Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

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Computers & Industrial Engineering

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Simultaneous monitoring of magnitude and time-between-events data with T

a Max-EWMA control chart
Ridwan A. Sanusia,d, Sin Yin Tehb, , Michael B.C. Khooc
⁎

a
Department of Systems Engineering and Engineering Management, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
b
School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
c
School of Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
d
Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Control charting techniques for monitoring the magnitude and frequency of an event are crucial in manu-
Exponential distribution facturing and industrial activities. Several articles on monitoring the two quantities separately are available in
Gamma distribution the literature, however, a simultaneous monitoring of the magnitude and frequency of an event may be more
Max EWMA chart time efficient. In this paper, we propose the maximum exponentially weighted moving average (Max-EWMA)
Single variable
control chart to simultaneously monitor the magnitude and frequency of an event. The Max-EWMA chart’s
Quality control
Time-between-events
statistic is based on the maximum of the absolute values of two EWMA statistics - one for controlling the
magnitude and the other for the frequency of an event. In addition, the magnitude is assumed to follow a gamma
distribution while the frequency is assumed to follow an exponential distribution. The objective of the proposed
scheme is to enhance the speed for detecting shifts in the magnitude and/or frequency of an event. Overall,
performance study indicates that the Max-EWMA chart outperforms its existing counterparts with the same
objective of detecting small shifts in process parameters. It also competes strongly in detecting large shifts.
Finally, we illustrate the application of the proposed chart with examples.

1. Introduction charts with run-rules and economic model, respectively. Zhang,

Myriad technology revolutions transform modern industries toward
high-quality processes. In high-quality process control with a very low
defect rate, a time-between-events (TBE) control chart is effective for
monitoring the events frequency (time interval) to detect an out-of-
control (OOC) condition without great loss of sensitivity. Several types
of TBE charts have been proposed in the literature to address drawbacks
of high false alarm rate, negative lower control limit, normality dis-
tribution assumption and undesirable dependencies between sample
size and control limits (Ali, Pievatolo, & Göb, 2016). A summary of
early studies and applications of high-quality process control charts can
be found in Xie, Goh, and Kuralmani (2002).
Xie, Goh, and Ranjan (2002) and Khoo and Xie (2009) proposed
TBE charts for monitoring regularly maintained system by using gamma
distribution and exponential distribution, respectively. The charts are
useful in detecting system failures for reliability monitoring. On the
other hand, Zhang, Xie, Liu, and Goh (2007) proposed a gamma control
chart for exponentially distributed TBE. Furthermore, Cheng and Chen
(2011) and Zhang, Xie, Goh, and Shamsuzzaman (2011) designed TBE
Shamsuzzaman, Xie, and Goh (2011) designed exponential chart for
monitoring TBE data under random process shift. Schuh, Woodall, and
Camelio (2013) demonstrated that the geometric TBE chart is more
efficient than any Poisson Shewhart charts with aggregated data. Also,
Shafae, Dickinson, Woodall, and Camelio (2015) developed cumulative
sum (CUSUM) control charts for monitoring Weibull-distributed TBE.
Ali et al. (2016) provided an overview of monitoring high-quality
processes using TBE chart schemes. For more recent works on mon-
itoring TBE, interested readers may see Alevizakos, Koukouvinos, and
Lappa (2019), Ali (2017); He et al. (2019); Sanusi and Mukherjee
(2019); Wang, Bizuneh, and Abebe (2017); Wan, Liu, Wu, and Zhou
(2018), among others.
In practice, the effect (such as the amount of damage) of an event
present in a certain time period is not only determined by the event
frequency (time interval), but also by the magnitude of the event.
Therefore, Wu, Jiao, and He (2009a) proposed a Shewhart control
scheme for concurrently monitoring the magnitude and frequency of an
event. This was motivated by the fact that both measurements of the
events need to be simultaneously monitored and investigated during

