Photo by David Maxwell

1
seriation = putting artifacts into a particular order

Relative Dating
 Stratum B is older than Stratum A, but we do not know how old either
stratum is.
 A and B may have been deposited a few minutes apart, or millions of
years apart; we have no way to tell.

http://www.crowcanyon.org/index.php/stratigraphicdating 2
 Profiles
 After excavation, careful records
are made of the different layers of
soil, their colour & consistency.
 These are called profiles.
Photo by David Maxwell

Courtesy of Statistical Research, Inc.

3
 Stratigraphy

● The Law of Superposition:

● In an undisturbed depositional sequence, each layer is younger than the
layer beneath it.

● Stratigraphy on archaeological sites:

● Refers to the accumulation of strata from geological & anthropogenic
deposits. anthropogenic deposit = soil created by human activity (ie construction sites have dust flying everywhere and then settling down)
● Archaeological layers, or strata, only emerge through stratigraphic
analysis.
one stratum two strata

4
 human built hill Stratigraphy

goes through 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

tells us tree pit was dug during
formation of 1

created during level 4

all layers but layer 2 -- created during formation

of layer 2

© Thames & Hudson 5

Stratigraphy: Copan Pyramid

http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/maya/temple26-copan.jpg
6
 Harris Matrix

7 and 3 at same depth but NOT the same age erosion

7
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Relationship_%28archaeology%29#Media/File:Relationshipstrat.001.png
Relative Dating

CA-SNI-39 Stratigraphic Profile

Courtesy of Statistical Research, Inc. 8

 Relative Dating
humic soil -- fertile

marine shell - human activity

bottom of organic mateirl

glacial till - soil first exposed when glacials melted

Namu Midden Profile

https://www.sfu.ca/archaeology/museum/exhibits/virtual-exhibits/Stratigraphy.html
9
Relative Dating: Seriation = looking at relative frequencies of styles
of things

ie length of hair , facial hairs etc

when they first appear, when they

become popular, when they fade from
popularity

frequencies of gravestone markers

© Thames & Hudson 10

 Seriation

 All artifacts have styles.

 Style is much easier to recognize
in some types of artifacts than in
others.
 All styles are once new, gain in
popularity, and eventually go out
of fashion and disappear.
 Archaeologists trace this pattern
by looking at frequencies of https://themobilephone.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/mobile-phone-timeline.jpg

artifacts through time.

11
 Seriation

 As we dig down in a site (or a

series of sites), artifact forms often
become more common, then
disappear completely near the
bottom.
 As the bottom layers are the
oldest, we are seeing seriation in
reverse as we dig.

http://anthro1200.blogspot.ca/2011/06/northwest-plains-projectile-point.html

12
 Seriation and Gravestones

...to Cherubs (in the 1760s)

Graveyard, Cambridge, Ma.

Death’s Head Grave Marker (1600s)

By the 1790s, cherubs replaced by

Urn & Willow design

Death’s Heads gradually changed...

Photos by David Maxwell
13
 1
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Calibration-of-radiocarbon-age-to-calendar-years-Intercepts-radiocarbon-age-with-the_fig1_349892639
 Absolute Dating

 We can assign an actual age to an

item, such as a stone tool that is
100,000 years old, or a hominid
fossil that is 3,000,000 years old.
 Figure depicts latest known date
from the Maya lowlands (site of
Toniná), & is equivalent to January
20, AD 909.

https://www.archaeology.org/issues/44-1211/features/197-calendars-primer 2
 Methods for Absolute Dating
 There are several techniques for
obtaining dates:
 Potassium-Argon (K/Ar).
 Radiocarbon (14C).
 Obsidian Hydration.
 Archaeomagnetism.
 Dendrochronology (tree-ring
dating).
 Calendar Dates.

 All dating techniques have

limitations and problems
associated with them.
https://serc.carleton.edu/trex/students/labs/lab1_1.html
3
 Radiocarbon Dating
 Three kinds of carbon in the atmosphere: 12C, 13C, & 14C.
 Carbon-14 is radioactive, & decays at a known & constant rate.
 All living things contain carbon, & take carbon in from the atmosphere at
a constant rate (roughly 5,700 years = 50% loss – aka half-life).
 When a living thing dies, it stops taking in new carbon, & the carbon-14
within it begins to decay (to Nitrogen-13).

