.
 Elaborate inventory of beautiful
artifacts.
 Use of exotic raw materials imported
from great distances. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Hand_Hopewell_mica.jpg

 Luxury goods acquired through a far-

reaching exchange network.
 Burial mounds, but with a difference.
 Variety of shapes of earthworks,
including square, circular, octagonal,
& irregular shapes.
 Some as large as 1,640 feet in
diameter.
 Some connected complexes of
multiple shapes, flanked by earthen
walls.
https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/46/63/43/46634390198f36dd6cd42eb04749b196.jpg 4
 Hopewell Trade Networks
big men achieved wealth over time

 Ritual gift giving – big men

exchanging exotic (and thus
valuable) items. Chalcedony Flint
ways of grouping people not by marriage or blood
 Clans – fictive kin ties between
distinct groups probably arose as a Pipestone
means of developing and Galena
Flint
strengthening trading ties. Grizzly Bear
Teeth
 Long-Distance Quests: Quartz
Mica Crystal
 Shamans probably undertook long
distance quests.
 Visits to exotic places, magical
sources of items such as mica,
obsidian, marine shell, and so forth. Marine Shells Marine Shells
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopewell_tradition#/medi
5
Shark and Alligator Teeth
a/File:Hopewell_Exchange_Network_HRoe_2010.jpg
 Hopewell Trade Networks
 All obsidian from Ohio came from Obsidian Cliff in Yellowstone.
 This is a distance of roughly 2,500 miles.
 More than half found in as raw material in a single grave.
 Probably stock of a shaman who made the long-distance quest (visit to exotic places,
magical sources of items) & brought back the sacred materials.

6
http://www.mapsofworld.com/usa/national-parks/
 Mississippian Culture
 Maize agriculture, spreads east
from Mesoamerica.
 Results in large platform mound
chiefdom centers along the middle
course of the Mississippi River.
 Within 300 years, similar mound
centers pop up elsewhere in the SE
US.
 Not all of these rely on maize
agriculture.
 Still thriving when DeSoto arrived
& explored from 1539-1543.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippian_culture#/media/File:Mississippian_cultures_HRoe_2010.jpg

7
 Platform Mounds
 After Hopewell, but before Mississippian, beginnings of platform mound building.
 Flat-topped, rectangular mounds.
 Not used for burials, but elevated bases for buildings.
 Multiple construction stages.
 Similar to larger pyramids in Mesoamerica, but not connected to these.

https://www.arkansasstateparks.com/toltecmounds/ 8
 Cahokia (1050 – 1350 CE)
 Largest city north of Valley of Mexico.
 Ritual & administrative center in the fertile flood plain
of the Mississippi.
 At its height, the city encompassed an area of 13 square
km, with an urban population estimated at 15,000 with
an affiliated regional population of perhaps 50,000 or
more.
 Layout reminiscent of Mesoamerican city plans:
http://www.legendsofamerica.com/photos-illinois/CahokiaMounds-old.jpg
Central ritual district surrounded by residential areas
organized according to craft production specialty –
bead & shell pendant lapidary, weaving, pottery-
making, weapons manufacture.
 Central focus was "Monks Mound“.
 On each of its four sides, aligned to the cardinal
directions, were four plazas, the largest being the
Great Plaza on the south. 9
http://www.returntoithaca.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Screen-Shot-2015-10-17-at-1.25.48-PM.png
 Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
 Artifacts associated with high
ranking elites were widespread
across the major centers of the
Southeast.
 Referred to as the Southeastern
Ceremonial Complex.
 Some literature refers to this as the
Southern Cult or Buzzard Cult.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex#/media/File:Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex_map.jpg
10
 Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
 Artifacts associated with high ranking elites
widespread across the major centers of the
Southeast – referred to as the Southeastern
Ceremonial Complex.
 Probably relied on down-the-line trade of
luxury items between chiefs & clan leaders.
 Figurines & pipes made in Cahokia have been http://www.archaeology.org/issues/109-1311/features/1358-

found in elite burials in the Caddoan area of mississippian-southeastern-ceremonial-complex-birdman

the southeastern Great Plains.