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rasanusi2-c@my.cityu.edu.hk (R.A. Sanusi), tehsyin@usm.my (S.Y. Teh), mkbc@usm.my (M.B.C. Khoo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2020.106378
Received 4 December 2017; Received in revised form 12 February 2020; Accepted 20 February 2020
Available online 21 February 2020
0360-8352/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.A. Sanusi, et al.
the occurrence of critical quality problems or destructive accidents.
Several studies have shown that the magnitude of an event and TBE can
be fitted to an exponential distribution and gamma distribution, re-
spectively. For example, in wireless communication engineering, the
fading signal to noise ratio is exponentially distributed, while gamma
distribution can be used to model the magnitude of multi-path fading of
signal power. In civil hydrological engineering, the time intervals be-
tween rainfall have an exponential distribution and the number of
rainfall-runoff of a hydrometric station is modelled by a gamma dis-
tribution. In electronic engineering, the time between failures of
semiconductor devices is fitted by an exponential distribution and the
number of failures per monitoring interval is modelled by a gamma
distribution. Readers interested in simultaneous monitoring of magni-
tude of an event and TBE may refer to Ali and Pievatolo (2018), Huang,
Yang, and Mukherjee (2018), and the references therein.
Some of the earlier works on simultaneous monitoring of magnitude
and TBE are based on two charting statistics. A classic example is the
combined T&X control scheme of Wu et al. (2009a) where T chart (for
TBE) and X chart (for magnitude of events) are placed side by side. The
T variable follows an exponential distribution while the X variable
follows a gamma distribution. This practice is less efficient compared to
single-statistic based charts for monitoring both magnitude and TBE,
except in a few cases of detecting large shifts in process parameters. As
a result, some single plotting charting schemes have been developed to
enhance the efficiency of the basic T&X control scheme.
Wu, Jiao, and He (2009b) employed a single rate chart based on
event ratio between sample values of magnitude and time. Their results
indicate that the chart has a high detection power and it is more sen-
sitive to both magnitude and time shifts than the combined T&X control
scheme. Liu, He, Shu, and Wu (2009) introduced a synthesised scheme
of single rate chart for monitoring attribute events, where the X attri-
bute variable follows a Poisson distribution. The scheme significantly
outperforms the combined T&X control scheme for detecting an OOC
condition of attribute events. Furthermore, Qu, Wu, Khoo, and Shu
(2014) proposed a single Shewhart synthetic G chart. It has a higher
detection effectiveness as compared to the combined T&X control
scheme and the rate chart. The detection power of the chart can be
adapted accurately to detect small and large shifts for T and/or X due to
its ability to adjust three parameters to obtain an optimal design. All
these schemes are Shewhart based charts and they pay no attention to
historical information about a process when new points are plotted
(Adegoke, Riaz, Sanusi, Smith, & Pawley, 2017; Reynolds & Stoumbos,
2005; Sanusi, Abujiya, Riaz, & Abbas, 2017; Sanusi, Riaz, Adegoke, &
Xie, 2017). Consequently, they are ineffective in detecting small shifts
in process parameters. Therefore, there is a need to adopt memory type
control charts, such as the cumulative sum (CUSUM) chart and the
exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) chart.
Wu, Liu, He, and Khoo (2010) developed a TC-CUSUM chart based
on a two-dimensional Markov model for monitoring negative events.
The chart incorporates past information into each individually plotted
sample point to increase the chart’s sensitivity for detecting small shifts
in a process. Overall, it is more effective than the Shewhart-type charts.
Also, Liu, He, Shamsuzzaman, and Wu (2010) presented a T&C scheme.
It is a combination of T chart for event frequency and another chart
based on truncated Poisson for discrete event magnitude. Qu, Wu,
Khoo, and Castagliola (2013) established a single synthetic GCUSUM
chart based on a combined synthetic G statistic, where the X continuous
variable is assumed to follow a normal distribution.
The EWMA chart is more sensitive than Shewhart and CUSUM
charts in reflecting crucial information on recent process. It is also in-
sensitive to non-normality of process data especially for small values of
smoothing parameter. Contrarily, Shewhart and CUSUM schemes are
sensitive to non-normality in the sense that their actual in-control
average run length (ARL0) would be greatly less than the expected
value based on the assumption of a normal distribution (Hawkins &
Olwell, 1998; Montgomery, 2013). Researchers have proposed
2
Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378
Shewhart schemes (Liu et al., 2009; Qu et al., 2014; Sanusi &
Mukherjee, 2019; Wu et al., 2009b) and CUSUM schemes (see Wu et al.,
2010; Qu et al., 2013) based on single statistic to jointly monitor
magnitude of an event and TBE. To the best of the authors’ knowledge,
no work has been conducted on single statistic based parametric EWMA
scheme to monitor the magnitude of an event and TBE simultaneously.
This has motivated the authors of this present paper to propose a single
maximum EWMA (Max-EWMA) scheme, for simultaneously monitoring
the magnitude of each occurrence of an event and the time interval
between two consecutive occurrences of the events. The statistic for the
Max-EWMA chart is based on the maximum of the absolute values of
two EWMA statistics, each for controlling the magnitude and the fre-
quency of an event. The chart is more effective than the T&X and the
rate charts for detecting small shifts. It is also very competitive in de-
tecting large shifts.
The remaining of this paper is organised as follows: Section 2 in-
troduces the proposed Max-EWMA chart for monitoring event fre-
quency and time. In Section 3, the Max-EWMA charting procedures are
outlined and examples of applications are provided. We conduct a si-
mulation study in Section 4 to compare the performance of the Max-
EWMA chart against the individual T, individual X, T&X and rate
charts. Conclusions are drawn in the last section.
2. The proposed Max-EWMA chart for monitoring event frequency
and magnitude
Xie (1999) and Chen, Cheng, and Xie (2001) proposed the single
Max-EWMA control chart. The Max-EWMA statistic is made up of the
maximum absolute values of two independent EWMA statistics to
jointly monitor process mean and variance. This paper presents the
Max-EWMA chart for the simultaneous monitoring of positive events by
plotting the maximum absolute values of the magnitude of an event (X)
and the time interval (or the frequency) of the event (T). When an OOC
signal is issued, the chart can identify the source (X or T). We consider
that the magnitude of an event follows a gamma distribution,
X ~Gamma (a, b) (Liu et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2009b), and the time
between two successive events follows an exponential distribution, T
~Exponential ( E ) (Qu et al., 2014; Sanusi & Mukherjee, 2019). The
parameters a , b, and E are positive values representing the shape, the
scale, and the rate parameters, respectively. Note that both distribu-
tions are skewed.
Though most existing works assumed this pair of distributions, the
assumption should not be followed blindly. The assumption on T is less
problematic, since it is equivalent to assuming a homogeneous Poisson
process. However, there are numerous other distributions that could
correctly fit X since it is a non-negative continuous skewed variable.
Mostly, the gamma distribution usually gives a perfect fit for real life
datasets on X. For instance, the real dataset in the example section
(Section 3.2.1) is best fitted to a gamma distribution. This provides
motivation to consider gamma distribution for X in this research. Fur-
thermore, different distributions have been considered for X in the lit-
erature. For example, Qu et al. (2014) considered the normal dis-
tribution. However, random variable X is fitted to a gamma distribution
better than to a normal distribution, as X can never be smaller than zero
and its distribution is likely to be skewed. Irrespective of this, in certain
applications, the random variable X may not fit a gamma distribution
adequately. Thus, adequate statistical analysis should be carried out to
determine which continuous distribution best fits the data.
In this research, the magnitude and time between two successive
events in a monitoring process are assumed to be independent. It is also
assumed that the process starts at t = 0, while the in-control (IC)
parameters of X and T are represented by (a0 , b0) and E0 , respectively.
The shifts in the parameters a and E are given by
a= a a 0 , and (1a)
R.A. Sanusi, et al. Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