4
http://www.slideshare.net/whittumjd/dating-fossils-and-rocks
 Radiocarbon Dating
 14C oxidizes & forms carbon
dioxide, which is dispersed
throughout the atmosphere by
stratospheric winds.
 About 98 percent of all 14C
enters the oceans; plants take
up the rest through
photosynthesis.
 From plants, 14C enters
herbivores, & then carnivores.
 All organic life contains
radioactive carbon.
 As long as an organism is alive, the
amount of 14C in it remains in
equilibrium with the atmosphere.
 Once the organism dies, the amount
of 14C in its body begins to decrease.
 Radioactive isotopes decay over time.
 Half-life, the time required for half
of the carbon-14 available in an
organic sample to decay;
 Originally set at 5568 years, it was
later changed to 5730 years.
5
Radiocarbon Decay
has to be organic -- must have been once alive -- can't be stone tools

EVENTUALLY IT WON'T WORK

6
© Thames & Hudson
 Radiocarbon Dating
 It is possible to measure the amount of carbon-14 left in an organic
object, either directly, or by estimation (based on counting the amount
of decay that happens over 24 hours).
 This allows us to estimate the age of an organic object, based on the
amount of Carbon-14 remaining in it.

http://www.anthropology-resources.net/Texts/14Clabs.html 7
 Radiocarbon Dating Problems
 Photosynthetic pathways, the specific chemical process through which
plants metabolize carbon.
 The three major pathways discriminate against 14C in different ways;
 Therefore, similarly aged plants that use different pathways can produce
different radiocarbon ages.

you can have 2 plants the same age but have diff radio
carbon dates

8
http://6e.plantphys.net/ch/09/wt09.07/wt0907a.jpg
Radiocarbon Dating Problems
 Bone is also problematic for
radiocarbon dates.
 The organic material in bone
(collagen) does not always
preserve well.
 The mineral component (apatite)
is frequently contaminated by
external sources.
 As a result, bone dates often do
not match associated dates on
charcoal.
Ames Laboratory, Ames, Iowa

9
 Radiocarbon Dating Problems

 Radiocarbon dating of marine

materials is often problematical.
 Great amounts of radiocarbon
are present in the ocean.
 Upwelling brings water from
the deep ocean to the surface.
 This water can be thousands of
years old, causing issues with
radiocarbon dates of marine By NOAA - http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/currents/03coastal4.html, Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7283814

materials.
old water brings old radiocarbon and impacts radiocarbon dating

10
 Radiocarbon Dating Problems

 Reservoir effect, samples from

organisms that took in carbon
from a source that was depleted of
or enriched in 14C relative to the
atmosphere may return ages that
are considerably older or younger
than the organisms actually are.
too much radiocarbon = too young dates
too little = too old dates

http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Radiocarbon_dating

11
Atmospheric Radiocarbon Fluctuations

 Atmospheric levels of radiocarbon

have fluctuated through time.
 This is revealed by dating known-
age materials, particularly tree
rings.
 Because of this problem, we
calibrate the radiocarbon curve.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Radiocarbon_dating_calibration.svg
12
 Radiocarbon Dating
Pros
 Can provide very accurate age
estimates.
 Works on organic material,
meaning that we do not have to
assume that people were
contemporaneous with rocks
found miles away.
 Relatively inexpensive ($400-
$1,500 per sample)
Cons
 Radiocarbon decays relatively fast,
meaning that there is an absolute
“top end” or maximum age.
 Can only be measured in
specimens less than about 50,000
years of age.
 Really only reliable on specimens
of up to about 20,000 years of age.
 Is a statistical estimate.
13
 AMS Dating

 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry

 Much more precise than ordinary
radiocarbon dating because it
actually measures remaining
amount of 14C.
 Also uses less material than
traditional radiocarbon.
 Much more expensive than
traditional radiocarbon dates.
http://news.psu.edu/photo/355693/2015/05/01/amsdiagram

14
http://earthsci.org/space/space/geotime/dendro/dendro.html
1
 Dendrochronology
 Tree-ring dating
thinner = less rainfall

 Counting tree rings gives age of

tree at time of cut; reverse gives
number of years since planting.
 Cross-correlation of tree rings
based on ring thinness.
 Works best in arid areas where
there is greater variation in rainfall
& thus ring thinness.
 Commonly applied in U.S.
Southwest. http://earthsci.org/space/space/geotime/dendro/dendro.html