 This may indicate direct contact.
 Warfare & ancestors common themes in
artwork. http://www.lostworlds.org/etowah_gallery_new_23.html

 Warriors often depicted carrying trophy heads

& wearing costumes mimicking birds of prey.
 Pottery frequently depicts wetlands animals.
 Human head pots also present.
11
By Herb Roe, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19374713
 Southeastern Ceremonial Complex

http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2010augustcraigmoundartifactspage1.htm http://mcclungmuseum.utk.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/38/2013/03/rn-27f24.jpg

Left: Copper faces, central depicting forked-eye motif found in many SECC artworks (Spiro Site, Oklahoma).
Right: Stone statues from Tennessee.
12
Mississippian Culture: Southern Appalachian
 Etowah Mounds, Georgia:
 Chert swords
 Embossed copper plates
 Carved shell gorgets worn around neck
 Carved marble statues.
 Statues show us about dress & hair styles
from the area & period.
http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2005juneetowahstatuespage1.htm

ritual object

13
http://www.lostworlds.org/etowah_gallery_new_23.html
Mississippian Culture: Caddoan
 1933: A group of six treasure hunters calling themselves
the Pocola Mining Company, took a two-year lease on
the property with the intention of digging the mounds
for antiquities.
 Tunneling into the mounds, unearthing & selling off
hundreds of artifacts ranging from ceramic vessels,
effigy pipes, beads, tools, & weapons.
 Not interested in the textiles & feathers they found,
considering them not valuable & tossed these aside.
 1935: Lease almost up & with increasing pressure from
the University of Oklahoma, which was trying to stop
the destruction, the Pocola miners attacked the last
undisturbed structure, "Craig’s Mound."
 Began using dynamite to speed up the “excavation”.
 Mound contained 1,100 skeletons, which the miners
loaded up into wheelbarrows & dumped outside the
tunnel entrance.
 When everything valuable was removed from the
mortuary chamber, miners dynamited their tunnels.
http://lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2010augustcraigmoundartifactspage1.htm 14
 Mississippian Culture: Caddoan
 Spiro is argued to be a trade
centre, linking Mississippian
cultures with western area &
Mesoamerica.
 Olivella shell beads from the gulf
of California.
 Other shells from gulf of Mexico.
 Obsidian from Pachuca, north of
Teotihuacán, near modern-day
Mexico City.
http://users.stlcc.edu/mfuller/spiroshell.html http://www.sourcecatalog.com/sourcecatalog/s_mexico.html
green obsidian only from pachuca

15
 Mississippian Culture: Caddoan

By Heironymous Rowe at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6841455

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/07/30/27/073027afd7ac5d0b693781f07b1c8187.jpg https://s-media-cache- https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/508/flashcards/3532508/jpg/15-1419A43F70765D8C719.jpg
ak0.pinimg.com/236x/0a/24/ea/0a24eabcd3b1b262e
42659f9d6c532b7.jpg

16
1
 Markets

 In the 1940s, economist Karl

Polanyi argued that markets could
not exist in non-capitalist
societies.
 Most archaeologists shied away
from the idea of markets, simply
to avoid having to declare an
ancient society capitalist by
arguing for a marketplace.

https://pazit.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/polanyi-karl-the-great-transformation-v-1-0.jpg

2
 Markets
 Polanyi’s views have been
challenged considerably in
recent years.
 Now recognizing market
exchange and markets as
concomitants of early social
complexity.
 Beginning to look for
By Thelmadatter - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8482837
physical correlates of markets
in the archaeological record.

3
 Markets
 Conceptualizing a pre-
capitalist market remains
difficult.
 “Economic rationality” is a
cultural construct, and we
cannot assume that ancient
markets operate like modern
markets.
 Past economic transactions
may have been much more
determined by social relations
than those of modern society. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Tlaxcala_-_Palacio_de_Gobierno_-_Indianerh%C3%A4ndler.jpg

4
 Markets

 Transactions can be embedded, or

Buyer Seller they can be atomized.
 Embedded transactions are based
Atomized on personalized, lasting
relationships between parties.
 Atomized transactions are
impersonal, with no requirement
Buyer Seller of long-term relationship between
buyer and seller.