E = E E0 , (1b) deemed as IC and the monitoring proceeds to the next test ob-
servation in Step 3. Otherwise, the process is regarded as OOC and
where a and E are the change in terms of magnitude and time, re-
we proceed to the next step.
spectively. Shift is only applied to the shape parameter of X to show
6. Take the necessary action to investigate whether the process is ac-
changes in the magnitude of an event, though shift can also be applied
tually in an OOC state and subsequently eliminate the root cause(s)
to the scale parameter. The process is IC when both E and a equal to
of the OOC signal. Then, resume process monitoring and proceed to
one. In the construction of the Max-EWMA chart, the following two
Step 3.
independent statistics are defined:
7. Follow-up approach: Once an OOC state is established, it is im-
Ui =
Xi ab
and portant to determine which of the variables (X and/or T) is re-
ab2 (2) sponsible for the OOC signal. Commence by labelling the plotted
points according to the symbols presented in Table 2. Check both |Ui|
Vi = E Ti 1 (3)
and |Vi| against UCL . If |Ui| alone is greater than UCL , label “X” to
Two EWMA statistics, based on Ui and Vi are given by indicate a shift in the magnitude of the event. If |Vi| alone is greater
than UCL , label “T” to indicate a shift in the TBE. If both |Ui| and |Vi|
Yi = (1 ) Yi 1 + Ui, 0< 1, i = 1, 2, …,
are greater than UCL , label “XT” to indicate that both the magnitude
Zi = (1 ) Zi 1 + Vi , 0< 1, i = 1, 2, …, (5) and TBE have shifted simultaneously (Table 2).
where Y0 = E (Ui ) = 0 and Z0 = E (Vi ) = 0 are the starting values for the
3.1. Out-of-Control (OOC) properties of the proposed chart
EWMA statistics and (0, 1] is a smoothing constant. Generally, a
large value of allows quick detection of large shifts by the EWMA
One of the most common measures for analysing the performance of
chart, while a small value is suitable for detecting small shifts (Lucas &
a control chart is the average run length (ARL) criterion. ARL is the
Saccucci, 1990). In practice, the interval 0.05 ≤ ≤ 0.25 is usually
average number of samples to be plotted on a chart until the first OOC
considered for a quick detection of small to moderate shifts in a process.
signal is indicated. Ideally, the ARL0 should be a big value to minimise
A new monitoring statistic for a single Max-EWMA control chart
the false alarm rate. When the process is OOC due to some assignable
that combines Yi and Zi is defined as
causes of variation, the OOC ARL (ARL1) is expected to be smaller than
Mi = max{|Yi |, |Zi|} (6) the ARL0. In fact, a chart with a lower ARL1 than its competing chart is
If the magnitude and/or the time shift from their IC values, the said to have a better performance. Furthermore, due to the geometric
statistic Mi will be larger than when both the magnitude and time stay nature of the run length distribution, it is important to study the stan-
close to their respective target values. Since Mi is a non-negative real dard deviation (SDRL) and percentiles (Pk, k = 10, 25, 50, 75, 90) of
number, the Max-EWMA chart only has an upper control limit (UCL), the run length. Hence, the ARL, the standard deviation of the run length
which is given by (SDRL) and the kth percentiles (Pk, k = 10, 25, 50, 75, 90) of the run
length distribution are examined in Table 3. Since the aim of this work
UCL = E (M ) + L Var (M ) , (7) is to effectively monitor small to moderate downward shifts in X and
upward shifts in T simultaneously, shift {1, 0.85, 0.80, 0.70, 0.50} is
where E(M) and Var(M) are the mean and variance of M, respectively,
introduced to the shape parameter of X and rate parameter of T. It
when the process is IC. If the values of E(M) and Var(M) are unknown,
should be noted that a decrease in the rate parameter of T implies an
they may be replaced by the sample mean and sample variance of M
increase in T due to the inverse relationship that exists between them.
which are usually estimated from historical data when the process is IC.
The shifts are in the form of percentage. The value of = 1 means that
Hence, the statistic can detect downward shifts in the parameters of X
there is no shift in the process parameters, while = 0.85 implies that
and/or T. Furthermore, the constant L is a multiplier that controls the
there is a 15% decrease in the parameter. To analyse the result of the
width of the control chart’s limit.
proposed scheme, the following general conditions are considered,
unless stated otherwise:
3. Max-EWMA charting procedures
a0 = 7.5, b0 = 1, E = 0.01, {0.05, 0.10}
The procedure to construct a single Max-EWMA control chart for
The ARL0 is set to be approximately 370 and the corresponding
monitoring the event frequency and magnitude is summarised as fol-
SDRL0 is also close to 370. The results are computed through simula-
lows:
tion-based algorithm functions written in R statistical software, version
3.6.1 (R Core Team, 2019). We provide the codes in the supplementary
1. Specify a desired ARL 0 value and initialise Y0 = Z0 = 0 . Also, specify
materials for interested readers.
the value of the smoothing constant and the corresponding con-
In Table 3, for the case of = 0.05, it is observed that the ARL
stant multiplier L . The values of L for different combinations of E ,
reduces by 87.7% (97.7%) when there is 15% (50%) pure shift in the
a, b, , and ARL 0 are presented in Table 1. We achieve this by
shape parameter of X, and reduces by 71.6% (96.4%) when there is
searching for the value of L that yields the nominal ARL 0 of 370 in
15% (50%) pure shift in the rate parameter of T. Also, when there are
an algorithm function written in the R statistical software, version
simultaneous shifts of ( a, E ) = (0.85, 0.85) and (0.50, 0.70), ARL0
3.6.1 (R Core Team, 2019). Note that ARL 0 = 370 corresponds to
reduces by 89.5% and 97.8%, respectively. A similar pattern is ob-
the classical ± 3 limits of a control chart.
served for the SDRL and for the case of = 0.10. Hence, it can be
2. Compute the UCL of the Max-EWMA chart using Equation (7). If the
concluded that the ARL and SDRL degenerate at an increasing rate as
values of E (M ) and Var (M ) are unknown, they can be replaced with
the shifts increase. Overall, the proposed chart is more sensitive to si-
the sample mean and sample variance of M , respectively, which are
multaneous shifts in both X and T than a pure shift in either of the
usually estimated from historical data when the process is IC.
variables. The curve for E = 1 in Fig. 1(a) illustrates that a pure shift
3. Obtain the ith test observation (Xi , Ti ), i = 1, 2, …, for the event,
in X has the highest value of ARL compared to other curves with si-
where Xi is the resultant magnitude of the event at the ith observa-
multaneous shifts in X and T. Meanwhile, the curve of a = 1 in
tion, while Ti is the time interval between the occurrences of the ith
Fig. 1(b) shows that the chart with a pure shift in the distribution of T
and the (i-1)th observations.
performs in a similar manner, in terms of the ARL criterion.
4. Compute Ui, Vi, Yi, Zi, and Mi for the ith test observation.
The percentiles in Table 3 show that the run length distribution is
5. Plot Mi against i on the control chart. If Mi UCL , the process is
rightly skewed, in which the ARL is always greater than the median

3
R.A. Sanusi, et al. Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

Table 1
Max-EWMA chart’s multiplier and the in-control run length properties when X ~Gamma (a, b) , T ~Exp ( E ) , ARL0 = 370 and = {0.05, 0.10}.