2
 Crossdating
 Matching patterns in ring widths or other ring characteristics (such as
ring density patterns) among several tree-ring series allow the
identification of the year in which each tree ring was formed.
 Crossdating is the fundamental principle of dendrochronology—without
the precision afforded by crossdating, tree-ring chronometrics would be
simple ring counting!

http://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/lorim/basic.html

3
© Thames & Hudson
 Dendrochronology
 Southwest US: dendro sequence
dates back ~5,900 years.
 Biggest problem with dendro
dates: old wood.
 In SW, wood will preserve on the
ground for hundreds of years.
 Old wood was often collected &
used for construction.
 Thus, a new construction may
have utilized wood 400 years old
or more.

Photos Courtesy of John Welch 4

 Potassium Argon Dating
 Used for dating really old contexts – at least 500,000 years or more – with
volcanic ash or rock present.
 Potassium atoms decay through time, at a known and constant rate.
 As they decay, they transform into Argon atoms.
 Ratio of Potassium-to-Argon atoms in a geological sample make it
possible to calculate how many years ago that rock must have formed.

40K (Potassium) Decay 39Ar (Argon)

Ratio of Potassium/Argon indicates the number of years since volcanic rock was created. 5
 Potassium Argon: Pros and Cons
Pros
 Works very well for old sites,
anything more than about 500,000
years old.
 Works very well for volcanic rocks,
which tend to be abundant in
areas where human ancestors
lived.
Cons
 Does not directly date the human
ancestor remains in question.
 We must often assume that
volcanic rock from miles away are
contemporary with human
ancestors.
 Cannot be applied in non-volcanic
areas, or on sites less than 500,000
years.
6
 Uranium Series Dating
Uranium-Thorium Dating
 AKA Uranium-230 dating.
 Used for age determination on calcium
carbonate materials, such as corals.
 Half-life of 75,000 years, giving
technique a maximum range of roughly
500,000 years.
 Calculates ratio of 230U and 234U, both
radioactive, with 234U the parent.
Uranium-Uranium Dating
 Looks at ratios of 234U and 238U.
 Half-Life of 238U is 4.5 billion years,
giving technique a (theoretical) dating
range of 10,000 to 2 million years B.P.
 Also used for calcium carbonate
materials.
7
 Fission-Track Dating

 Based on spontaneous fission of

238U.

 Fission occurs with great force,

resulting in the creation of fission
lines in crystal minerals & glass.
 Works best on older materials,
typically greater than 100,000
years.
http://www.detectingdesign.com/radiometricdating.html#Fission

Fission-tracks under magnification

8
 Obsidian Hydration
 Obsidian absorbs water on exposed
surfaces. interested in when obsidian was used to make stone tools
http://static.wixstatic.com/media/ca59677a5b3e9d3ae23778358ff81fbd.wix_mp_256

 Absorption can be measured

(microscopically).
 Thickness of “rind” can be used to
estimate elapsed time since fracture
exposed obsidian. when it was turned into an artifact
 Chemical composition of obsidian
influences rate of absorption.
 Absorption rate also influenced by
temperature. chemical technique -- temp is a huge problem
 Both issues must be controlled for
when using obsidian to date tool
manufacturing.
http://armacarda.gq/prehistoric-dating-methods.html

9
 Trapped Charge Dating

 Techniques rely on the fact that

electrons become trapped in
minerals’ crystal lattices as a
function of background radiation.
 Specimen age is the total radiation
received divided by the annual
dose of radiation. http://www.geo.unibe.ch/research/quaternary_geology_and_paleoclimatology/laboratories_and_tools/luminescence_dating/index_eng.html

 Dosimeter measures the amount

of gamma radiation emitted by
sediments.

10
http://earthsci.org/space/space/geotime/otherdatingtechniques/otherdatingtechniques.html
 Trapped Charge Dating
Thermoluminescence Other Trapped Charge Methods
ie when ceramics were made

 Materials absorb radiation, usually  Optical Dating or Optically

as a result of heating (ceramics, Stimulated Luminescence.
soils)  Works like TL, except it measures
time since exposure to light, rather
 Heating beyond 500 C essentially than heat. used for soil samples -- when was it last exposed to sunlight
lets lose this radiation (in the form
of light).  Electron Spin Resonance. works well on teeth
 Possible to measure the amount of  Measures absorption of radiation.
light released & thus calculate the  Works best on tooth enamel
amount of time since initial
heating.  All methods highly problematic, &
 Referred to as TL dating. only used if more traditional
methods will not work.
can only do it once 11
 Paleomagnetic Dating
 Based on observation that the
earth’s magnetic field has
repeatedly switched polarity.
 Paleomagnetic dating is used:
1. To determine when sediments
were deposited.
2. As a method to date the soils in
which artifacts are found.
 Relies on the context of discovery
rather than the initial area of
deposition.

