L1.

4 Conservation of mass, the material derivative, Reynolds’ transport theorem and

the Conservation of momentum equations (Navier-Stokes equations)

Recommended reading: White ch. 4.1-4.3

At the completion of this lecture you should be able to…

• Write down the conservation of mass principle (in words)

• Write an equation for the acceleration of a ‘fluid particle’ using the material
derivative.
• Explain (using words and equations) how the material derivative can be used to
define an incompressible flow.
• Explain the physical meaning of each of the terms in the mathematical statement
of Reynolds’ transport theorem.
• Apply the conservation of momentum principle to a material volume containing a
fluid to derive the conservation of momentum equations.
• Solve simple problems using the conservation of momentum equation

1.4.1 Conservation of mass

Consider the control volume below which is a cuboid shape with sides of length 𝐿𝐿1 , 𝐿𝐿2 and
𝐿𝐿3 each of which are parallel to the 𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 and 𝑥𝑥3 directions (see figure A below). The
control volume is fixed in space and we have defined a coordinate system with the origin
located as shown in figure A below. The control volume is situated in a fluid which has
density 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) and velocity 𝐮𝐮(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡).

𝑥𝑥3
𝐿𝐿3
𝑥𝑥2
𝑥𝑥1
𝐿𝐿2

𝐿𝐿1
Figure 1.4.A. A cuboid shaped control volume.

You will recall from first year fluid mechanics that the mass flow rate through a stationary
surface A is given by
 𝑚𝑚̇(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝐴𝐴

where 𝐧𝐧 is the unit normal to the surface and therefore 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 = 𝐮𝐮 ∙ 𝐧𝐧 is the component of
velocity normal to the surface. If we define A to be the exterior surface of the control volume
shown above and 𝐧𝐧 to be the outward facing unit normal, then the above equation describes
the rate of mass flow out of the control volume.

We can simplify this expression by utilising the divergence theorem which states that for any
vector quantity, r,

𝜕𝜕(𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 )
� 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉

In our case we have 𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖 = 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 and therefore we expect that

𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 )
� 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉

In order to satisfy ourselves that this equation is correct, let’s evaluate the volume integral on
the right-hand side of this equation for our cuboid shaped control volume and see whether it
is equal to the expression on the left-hand side. We have
𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿1
𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 ) 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢1 ) 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 ) 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢3 )
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � � + + 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3
𝑉𝑉 0 0 0

𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿1

𝑥𝑥 =𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 =𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 =𝐿𝐿
= � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢1 ]𝑥𝑥11=01 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 + � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 ]𝑥𝑥22=02 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 + � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢3 ]𝑥𝑥33=03 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2
0 0 0 0 0 0

This simplifies further to yield

𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2
𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 )
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢1 ]𝑥𝑥1=𝐿𝐿1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 − � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢1 ]𝑥𝑥1 =0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉 0 0 0 0

𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿1

+ � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 ]𝑥𝑥2=𝐿𝐿2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 − � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 ]𝑥𝑥2 =0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3

0 0 0 0

𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿1

+ � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢3 ]𝑥𝑥3 =𝐿𝐿3 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 − � � [𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢3 ]𝑥𝑥3=0 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 .

0 0 0 0
Hopefully you can see that each of the six terms on the right-hand side of this equation are
the integral of 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 over each of the six faces of our control volume. Thus we have

𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 )
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉 𝐴𝐴

as expected.

The conservation of mass principle applied to a control volume (which contains no sources or
‘sinks’) states that

The rate of mass flow into a control volume = the rate of increase of the mass of fluid
within the control volume

The rate of increase of the mass of fluid within the control volume is defined

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑚𝑚̇(𝑡𝑡) = = � 𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉

where 𝑉𝑉 denotes the control volume and we have made use of the fact that the mass of fluid
within the control volume is equal to the volume integral of the fluid density. Also, because
our control volume is fixed in space, the limits of integration are not dependent on time and
thus the time derivative may be brought inside the integral (but changed to a partial derivative
as density is a function of more than one variable). We therefore have the following equation
describing the conservation of mass within our control volume

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 )
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉

which we can rewrite as

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 )
� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉

This equation is valid for a control volume of any size (including an infinitesimally small
control volume). Therefore, the integrand must be equal to zero i.e.