E a, b L = 0.05 L = 0.10
ARL0 (SDRL0) ARL0 (SDRL0)
Pk, k = 10, 25, 50, 75, 90 Pk, k = 10, 25, 50, 75, 90

0.005 4.0, 1.0 2.783 370.7 (357.7) 3.368 372.1 (368.2)

50, 115, 259, 510, 836 43, 111, 259, 514, 847
1.0, 2.0 1.775 370.4 (293.0) 1.920 371.8 (343.1)
111, 165, 282, 479, 754 68, 128, 268, 503, 813
7.5, 1.0 2.745 370.7 (362.8) 3.310 369.2 (364.9)
48.9, 115, 257, 508, 845 44, 110, 260, 507, 837
2.0, 2.0 1.824 370.4 (285.2) 2.020 369.8 (326.9)
117, 170, 286, 479, 732 75, 134, 268, 497, 801

0.01 4.0, 1.0 2.787 370.8 (359.8) 3.356 370.0 (364.2)

50, 116, 261, 509, 832 44, 111, 259, 511, 837
1.0, 2.0 1.761 370.5 (292.4) 1.929 371.8 (340.5)
111, 164, 282, 483, 745 68, 129, 269, 503, 813
7.5, 1.0 2.738 367.9 (356.0) 3.310 367.2 (361.7)
48, 113, 259, 508, 836 43, 109, 257, 506, 844
2.0, 2.0 1.815 370.4 (285.9) 2.029 371.9 (328.2)
115, 170, 284, 479, 741 77, 139, 272, 499, 795

0.50 4.0, 1.0 2.790 371.6 (360.9) 3.359 371.9(367.9)

49, 114, 262, 509, 838 43, 111, 261, 511, 845
1.0, 2.0 1.765 367.8 (285.5) 1.923 372.2 (340.6)
110, 164, 281, 481, 745 67, 131, 268, 504, 817
7.5, 1.0 2.755 369.8 (359.9) 3.310 369.0 (365.1)
49, 114, 258, 510, 839 45, 110, 255, 508, 842
2.0, 2.0 1.834 371.8 (285.9) 2.015 371.7 (328.5)
115, 169, 284, 484, 744 77, 138, 274, 501, 799

1.00 4.0, 1.0 2.778 370.2 (360.0) 3.356 369.9 (364.5)

49, 113, 259, 507, 839 43, 109, 258, 513, 843
1.0, 2.0 1.751 368.5 (287.9) 1.930 367.3 (337.2)
110, 164, 281, 479, 744 67, 129, 263, 499, 802
7.5, 1.0 2.771 369.7 (359.9) 3.307 368.9 (362.9)
49, 114, 258, 506, 842 44, 111, 257, 510, 844
2.0, 2.0 1.825 367.1 (285.5) 2.024 371.9 (328.3)
114, 165, 279, 476, 742 77, 139, 273, 500, 792

1.50 4.0, 1.0 2.760 371.3 (359.5) 3.357 372.0 (369.4)

48, 116, 263, 514, 834 46, 111, 258, 511, 846
1.0, 2.0 1.769 368.7 (288.6) 1.925 367.7 (335.8)
110, 164, 281, 485, 744 68, 129, 264, 498, 804
7.5, 1.0 2.770 367.9 (353.5) 3.325 369.9 (364.6)
50, 117, 260, 505, 829 44, 110, 258, 512, 844
2.0, 2.0 1.824 368.5 (284.1) 2.022 372.1 (328.7)
115, 167, 281, 478, 738 75, 136, 270, 501, 807

a smoothing parameter of = 0.10 are smaller than those with

Table 2
Symbols to represent the source of an out-of-control signal.
Time
Magnitude |Vi | <UCL |Vi | >UCL
|Ui | < UCL T
|Ui | > UCL X XT
(P50) but less than the 75th percentile (P75). For example, when
( a, E ) = (0.85, 0.85), the median is 33, the ARL is 38.7, and
P75 = 49. Furthermore, the proposed chart is more sensitive to small
shifts when the smoothing parameter of Max-EWMA chart is small
( = 0.05) while its sensitivity to moderate and large shifts increases as
the smoothing parameter increases ( = 0.10). For instance, when a
simultaneous shift of ( a, E ) = (0.85, 0.85) (small shift) occurs in the
process, ARL1 is 38.7 and 56, respectively, for = 0.05 and 0.10,
however, for a simultaneous large shift of ( a, E ) = (0.50, 0.50), the
ARL1 is 7.4 and 6.6 for = 0.05 and 0.10, respectively.
Therefore, the smoothing parameter, = 0.05, is preferable if small
shifts in X and/or T are of interest. In addition, by comparing Figs. 2
and 3, it is apparent that the ARL values for the Max-EWMA chart with
= 0.05 for moderate and large shifts. For example, when E = 0.5,
the largest ARL value for = 0.10 (Fig. 3) is half the largest ARL value
for = 0.05 (Fig. 2).
Furthermore, we study the effect of the smoothing parameter
on the performance of the proposed scheme in Table 4. The
following conditions are considered: a0 = 2, b0 = 2, E =
0.5, {0.05, 0.10, 0.30, 0.50, 0.70. 0.90} , though other parameter va-
lues show the same trend. In detecting any size of a shift in X
(0.50 a 1.00) and small to moderate shifts in T (0.80 E 1.00)
simultaneously, the proposed chart has the best performance when the
smoothing parameter is = 0.10, followed by = 0.05. In detecting
any size of a shift in X (0.50 a 1.00) and moderate to large shifts in T
(0.50 E < 0.80) simultaneously, the proposed chart has the best
performance when the smoothing parameter is = 0.30, followed by
higher values of the smoothing parameters (0.30 < < 1.00). In addi-
tion, the proposed chart has the best performance in detecting pure shift
in X (0.50 a < 1.00; E = 1) when = 0.10. However, it has the best
performance in detecting pure shift in T ( a = 1; 0.50 E < 1) when
= 0.30. To this end, it is recommended to choose a smoothing para-
meter whose value is between 0.05 and 0.30, depending on the type of
shifts to be detected.
In Fig. 2, for the Max-EWMA chart with a smoothing parameter

4
R.A. Sanusi, et al. Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

Table 3
Max-EWMA chart when X ~Gamma (7.5, 1) , T ~Exp (0.01) , ARL0 = 370 and = {0.05, 0.10}, for different levels of shifts in a and/or E.