© Thames & Hudson

12
 Magnetic Drift

● Explorers found it difficult to rely on

compass nearer to North Pole.
● Convection in Earth's molten core of
nickel & iron creates potent flows of
electricity.
● Coupled with axial rotation, the
currents create a dynamo effect and a
magnetic field.
● Compass needle points to magnetic
north (MN), not geographic (true)
north.
http://www.albertaclassic.com/nav.php

13
 Paleomagnetism
● Paleomagnetism = Past changes in
Earth's magnetic field.
● Location of Magnetic North has
changed (N → S) often.
● Sediments contain microscopic
iron particles.
● When these are heated they align
to Magnetic North.
● Alignment is retained until
reheated or disturbed.
● Permits us to determine the age of
sediments relative to past
Magnetic North.
http://poleshift.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Magnetic_North_Pole_Positions.png
14
: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41102239
1
 Chronology
 Chronology, the study of time, is
always of primary concern in
archaeology.
 Regardless of other research
questions, it is vital to place the
materials / people under study
into some kind of chronological
position.
 The more discrete the chronology,
the more specific the research
questions.
 Most dating techniques involve
some degree of error.
 This is usually expressed as a +
value in the date.
 The bigger the error, the bigger
the range of time our dates cover.
 This can keep our chronologies
rather vague.
2
 Error
 Accuracy
 The ability to produce a
correct answer.
 Precision
 The fineness of resolution.
 Reliability
 The ability to provide the
same answer repeatedly.
 Validity
 Are you measuring what you
https://socratic.org/questions/you-ve-gotten-the-results-2-3-2-5-2-2-2-1-the-true-value-is-3-1-are-your-results think you’re measuring?

3
 Radiometric Dates & More Recent Sites
 New World sites can be dated
using radiocarbon.
 Usually these have a relatively
small error range associated with
them.
 Problem is often that, despite
small errors, we are still unable to
tie down our chronology into
short, discrete periods.
 Phase approach, advocated by
Wiley & Phillips (1958).
 Construction of ancient cultures
over broad swaths of time by
archaeologists, based on
similarities in artifacts.
 Not necessarily bad, but makes it
difficult to study short-term
change.
4
 Developing Complexity
 Ethnographically, the Northwest
Coast was highly complex from a Noble
social standing.
 At least 3 distinctive social classes
present:
Commoner
 Noble
 Commoner
 Slave
 This pattern may find its origins Slave
following the St. Mungo Phase

5
 Developing Complexity
 Social complexity was reflected in
material culture.
 Considerable amount of wealth
objects.
 Wealth objects widely distributed,
although control over either
manufacturing or sources was tightly
controlled.
 Wealth items included food as well as
artifacts.
 Food sources (such as fishing
grounds or shellfishing areas) were
“owned” by families, and controlled Photo by David Maxwell

for generations.
6
 Developing Complexity
 Archaeologically, we think we can see
complexity through the appearance &
increased use of certain types of
artifacts & animal remains.
 Decorative items seen as indicators of
wealth:
 Jade items, such as:
 Ear spools.
 Labrets (lip plugs).
© Simon Fraser University Museum of Archaeology & Ethnology
 Adze blades.
 Other items (whatzits).
 Shell beads & other ornaments.
 Finely made stone, bone, antler, &
shell tools.
 Exotic foods, such as items not found
locally like California mussel or
scallops.
7
 Locarno Beach Phase
 May be the earliest evidence of
social complexity.
 Named for site at Locarno Beach,
but also found throughout
southern BC, into the islands, and
Washington State.
 Roughly twice as many Locarno
Beach Phase sites (28) known as
those from St. Mungo Phase.
 Dates from roughly 3500-3300
years ago, and ends around 2400
years ago.
Matson & Coupland (1994) Prehistory of the Northwest Coast. Academic Press, New York.