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 )
+ = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖

This partial differential equation is referred to as the conservation of mass equation. It is also
sometimes referred to as the continuity equation.

1.4.2 The material derivative

In first year mathematics you will have learnt that the time rate of change of a quantity (e.g.
density, 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)) at a fixed point in space is defined by its partial derivative

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)

= lim .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
In this section, we will introduce the material derivative, 𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷, which defines the time-rate
of change of a quantity (e.g. fluid density or velocity) in a frame of reference which moves
with the flow. The material derivative can therefore be defined as

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱 + 𝛅𝛅𝛅𝛅, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)

= lim .
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
Note that 𝐱𝐱 + 𝛅𝛅𝛅𝛅 is the location of the fluid ‘particle’ at time 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 which was located at 𝐱𝐱
at time 𝑡𝑡. For infinitesimally small 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿, 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿.

We can expand 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱 + 𝛅𝛅𝛅𝛅, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) using a Taylor series as

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)

𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱 + 𝛅𝛅𝛅𝛅, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) = 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 + 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 + 𝑂𝑂(𝛿𝛿 2 ),
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)

𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱 + 𝛅𝛅𝛅𝛅, 𝑡𝑡 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) = 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 + 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 + 𝑂𝑂(𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 2 ).
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

Substituting this expression into the equation for 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 yields

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)

= + 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 .
𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

The quantity 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 describes the time rate of change of a fluid ‘particle’ in a reference
frame which convects with the flow. In an incompressible flow we expect that the density of
a fluid particle will remain constant and we can define an incompressible flow by the
equation

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
= 0.
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
Note that we can use this definition of an incompressible flow to simplify the conservation of
mass equation for such a flow. The conservation of mass equation can be written

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 ) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗

+ = + 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 + 𝜌𝜌 = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

In an incompressible flow, 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 0 and therefore the sum of the first two terms is equal to
zero. Assuming that the density of our fluid can never be zero, the conservation of mass
equation in an incompressible flow simplifies to

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢3

= + + = 𝑆𝑆𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3
Note that this is the same expression we derived in the L1.3 by considering the rate of strain
of a small fluid element!

The fluid velocity, 𝐮𝐮(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡), quantifies the velocity of a fluid ‘particle’ at location 𝐱𝐱 and time 𝑡𝑡.
The particle acceleration, 𝐚𝐚(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡), is thus the time rate of change of 𝐮𝐮(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡) in a frame of
reference moving with the particle i.e.

𝐷𝐷𝐮𝐮
𝐚𝐚 = .
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
1.4.3 Reynolds transport theorem.

The laws of physics are usually expressed as applying to a fixed mass of material. For
example, Newton’s second law states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is
equal to the net force applied to this object. In deriving the differential equations which
govern fluid flow, it is also convenient to consider a fixed mass of fluid called a ‘material
volume’ which contains the same particles of fluid. The material volume will be denoted, ℳ,
and deforms as the particles convect through the fluid. An example of a material volume
deforming as it moves through the fluid is shown in figure B below.

𝑡𝑡1 𝑡𝑡2 𝑡𝑡3

Figure 1.4.B. A material volume, ℳ, which contains the same fluid as it moves and deforms
following the motion of a fluid is shown at three successive times 𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑡𝑡2 and 𝑡𝑡3 .

In your first year Thermofluids course, you were taught about intensive and extensive
variables. An extensive property is dependent on the size (or extent) of the system being
considered whereas an intensive property is one which does not depend on the size or extent
of the system being considered. In the following lectures we will derive a number of partial
differential equations which describe fluid behaviour. The derivations will involve applying a
simple conservation law (e.g. Newton’s conservation of momentum principle) to a material
volume of fluid and then manipulating these equations into a convenient form. Because the
derivations will be based on analysing a material volume, we will deal firstly with extensive
properties such as mass and momentum. Because we need to derive a differential equation
which is independent of the size of the material volume we are considering, it will be
convenient to work with corresponding specific (intensive) properties. A specific property, b,
is defined as the amount of an extensive property, B, per unit mass.
Note that each extensive property, 𝐵𝐵, can be determined by integrating the product of the
fluid density, 𝜌𝜌, and the specific (intensive) property, 𝑏𝑏, over the material element volume i.e.