= 0.05, L = 2.738 = 0.10, L = 3.31

a E ARL SDRL P10 P25 P50 P75 P90 ARL SDRL P10 P25 P50 P75 P90

1.00 1.00 368.0 356.0 48 113 259 508 836 367.8 363.3 43 109 254 509 845
0.85 1.00 45.2 28.3 18 25 38 57 82 79.4 66.5 20 33 60 106 165
0.80 1.00 28.5 14.4 14 18 25 35 47 40.0 28.1 14 20 32 51 76
0.70 1.00 15.9 5.6 10 12 15 19 23 17.4 8.3 9 12 15 21 28
0.50 1.00 8.4 1.8 6 7 8 9 11 7.8 2.1 6 6 7 9 10
1.00 0.85 104.5 93.2 20 39 76 140 225 108.7 103.3 17 35 78 148 242
0.85 0.85 38.7 23.7 16 22 33 49 69 56.0 45.6 14 24 43 74 116
0.80 0.85 26.5 13.3 13 17 24 33 44 34.5 24.0 12 18 28 44 66
0.70 0.85 15.5 5.6 10 12 15 18 23 16.6 8.0 9 11 15 20 27
0.50 0.85 8.4 1.8 6 7 8 9 11 7.7 2.1 5 6 7 9 10
1.00 0.80 70.3 59.9 15 28 53 94 148 74.0 68.4 13 25 53 100 165
0.85 0.80 35.0 21.3 14 20 30 44 63 46.6 37.6 12 21 36 61 95
0.80 0.80 25.3 12.8 12 16 23 31 42 31.4 21.7 11 16 26 40 60
0.70 0.80 15.3 5.6 9 11 14 18 23 16.1 7.8 8 11 14 20 26
0.50 0.80 8.3 1.9 6 7 8 9 11 7.7 2.1 5 6 7 9 10
1.00 0.70 36.0 27.3 10 17 29 47 72 36.7 31.1 8 15 28 49 77
0.85 0.70 26.4 15.7 10 15 23 34 47 30.5 23.4 8 14 24 40 61
0.80 0.70 21.3 10.9 10 14 19 27 35 24.0 16.4 8 13 20 31 46
0.70 0.70 14.3 5.4 8 11 14 17 21 14.6 7.2 7 10 13 18 24
0.50 0.70 8.2 1.9 6 7 8 9 11 7.5 2.2 5 6 7 9 10
1.00 0.50 13.1 8.4 4 7 11 17 24 12.3 9.0 3 6 10 16 24
0.85 0.50 12.8 7.6 5 7 11 17 23 12.1 8.5 4 6 10 16 23
0.80 0.50 12.1 6.7 5 7 11 16 21 11.5 7.6 3 6 10 15 22
0.70 0.50 10.5 4.8 5 7 10 13 17 9.8 5.4 3 6 9 13 17
0.50 0.50 7.4 2.2 5 6 7 9 10 6.6 2.4 3 5 7 8 9

= 0.05, it is observed that the ARL performance of the chart improves
as the level of the X skewness reduces. That is, for a specific shift in T
( E ), different levels of shifts in X are detected early for G(7.5,1), fol-
lowed by G(4,1), G(1,2), and G(2,2), where G (a, b) denotes a gamma
distribution with a shape parameter of a and a scale parameter of b . In
addition, G(7.5,1) and G(4,1) compete closely regardless of the shifts in
the parameters. When the size of shift in X increases, i.e. from a = 0.85
to a = 0.50, the ARL performance for G(1,2) and G(2,2) are compa-
tible. A similar trend is observed in the case of = 0.10 (Fig. 3).
The performance of the proposed scheme is also investigated for
different parameter combinations of X since the skewness level of
gamma distribution is dependent on the value of its parameters (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 illustrates that G(1,2) is highly skewed and the level of skewness
reduces towards symmetry for the G(2,2), G(4,1), and G(7.5, 1) para-
meters.
3.2. Examples of application
3.2.1. Real dataset: monitoring the sales of integrated circuit chips
A real dataset from an electronic company is used to show the im-
plementation of the proposed scheme. The company is interested in
monitoring the sales of its integrated circuit chips to customers and the
primary objective is to signal any decline in product sales. This is an
example of a positive event, where the magnitude of an event (X) re-
presents the sales of the integrated circuit chip (number of lots), while
time between the events (T) is simply the time interval between two
successive orders (hours). It is of interest to detect a decrease in the
amount of the products ordered, and/or an increase in the time between
successive orders. More explanations on the dataset can be found in Wu
et al. (2009b). The dataset consists of 50 IC observations. The variable X
is fitted to a gamma distribution with parameters a0 = 2.8277 and
b0 = 0.8063, while T is fitted to an exponential distribution with rate
parameter 0.0571. Based on these values, 50 additional OOC

Fig. 1. ARL curves showing the performance of the Max-EWMA chart in detecting (a) pure shifts in T and (b) pure shifts in X against simultaneous shifts in X and T
when X ~Gamma (7.5, 1) , T ~Exp (0.01) , and = 0.10.

5
R.A. Sanusi, et al. Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

Fig. 2. ARL curves for the Max-EWMA ( =0.05) chart with different G (a, b) distributions for simultaneous shifts in a and/or E.

observations are simulated by introducing shifts of a = 0.50 and
E = 0.50 to the shape parameter of X and the rate parameter of T,
respectively. The proposed scheme is designed to detect these shifts.
The charting parameters of the proposed Max-EWMA scheme are given
as = 0.10 , L = 1.798, UCL = 1.530 , and ARL 0 = 100 .
From Fig. 5, it is shown that the Max-EWMA chart detects the first
OOC signal at the 60th order sample. Henceforth, some measures such
as advertisements can be immediately effected to improve the sales of
the integrated circuit chip. Additionally, the management team can
make sound and timely decisions to boost the sales of integrated circuit
chips in order to sustain the organisation’s sales volume. The decision
may be in the form of leveraging social media marketing channels,

Fig. 3. ARL curve for the Max-EWMA ( = 0.10) chart with different G (a, b) distributions for simultaneous shifts in a and/or E.