8
 Locarno Beach Phase
 Houses little known, although
large structures appear to be
present.
 Possible large house structure
Photo by David Maxwell

from Salt Spring Island.

 Labrets initially thought to be
worn by some adult males, but not
all; later studies showed males &
females wore labrets.
 Argued to indicate achieved
status, rather than ascribed.
9
 Locarno Beach Phase
 Burials similar to St. Mungo phase
(flexed inhumation), but more
often with grave goods.
 Cairn burials (burial beneath
boulders).
 Burial rituals may indicate
ascribed status, according to
some. ascribed status = status you are born with not what you gain later in life
 Most argue that ascribed status
not present during Locarno Beach
https://qmackie.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/cairns-in-uplands.gif
Phase.
10
 Marpole Phase
 Named for huge midden site in south
Vancouver.
 2400 - 1500 BP (possibly 1100 BP).
 ~40 sites known from the Marpole
Phase. Matson & Coupland (1994) Prehistory of the Northwest Coast. Academic Press, New York.

 Culture found throughout southern

BC mainland, Gulf Islands,
Vancouver Island & into Washington
state.
 Appears to be the first clear evidence
of social complexity and
socioeconomic inequality in
prehistory.
 Arguably first archaeological phase to
closely resemble ethnographic-
period Northwest Coast culture.
11
http://www.firstnations.eu/img/04-2-1-cheslakees-b.jpg
 Marpole Phase
 Key Marpole artifacts include:
 Large needles
 Unilaterally barbed antler
harpoons
 Stone and antler sculpture
 Copper objects, sometimes with
burials
 Ground slate knives & projectile
Photos by David Maxwell
points
 Celts
 Labrets
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Kwakwaka%27wakw_
man_and_copper_shield%2C_by_Edward_Curtis.jpg
 Hand mauls
 Perforated stones (net weights?)

12
 Cedar Plank Houses
 Plank houses / longhouses were
situated in primary winter villages,
occupied from fall through spring.
 At contact, some communities had 80+
houses arranged in rows, houses of
most important people facing the
ocean, those of lesser status set further
away.
 Largest houses up to 20 m long,
capable of sheltering 100 residents.
 Individual houses led by a "house
chief“ – a noble with ultimate
authority over the commoners & slaves
occupying the house. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plank_house#/media/File:Haida_Houses.jpg

13
 Marpole Phase
 House outlines seen at a few sites.
 Very large post holes, up to 1m in
diameter, suggest plank houses.
 Probably multi-family households.
 Probably large villages of plank
houses.
 At Marpole site, houses appear to
have been at least 10X13 metres,
although this is unclear. No clear
house boundaries have been
found. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plank_house#/media/File:Haida_Houses.jpg

14
 Marpole Phase
 Possible evidence for ascribed social
status:
 Several instances of sub-adult burials
not done growing yet
located in burial cairns.
 Cairns up to 6m in diameter & 2m
high.
 Some burials of sub-adult individuals
have wealth items, others do not.
 This seen as evidence of at least 2
distinct social classes.
 Sub-adults not expected to have
achieved status, but be born with it.
 Dentalium beads known from burial
of infant; these were a high status
item ethnographically.
DOI: 10.1179/jfa.2000.27.4.391

15
 Photo by David Maxwell

Piedras Negras Stela 26 AD 628

1
 Calendar Dates & Ceramic Dates
 In some cases, it is possible to
work with Calendar dates.
 In Mesoamerica, during the
Classic period, we have calendar
dates for the Maya, but not for the
people of central Mexico in
Teotihuacán.
 Many scholars feel these two
cultures came into contact in the
later AD 300s, with dramatic
results.
http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/maya/maya-map.gif

2
 Pyramid of the Sun

 Pyramid raised in stages, beginning in the Late Preclassic period.

 Originally four stages with a broad stair in the center of the west façade.
 Interior fill comprised of soil & ground tepetate (tuff), mixed with silty sand & broken pottery.
 At summit was a wood & thatch temple, accessed by a stairway.
3
https://https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Sun_Pyramid_05_2015_Teotihuacán_3304.JPG
 Pyramid of the Moon

 Not as large as the Pyramid of the Sun, but still massive.