𝐵𝐵(𝑡𝑡) = � 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)𝑏𝑏(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝐱𝐱).

ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Note the functional dependence of the terms in the above equation. The intensive variable is a
function of space and time. The integration over the volume ℳ removes the spatial
dependence and thus 𝐵𝐵 is a function of time only. Because our material volume moves with
the fluid, the limits of integration which define the boundary of ℳ are also functions of time.

The extensive variables, and the corresponding intensive variables, which will be used in this
module are shown in table A below.

Extensive property 𝐵𝐵 Intensive property 𝑏𝑏

Mass of chemical species (𝑀𝑀) species mass fraction (𝐶𝐶)
Momentum (𝐌𝐌) velocity (𝐮𝐮)
Enthalpy (𝐸𝐸ℎ ) specific enthalpy (𝑒𝑒ℎ )
Internal energy (Eu) specific internal energy (𝑒𝑒𝑢𝑢 )
Table 1.4A. Extensive and intensive properties of a fluid

The laws of physics often require one to calculate the time rate of change of an extensive
property 𝐵𝐵 . For example, Newton’s second law states that the time rate of change of
momentum of a particle (in the case of a solid) or a material volume (in the case of a fluid) is
equal to the net force acting on the particle/material volume (i.e. 𝑑𝑑𝐌𝐌/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐟𝐟). We therefore
often need to determine an expression for

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
≡ � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Taking similar steps shown in Lecture 1.4 and in the textbook (FM White, Fluid Mechanics,
Chapter 3.2), utilising both the material volume (moving) and control volume (fixed), the
above equation yields the following expression for the time derivative of B (Eq. A). We will
make use of this expression in the following lectures when we derive the conservation of
momentum, conservation of energy and conservation of chemical species equations.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) 𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 �

= � + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , eq. (1.4. A)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Whilst this expression is very useful, it is not particularly easy to deduce the physical
meaning of each term on the right-hand side. Below, we will simplify this expression further
and deduce the physical meaning of these terms.
The second term in the integral on the right-hand side can be simplified using the divergence
theorem

𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 �
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
ℳ(𝑡𝑡) 𝐴𝐴ℳ (𝑡𝑡)

where, 𝐴𝐴ℳ (𝑡𝑡) is the bounding surface of our material volume. Finally, we arrive at the
following equation which is known as Reynolds’ transport theorem.

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌)
� 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
ℳ(𝑡𝑡) ℳ(𝑡𝑡) 𝐴𝐴ℳ (𝑡𝑡)

The two expressions on the right-hand side of this equation can be interpreted as follows:
let’s define a control volume, V, which occupies the same volume as the material volume at
time 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜏𝜏. Because the control volume is fixed in space we can write

𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) 𝑑𝑑
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 , 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜏𝜏.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
ℳ(𝑡𝑡) 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉

Thus the first term in Reynolds’ transport theorem can be interpreted as the time rate of
change of the extensive property within a (stationary) control volume which occupies the
same space as the material volume at 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜏𝜏. The second term can be written

� 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜏𝜏.

𝐴𝐴ℳ (𝑡𝑡) 𝐴𝐴

The second term therefore corresponds to the net outflow of B across the surface, 𝐴𝐴, of the
fixed control volume. The quantity 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗 is called the convective flux of B and represents
the net-outflow of B per unit area at a point on the surface of the control volume.

Also, note that if we set b = 1, then B is equal to the mass of material in our material volume.
The conservation of mass principle states that for this case 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0. Therefore, setting b =
1 in eq. (1.5.A) yields

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 �

=0= � + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Because this equation must apply to any material volume (including an infinitesimally small
material volume) we obtain the conservation of mass equation.

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 �
+ =0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
1.4.4 Conservation of linear momentum.

You will have encountered Newton’s second law applied to a small solid particle in high
school physics. This law states that the time rate of change of momentum of the particle is
equal to the net forces acting on the particle i.e.

𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖
= 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 is the particle’s momentum in the 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 -direction and 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 is the net force acting on the
small particle in the same direction. The momentum of the small solid particle in linear
motion (not rotating) is equal to its mass × its velocity in the xi direction. i.e. 𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 .