6
R.A. Sanusi, et al. Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

Table 4 improving the competitive advantage of its products, or having a lim-

ARL values of Max-EWMA chart for different smoothing parameter ( ) values ited time sale.
when X ~Gamma (2, 2) , T ~Exp (0.5) and ARL0 = 370.

a
3.2.2. Simulated dataset
E
Simulated data are used to show the application of the proposed
0.05 0.10 0.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 Max-EWMA scheme in a real-life scenario. Let X be the sales of a pro-
1.00 1.00 368.2 369.6 372.7 369.1 372.8 369.4
duct of an automobile company, while T is simply the time interval
0.85 1.00 105.5 83.9 376.0 375.1 377.4 369.7 between two successive demands from customers. Here, the company
0.80 1.00 86.8 63.2 373.9 371.9 374.6 368.4 may be interested in detecting any slight drop in the sales of its product
0.70 1.00 66.7 43.4 372.2 365.5 371.8 369.3 and/or an increase in the time between two successive demands for the
0.50 1.00 48.7 28.4 372.1 370.3 373.5 370.6
product. These changes would imply a decrease in the profit of the
1.00 0.85 369.6 300.1 120.3 134.9 146.7 148.8
0.85 0.85 105.6 81.5 120.2 135.5 145.9 147.3 company, hence, it is important to detect the changes as soon as pos-
0.80 0.85 86.6 62.1 118.7 134.9 146.0 148.6 sible. The variable X is assumed to follow a gamma distribution with IC
0.70 0.85 66.7 42.6 120.5 136.5 146.3 148.8 parameters a0 = 4 and b0 = 1. Furthermore, T is assumed to follow an
0.50 0.85 48.7 28.3 119.5 133.7 145.2 148.1 exponential distribution with IC parameter E0 = 0.01. A set of 50 data
1.00 0.80 365.4 245.9 83.7 97.6 107.2 109.3
0.85 0.80 105.1 77.7 83.7 96.4 105.8 109.2
are simulated using these parameters. In order to simulate a scenario
0.80 0.80 86.5 60.6 83.3 96.3 106.0 110.8 where there is a 15% decrease in the demand for the product and a 15%
0.70 0.80 66.6 42.1 83.8 97.6 107.9 110.4 increase in the time between successive demands, another 50 OOC data
0.50 0.80 48.7 28.1 84.1 96.5 106.1 109.9 are generated by introducing a = 0.85 to the shape parameter of X and
1.00 0.70 298.3 124.6 42.9 50.7 57.2 60.2
E = 0.85 to the rate parameter of T. In total, there are 100 simulated
0.85 0.70 102.3 64.6 41.9 51.0 57.8 61.4
0.80 0.70 85.1 53.3 42.3 51.1 57.4 60.5 data, split evenly between IC and OOC. The proposed scheme is con-
0.70 0.70 65.9 39.3 42.2 50.8 57.1 60.8 structed to simultaneously detect a drop in the sales and an increase in
0.50 0.70 48.5 27.2 43.0 51.2 57.3 60.7 the time between successive demands for the product. The smoothing
1.00 0.50 56.0 26.5 12.8 15.1 17.1 18.6 parameter of the Max-EWMA chart is assumed to be = 0.05. In ad-
0.85 0.50 51.7 25.2 12.8 15.1 17.0 18.4
dition, the UCL is fixed as 0.57 to ensure that there is a false alarm in
0.80 0.50 50.0 24.5 12.8 15.0 16.9 18.6
0.70 0.50 45.9 22.9 12.9 14.9 17.2 18.3 every 100 observations, i.e. the ARL0 is fixed as 100. It is observed that
0.50 0.50 39.2 19.7 12.9 15.0 17.1 18.5 the proposed scheme detects an OOC situation at the 57th observation
(Fig. 6). The rate chart signals an OOC situation at the 67th observation
(Table A.I in the Appendix A) which is slower than the Max-EWMA
chart. Hence, the proposed scheme can detect the simultaneous changes
as soon as possible. The company can then adjust its policies to mini-
mise the chance of a similar occurrence in the future.

4. Comparative studies

The proposed Max-EWMA chart is compared with some TBE charts,

such as the individual T chart, the individual X chart, the T&X chart,
and the rate chart. All these charts have the same general purpose, i.e.
monitoring the time interval of an event and/or the magnitude of the
event. They all assume that T follows an exponential distribution while
X follows a gamma distribution. To ensure an equal footing comparison,
the following general conditions are assumed:
Fig. 4. Probability density functions of gamma distributions.

Fig. 6. The Max-EWMA chart ( = 0.05 , L = 2.787) for the simulated sales and
Fig. 5. Max-EWMA chart for monitoring the sales of integrated circuit chips. demand data.

7
R.A. Sanusi, et al. Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

Table 5
ARL values of various control charts for decreasing shifts.

a
E 0.48 0.59 0.69 0.79 0.90 1.00

1.00 T 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000

X 4.647 7.822 13.858 25.713 49.747 100.003
T&X 6.103 10.814 19.726 36.009 62.985 99.990
Rate 9.251 10.33 17.188 39.763 62.921 99.991
Max-EWMA 7.893 10.822 16.383 29.972 74.991 99.471

0.87 T 59.001 59.001 59.001 59.001 59.001 59.001

X 5.361 9.025 15.990 29.668 57.400 115.388
T&X 6.668 11.513 20.090 34.032 53.219 73.781
Rate 7.634 7.532 11.812 31.423 48.736 75.352
Max-EWMA 7.710 10.502 15.209 25.302 46.187 52.141

0.73 T 37.284 37.284 37.284 37.284 37.284 37.284

X 6.336 10.666 18.898 35.063 67.837 136.367
T&X 7.429 12.284 19.955 30.401 41.761 51.224
Rate 7.369 6.931 9.823 26.217 39.061 57.953
Max-EWMA 7.373 9.683 12.914 18.249 24.025 25.148

0.60 T 24.311 24.311 24.311 24.311 24.311 24.311

X 7.744 13.036 23.097 42.854 82.912 166.671
T&X 8.165 12.571 18.429 24.793 30.218 33.884
Rate 7.191 6.617 8.483 21.811 31.062 44.061
Max-EWMA 6.664 8.220 10.142 12.180 13.551 13.792