 Northern terminus of the Avenue of the Dead.
 The peak of the Pyramid of the Moon is identical to the Pyramid of the
Sun because it was built on higher ground.
 Its silhouette looks like the one of Cerro Gordo (big mountain). 4
 Moon Pyramid Construction
 Initial construction, ~AD 100.
 Building 1: pyramidal platform 23.5m at base; height unknown.
 Predates city grid system.
 North wall’s east–west orientation 4○ north of the Teotihuacán standard; all
other constructions within range of 1○.
 East–west orientation moved gradually clockwise during later constructions,
likely due to an unknown astronomical reason.

DOI: 10.1017/S0956536107000053
5
Moon Pyramid Construction
 Building 4 constructed ~AD 250.
 Substantial enlargement of
monument, with footprint almost
nine times larger.
 Expanding Teotihuacán state now
sufficiently powerful to implement
major enlargement program.
 Burial 2 integrated in the nucleus
of Building 4 as a dedicatory
offering.

DOI: 10.1017/S0956536107000053 6
 Moon Pyramid Sacrifice
 Orientation of Building 4 closely
approximates visible Teotihuacán
city-grid system.
 Suggests grid complete by start to see human sacrifices

Building 4’s construction.

 Suggests state power sufficiently
established & centralized to
control construction projects at DOI: 10.1017/S0956536107000065

city scale.
 Burial 2 suggests symbolic
proclamation of institutionalized
rule in close association with the
state military apparatus.

7
© 2004 Museo Nacional de Antropología
 Pyramid of the Moon

DOI: 10.1017/S0956536107000065

© 2004 Museo Nacional de Antropología

8
 Temple of Quetzalcoatl = feathered serpent

 A mile south of the Pyramid of the Sun

stands the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl or
Feathered Serpent.
 Situated at the rear of an enclosed thirty-
eight-acre plaza, thought capable of holding
the entire population of the city, perhaps
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Teotihaucan-3027.jpg some 85,000 individuals.
 Pyramid is 23 m high, built ~200 CE & in
continuous use until the mid-fourth century.
 At this time, the temple was deliberately
burned, & the exposed sculptures torn off.
 Destruction & defacement believed to signal
a dramatic shift in religious & political
authority, perhaps due to a long period of
severe drought. 9
http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/Teotihuacán/Teotihuacán-27.jpg
 Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl
 Groundbreaking for use of a new
compartmentalized pier & fin-wall
(cell) construction system, & the
new talud-tablero architectural
profile.
 Tablero is framed by rows of
cantilevered stones, creating a
shadow-box-like cornice.
 Both the taluds & tableros of the
Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl were
decorated with high & low relief
friezes that continued around all
four sides of the structure.
 It is the only pyramid platform at
Teotihuacán known to have had
sculptural relief.
http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/teotihuacan/teotihuacan-105.jpg 10
 Temple of Quetzalcoatl

 Teotihuacano leaders expressed

state symbolism differently in
Moon Pyramid Buildings 4 & 5
compared to the Feathered
Serpent Pyramid.
 Construction episodes generally
contemporaneous.
 Likely integral parts of a long-term
citywide program.
DOI: 10.1017/S0956536107000065

11
 Temple of Quetzalcoatl
 Construction included ritual sacrifice of
260 individuals – young men with their
hands tied behind their backs.
 Dispatched in groups of 18 – the
number corresponding to the number
of 20-day months in the calendar.
 Each sacrifice group interred in a large
burial pit. http://steveinmexico.blogspot.ca/2011/03/hour-in-museum.html

 Burial pits found at the center of the

pyramid’s base, & also on the North,
East, & South sides.
 Earlier excavations demonstrated that
single individual sacrifices had been
placed at each of the pyramid’s four
corners.
 Many of the victims wear necklaces of
human jaws, both upper & lower; some
are real, others modeled out of shell. https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/435/flashcards/4758435/jpg/picture16-
14BB3536D7F4A4B5FDF.jpg

12
https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/53/ec/d4/53ecd41a1720fdb4f7f244e31fBCEc967.jpg
 Temple of Quetzalcoatl
 Oxygen isotopic analysis of the sacrificial
victims shows individuals from several
areas.
 It is argued that, for males, this may
represent a mercenary means of
constructing an army.
 Women may be captives.
 In most cases, these individuals had lived
in Teotihuacán for quite some time prior
to their death.
sacrificial are not always locals

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/53/ec/d4/53ecd41a1720fdb4f7f244e31fbcc967.jpg