5
Embedded
 Markets
 Most modern economic theory
is based on the assumption of
atomized transactions.
 Thus, if we are to apply modern
economic theory to ancient
markets, we make the same
assumption – that transactions
were impersonal, with no
requirement of long-term social
relations.
https://maya.nmai.si.edu/gallery/bonampak

6
 Markets
 Recognizing markets is also
problematic.
 Different systems of economies,
including trade, tribute, and
redistribution, all have the same
signature archaeologically.
 That is, we cannot distinguish
these simply on the basis of the
movement of goods.
Thames & Hudson 2008

Redistribution (left) and Trade (right)

7
 Markets
 Until recently, exchange (aside
from the long-distance exchange
of elite goods) was viewed as
unnecessary.
 Cities were viewed as largely self-
sufficient, and the resources
around them ubiquitous and
unchanging.
 There was no need for a market
exchange system.

Photo by David Maxwell

8
 Markets
 This perspective has recently
been replaced with the views
that:
 Vigorous local and regional
exchange existed.
 Trade included daily and
occasional necessities.
 Trade offered flexibility in the
face of shortfalls due to
variations in rainfall, or similar
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala#/media/File%3AChichicastenango_market_2009.JPG
events.

9
 Markets
 Maya specialists working in the lowlands resistant to idea of market exchange.
 Highland specialists are more open to the concept.
 Highland specialists: When did market exchange emerge.
 Lowland specialists: Did markets exist?

http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/kaminaljuyu/kaminaljuy
u-map-1.jpg

10
 Markets
 Working in Central Mexico, Hirth suggests that looking for a physical market
place detracts from understanding how market exchange effects people.
 He advocates using the distribution of materials among consumer
households to infer the presence of a market.

Expedition 37(2):18 1995 11

 Markets
 Hirth’s approach has been applied to the Maya highlands, but is more
problematical in the lowlands, where visibility is an issue.
 Braswell has used obsidian data from the lowlands in a similar fashion to Hirth.
 His results suggest boundaries and cycles of centralization of market around
specific centres.

University of Utah Press 2003

12
 Markets
 Important questions for
understanding a Maya marketplace:
 Who controlled market space?
 Who had the rights to exchange
goods within the market (buyer &
seller)?
 How was market space organized?
 How was market space constructed?
 What media of exchange were used?
 How were goods transported to
market?
 How were goods stored?
 Marketplaces are, by their very
nature, transient spaces.
 Human behaviours occurring in a
marketplace short-lived &
ephemeral.
 They leave few traces behind.
 Marketplaces are also transient in the
perspective of being impermanent.
 They occur in spaces temporarily.
 The same spaces can quickly be
altered for other purposes, leaving
few traces behind.
13
 Tikal Market?
 Few permanent or semi-permanent buildings
associated with markets have been found.
 Other indicators have been used to suggest
markets:
 Locations within a city.
 Associated artifact assemblages.
 Associated micro-artifact assemblages.
 Chemical indicators within the soil.
 These, used in combination with other data,
such as the distribution of household wares,
can be used to infer a market system.
 The East Plaza at Tikal has been identified as
a marketplace for many years.
 The distinctive architecture has led to the https://ajpem.wordpress.com/tikal-2/

argument that, over time, this area came to

be utilized as a marketplace using permanent
buildings. 14
 Tikal Market
 The presence of a market at Tikal is
important for 2 primary reasons:
1. It demonstrates that Maya cities did
indeed have markets.
2. It also indicates that markets were
valued institutions, sufficiently
important for masonry-roofed
structures to be constructed.
 The importance of the marketplace is
further demonstrated by its location
within the city.
 The Tikal market, located in the East
Plaza, is immediately east of the
Great Plaza, home of the North
Acropolis, and Temple I & Temple II.
The University of Arizona Press 2015 15
 Tikal Market
 The market is roughly
contemporaneous with these two
temples, built by Ah Cacao (Ruler A)
during the Late Classic.
 This suggests that the permanent
structures may also have been built
during his reign.
http://www.dcwalls.com/Photos/images/tikal6.jpg
 Jones argues that part of the unique
nature of the Tikal marketplace is the
presence of a “colonnade-like gallery
form of building.”
 The East Plaza location is also the
terminus of two of the causeways
within Tikal.

The University of Arizona Press 2015 16

 Tikal Market
 Jones also notes the presence of
microartifacts in refuse excavated
at the edge of the East Plaza.
 These include pieces of cut and
polished bone, cut shell pieces,
ceramic pendants, censers,
figurines, & fragments of large jar
lids.
 He argues that these types of small
craft pieces reflect market items
left behind.
http://childrenofthesunnativeculture.com/cosnc/?q=node/265
17