0.47 T 16.665 16.665 16.665 16.665 16.665 16.665

X 9.957 16.761 29.696 55.099 106.601 214.291
T&X 8.748 12.167 15.816 18.948 21.124 22.397
Rate 7.180 6.653 7.757 18.197 24.579 33.104
Max-EWMA 5.646 6.466 7.128 7.692 7.997 7.901

0.33 T 12.494 12.494 12.494 12.494 12.494 12.494

X 13.94 23.465 41.575 77.138 149.241 300.008
T&X 9.196 11.364 13.204 14.500 15.281 15.699
Rate 7.546 7.232 7.778 15.519 19.660 24.871
Max-EWMA 4.166 4.395 4.539 4.608 4.639 4.634

a 0 = 4, b0 = 1, E = 0.01, 0.48 a 1, 0.33 E 1,
ARL 0 = 100
The E value of 0.01 implies that there is one occurrence of an event
in every 100 units of time. The scale parameter of the gamma dis-
tribution (b) is fixed, while shifts are applied to a and . In addition, ω
= 0.10 is used for the proposed chart. Following Wu et al. (2009b), the
largest shifts applied to a and E are a = 0.48 and E = 0.33, re-
spectively, so as to leverage the magnitude of the X shifts and the T
shifts, i.e. to equate the power of detecting downward shifts in X and
upward shifts in T. The ARL 0 is set as 100 to ensure a false alarm in
every 100 sampling observations. Next, one-to-one comparisons of the
Max-EWMA chart and each of its counterparts are presented. The re-
sults of the T, X, T&X, and rate charts reported in Table 5 are adopted
from Wu et al. (2009b).
4.1. Max-EWMA vs T chart
The individual T chart is designed to detect shifts in the time be-
tween the occurrences of an event. It is a Shewhart-type chart and is
efficient for detecting large shifts. Its plotting statistic is the time in-
terval of an event, while its corresponding lower control limit (LCL) and
UCL are given as:
where is the false alarm rate (or size of Type-I error) given by
= 1 ARL 0 . Since the proposed chart is one-sided (upper-sided in this
case), the LCL of the T chart is ineffective. Hence, the T chart issues an
OOC signal when the plotting statistic lies above the UCL. It is observed
from Table 5 that for a fixed E value, the ARL of the T chart remains
unchanged for different values of a . For example, when E = 0.73, the
ARL value equals to 37.284 regardless of the shift in magnitude
(Table 5) since the T chart is invariant to changes in the magnitude of
an event. For all the domain of shifts in T, the ARL1 of the proposed
chart is lower than that of the individual T chart. Hence, the proposed
chart outperforms the T chart. This shows that the proposed chart is
suitable for effectively detecting small to moderate pure shifts in T.
4.2. Max-EWMA vs X chart
The individual X chart is designed to monitor the magnitude of an
event. It is similar to the usual X chart for monitoring the location
parameter of a process. The control limits are given as:
LCL = F X 1 ( ) and (9a)
UCL = F X (11
), (9b)
where F X ( · ) is the inverse cumulative distribution function of X,
1

where X is assumed to follow a normal distribution. The LCL is of sole

LCL =
ln (1 )
and interest for comparison purpose since the proposed chart only focuses
E on monitoring a decrease in the magnitude of an event. Hence, the X
chart gives an OOC signal when the magnitude of a sample observation
ln ( ) falls below the LCL.
UCL = ,
E To ensure a fair comparison, the charts are compared only when

8
R.A. Sanusi, et al.
there are pure shifts in X and in this case, the individual X chart per-
forms better than the proposed Max-EWMA chart. This is evident from
the lower ARL1 values of the X chart than the Max-EWMA chart
(Table 5), i.e. when E = 1.00 and a = {0.48, 0.59, 0.69, 0.79, 0.90},
the corresponding ARL values for X chart and Max-EWMA chart are
{4.647, 7.822, 13.858, 25.713, 49.747}, and {7.893, 10.822, 16.383,
29.972, 74.991}, respectively. From Table 5, the X chart is insensitive
to changes in T, i.e. when a = 1.00 and E = {0.87, 0.73, 0.60, 0.47
and 0.33}, the corresponding ARL values are {115.388, 136.367,
166.671, 214.291, 300.008}. However, unlike the individual T chart,
the ARL1 of the X chart varies when there are shifts in T for a particular
a . For instance, when a = 0.48 and E = {0.87, 0.73, 0.60, 0.47,
0.33}, the corresponding ARL values are {5.361, 6.336, 7.744, 9.957,
13.94}. This is because the sampling interval of the X chart is simply the
time interval of the occurrences of the events (Qu et al., 2014).
4.3. Max-EWMA vs T&X chart
The T&X chart was proposed by Wu et al. (2009a) for a simulta-
neous monitoring of TBE and magnitude of an event. It combines the
individual T chart and the individual X chart and has an overall better
performance than the individual charts, especially for detecting
downward shifts. For monitoring a positive event, the T chart compo-
nent has an UCL, while the X chart component has a LCL. The process is
said to be OOC when either or both components gives an OOC signal.
The overall size of a Type-I error ( ) of the T&X chart is set such that
X = and (10a)
(1 )
= ,
T
1 (10b)
where X and T are the sizes of Type-I errors of the X chart and T chart,
respectively, and 0 1 is an allocating factor for decomposing
into X and T . More details on the chart can be found in Wu et al.
(2009a) and Qu et al. (2013).
By referring to Table 5, for pure shifts in magnitude, the proposed
Max-EWMA chart provides a better performance only for detecting
moderate shifts, i.e. 0.69 a 0.79. Furthermore, the proposed chart
is more effective in detecting joint small shifts in T ( E = 0.87) and
small to moderate shifts in X (0.69 a 1) , while the T&X chart per-
forms better for detecting joint small shifts in T and large shifts in X
(0.48 a 0.59) . The proposed chart outperforms the T&X chart in
detecting joint moderate to large shifts in T (0.33 E 0.73) and any
shift size in X.
4.4. Max-EWMA vs rate chart
The rate chart makes use of a single statistic R = X T , unlike the T&
X chart, to monitor X and T simultaneously. For monitoring a positive
event, the rate chart gives an OOC signal when there is an upward shift
in R, that is, when there is an increase in X and/or a decrease in T. More
details of the chart can be found in Wu et al. (2009b).
Appendix A
See Table A1.
9
Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378
The results in Table 5 indicate that the proposed Max-EWMA chart
performs better than the rate chart in detecting pure moderate shifts in
X ( E = 1.00 and 0.69 a 0.79) . For detecting joint small to mod-
erate shifts in T (0.60 E 0.87) and X (0.79 a 0.90) , the Max-
EWMA chart gives a better performance. In addition, the Max-EWMA
chart outperforms the rate chart in detecting joint large shifts in T
(0.47 E 0.33) and any size of shifts in X.
5. Conclusion
The monitoring of the magnitude of an event and the frequency of
occurrence of the event is inevitable in industrial, manufacturing, or
business sector. This can be achieved with the aid of advanced SPC
charts. The time between event (T) and the magnitude of the event (X)
can be monitored with separate charts or together with a single chart.
The event can be a positive or a negative event, however, less attention
has been given to the monitoring of positive events. Consequently, a
max-EWMA type chart is suggested for the simultaneous monitoring of
X and T. The variable X is assumed to follow a gamma distribution
while T follows an exponential distribution. The chart focuses on the
monitoring of positive events and it is efficient for detecting downward
shifts in X and/or upward shifts in T. The ARL criterion is used to
evaluate the performance of the proposed scheme. The result shows
that the Max-EWMA scheme performs best for detecting small to
moderate shifts. However, its sensitivity to large shifts can be increased
by increasing the smoothing parameter of the Max-EWMA statistic.
Furthermore, the proposed scheme is compared with some existing
charts of the same purpose. It outperforms them in detecting small to
moderate shifts and competes strongly in detecting large shifts. Finally,
the application of the Max-EWMA chart in a real-life scenario is illu-
strated with a simulated data set. The prospect of this work is to extend
this idea to the multivariate case; to consider the situation where the
variables are dependent; and to study the effect of erroneous distribu-
tions assumptions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ridwan A. Sanusi: Software, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Visualization, Writing - original draft. Sin Yin Teh: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Writing - original draft. Michael B.C. Khoo: Validation,
Writing - review & editing.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was supported by a grant from
University Grants Committee of Hong Kong (CityU 11213116) and
National Natural Science Foundation of China under a key Project (No.
71532008). This study was conducted while the corresponding author
was a Research Fellow at the City University of Hong Kong and the
third author was on sabbatical leave.
R.A. Sanusi, et al. Computers & Industrial Engineering 142 (2020) 106378