13
 Temple of Quetzalcoatl
 This is not the case for the
sacrificial victims in the centre of
the pyramid.
 None of these individuals were
native to Teotihuacán.
 None present for any great length
of time prior to sacrifice.
 At least 2 individuals possibly
from the Maya highlands. http://s3.amazonaws.com/medias.photodeck.com/d25b6760-66bf-45dd-a9a0-
f75d9e57567c/RS_5910_Skeletons_of_sacrificial_victims___Teotihuacán__Mexico_State__Mexico_medium.jpg

14
Tikal

15
 Great Jaguar Paw
http://www.mesoweb.com/encyc/index.asp?passcall=rightframeexact&rightframeexact=http%3
A//www.mesoweb.com/encyc/view.asp%3Fact%3Dviewdata%26i%3D0%26s%3Ddzibanche%26e
xt%3Dn%26sit%3D8%26id%3D1%26expert%3Dy%26sAND%3D%26sANDNOT%3D

 Chak Tok Ich’aak I (Great Misty Claw) best known early ruler.
 Accession date unclear, but possibly AD 360.
 Presided over Tikal during early stages, associated with Mundo Perdido.
 Long-distance trade was playing a role at this time, both with the
Highlands and with Central Mexico.

http://research.mayavase.com/kerrmaya_hires.php?vase=8009

Vase Rollout from Tikal Cache 198 describes Dynastic History of Great Jaguar Paw 16
 Entrada of AD 378
 15 January 378 a new lord called
Sihyaj K’ahk (Fire Born aka
Smoking Frog) arrives at Tikal.
 Documented at El Perú, 49
miles due west of Tikal 8 days
earlier.
 Suggests travel along the San
Pedro Mártir River from
Teotihuacán.
 Major changes follow.

http://atlantisonline.smfforfree2.com/index.php?topic=1366.0

17
 Entrada of AD 378
 The Entrada sounds neutral,
but is actually a political
takeover or military conquest.
 Chak Tok Ich’aak meets his
death (“entering the water”) on
the same day. killed on this day
 His entire lineage ends.
 Replacement with new male
line, probably drawn from the Photos by David Maxwell

ruling house of Teotihuacán Tikal Stela 31 shows Noble flanked by

Teotihucán-style Warriors
itself.

18
 Entrada of AD 378
 Nearly all carved monuments destroyed at this time (all fragments from
construction fill pre-date AD 378).
 Some monuments dispersed to peripheral locations and minor centres.
 Murals from other centres depict Teotihuacán-style warriors facing
Maya lords.

Vase rollout (probably from

Calakmúl) with pseudo-
Teotihuacán iconography.

19
http://research.mayavase.com/kerrmaya_hires.php?vase=1647
 Entrada of AD 378
 It appears that Sihyaj K’ahk’
presided over kingly installations:
 Tikal in 379
 Bejucal around 381
 probably Río Azul in 393.
 The only known image of Sihyaj
K’ahk’ is from Stela 15 at El Perú,
where he appears in Teotihuacán
dress.

king maker

http://archive.archaeology.org/image.php?page=interactive/waka/jpegs/stela3.jpeg
20
 Entrada of AD 378
 Another player in the entrada is
known as Spearthrower Owl.
 He is names as the overlord of the
ruler of Maasal (possibly site of
Naachtun), & mentioned on a vessel
in Teotihuacán.
 Spearthrower Owl is also known
from the Marcador, a stone banner, http://www.mesoweb.com/encyc/index.asp?passcall=rightframeexact&rightframeexact=http%3A//www.mesoweb.com/encyc/vie

roughly 3 feet high.

w.asp%3Fact%3Dviewdata%26i%3D0%26s%3Ddzibanche%26ext%3Dn%26sit%3D8%26id%3D1%26expert%3Dy%26sAND%3D%2
6sANDNOT%3D

 Glyphic text describing the entrada.

 Also discusses Spearthrower owl’s
accession to rulership in AD 374.
 Problem: we do not know where he
ruled! https://decipherment.wordpress.com/2018/02/09/cotton-snow-and-distant-wonders/

21
 Entrada of AD 378
 Spearthrower Owl: fathered next king of Tikal? Married a Tikal lady?
 Teotihuacán may have ruled over Tikal.
 Spearthrower Owl may have been the ruler of Teotihuacán.

Tikal Stela 32
Photo by David Maxwell
22