Table A1
The rate statistic for the simulated sales and demand data, where LCL = 0.0046.
i X T Rate statistic i X T Rate statistic

1 3.91 179.30 0.0218 51 1.54 20.71 0.0744

2 8.04 20.99 0.3830 52 3.61 164.14 0.0220
3 5.10 80.20 0.0636 53 4.84 291.46 0.0166
4 2.24 92.31 0.0243 54 0.91 151.43 0.0060
5 7.66 58.26 0.1315 55 1.92 24.52 0.0783
6 5.61 274.75 0.0204 56 1.96 68.99 0.0284
7 6.00 25.66 0.2338 57 1.70 80.84 0.0210
8 3.40 23.03 0.1476 58 2.02 17.28 0.1169
9 4.73 299.93 0.0158 59 1.99 72.68 0.0274
10 4.86 26.86 0.1809 60 2.41 23.89 0.1009
11 3.83 71.65 0.0535 61 2.04 76.63 0.0266
12 4.27 29.17 0.1464 62 6.16 111.21 0.0554
13 1.13 9.76 0.1158 63 1.07 60.61 0.0177
14 2.70 31.92 0.0846 64 2.34 263.38 0.0089
15 7.51 33.12 0.2268 65 1.67 234.10 0.0071
16 3.35 190.66 0.0176 66 2.14 37.10 0.0577
17 5.01 36.52 0.1372 67 0.45 115.28 0.0039
18 3.32 126.73 0.0262 68 1.13 43.33 0.0261
19 5.65 4.91 1.1507 69 2.63 358.54 0.0073
20 2.31 110.05 0.0210 70 1.71 437.24 0.0039
21 2.07 83.50 0.0248 71 3.53 240.48 0.0147
22 3.18 47.15 0.0674 72 1.38 171.73 0.0080
23 4.84 42.81 0.1131 73 0.81 111.90 0.0072
24 2.12 23.43 0.0905 74 1.34 27.56 0.0486
25 2.77 32.31 0.0857 75 1.32 212.47 0.0062
26 7.24 8.93 0.8108 76 3.83 200.11 0.0191
27 5.03 158.32 0.0318 77 7.29 125.33 0.0582
28 1.31 214.34 0.0061 78 1.54 196.62 0.0078
29 2.60 231.92 0.0112 79 1.67 338.03 0.0049
30 3.65 185.62 0.0197 80 3.36 242.42 0.0139
31 3.56 251.14 0.0142 81 4.91 89.26 0.0550
32 4.24 32.62 0.1300 82 2.81 98.57 0.0285
33 2.85 224.99 0.0127 83 6.93 113.90 0.0608
34 6.57 138.69 0.0474 84 2.19 123.69 0.0177
35 6.54 66.78 0.0979 85 2.29 38.57 0.0594
36 2.15 196.82 0.0109 86 5.56 196.56 0.0283
37 2.70 43.15 0.0626 87 3.53 387.25 0.0091
38 3.77 194.91 0.0193 88 4.36 25.63 0.1701
39 8.03 1.50 5.3533 89 4.88 29.88 0.1633
40 1.63 17.24 0.0945 90 3.02 62.99 0.0479
41 5.22 31.31 0.1667 91 3.29 167.75 0.0196
42 3.73 239.87 0.0156 92 5.99 225.41 0.0266
43 3.99 8.90 0.4483 93 4.05 618.79 0.0065
44 4.38 20.31 0.2157 94 4.31 167.06 0.0258
45 4.65 23.86 0.1949 95 2.94 134.64 0.0218
46 4.17 90.68 0.0460 96 4.34 64.91 0.0669
47 0.82 37.61 0.0218 97 4.71 49.57 0.0950
48 2.63 31.53 0.0834 98 2.48 40.37 0.0614
49 4.17 52.97 0.0787 99 4.31 71.84 0.0600
50 4.76 87.08 0.0547 100 1.61 109.57 0.0147

Appendix B. Supplementary material

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cie.2020.106378.

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