One can also apply Newton’s second law to a material volume, ℳ, of fluid. In this case, our
extensive property, 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 , and the corresponding specific intensive property is the fluid
velocity i.e. 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 and

𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Note that if the fluid velocity, 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 , is constant within our material volume then 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 can be taken
outside the integral and the integral evaluated to give 𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 = 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 where 𝑚𝑚 is the mass of fluid
within our material volume. Thus, as expected, the momentum of a material element of fluid
which has constant velocity is equivalent to that of a solid particle in linear motion with the
same mass and velocity.

For convenience, we will also consider a material volume which is in the shape of a cuboid at
time 𝑡𝑡 as shown in figure C below.

𝑥𝑥3
𝑥𝑥2
𝑥𝑥1
Figure 1.4.C. A material volume which, rather conveniently, is in the shape of a cuboid at
time t.

The statement of Newton’s law for this material volume is thus

𝑑𝑑
� 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
ℳ

The left-hand side of this equation can be expanded using the equation derived in the
previous lecture (with 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 ).

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 ) 𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 �

� 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
ℳ(𝑡𝑡) ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Our next task is to determine the right-hand side of our equation which corresponds to the
total force acting on our element. The total force acting in the 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 -direction is the sum of a
body force, 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 , which acts on the entire fluid within ℳ and a surface force, 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 , which acts
only on the surfaces of the element i.e.

𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 = 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 + 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 .

The only body force which we will consider in this course is that due to gravity which is
equal to

𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝜌𝜌(𝐱𝐱, 𝑡𝑡)𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Note that in this module we will assume that 𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 is a constant.

The component of the total surface force acting on our element in the 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 -direction is
determined by integrating the components of the stress tensor, 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑥𝑥3 , 𝑡𝑡), which act in
the 𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 -direction over all six faces of the element. The stresses acting on our material volume
at time 𝑡𝑡 are shown in figure D below.

𝜎𝜎33
𝜎𝜎31
𝜎𝜎32

𝜎𝜎22 𝜎𝜎13
𝜎𝜎12 𝜎𝜎21
𝜎𝜎11 𝜎𝜎11
𝜎𝜎23 𝜎𝜎12
𝜎𝜎23
𝜎𝜎13 𝜎𝜎21
𝜎𝜎22
𝜎𝜎32
𝜎𝜎31

𝜎𝜎33
 Figure 1.4.D stresses acting on a fluid element.

For starters let’s consider only the components of stress acting on the left-hand and right-
hand faces of our element. The net force acting in the 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 -direction on the left-hand face
(which has an outward unit normal aligned opposite, but parallel, with the 𝑥𝑥1 -axis) is given
by
𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2

� � −𝜎𝜎1𝑖𝑖 (0, 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑥𝑥3 , 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 ,

0 0

while the force acting on the right-hand face (which has an outward unit normal aligned with
the 𝑥𝑥1 -axis) is given by
𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2

� � 𝜎𝜎1𝑖𝑖 (𝐿𝐿1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑥𝑥3 , 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 .

0 0

The net force acting on the left and right surfaces of the element is thus equal to
𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1𝑖𝑖
� � 𝜎𝜎1𝑖𝑖 (𝐿𝐿1 , 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑥𝑥3 , 𝑡𝑡)−𝜎𝜎1𝑖𝑖 (0, 𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑥𝑥3 , 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 = � � � (𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 .
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0

Similarly, the net force acting in the 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 direction on the front and back surfaces (which have
unit normal parallel to the 𝑥𝑥2 -axis) evaluate as
𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2𝑖𝑖
��� (𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3 ,
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 1 2 3
0 0 0

while the net force acting in the 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 direction on the top and bottom surfaces (which have unit
normal parallel to the 𝑥𝑥3 -axis) evaluate as
𝐿𝐿3 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿1
𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎3𝑖𝑖
��� (𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑥𝑥 , 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥3
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3 1 2 3
0 0 0

Thus the total force acting on the surface of the material volume at time t are equal to

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �since 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝜎𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 �
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
ℳ(𝑡𝑡) ℳ(𝑡𝑡)
Note that we could have determined this expression using the divergence theorem.

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = � 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
𝐴𝐴ℳ (𝑡𝑡) ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Thus, equating the expression for the time derivative of momentum of our material volume
with the net forces acting on the material volume yields the following expression

𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 ) 𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

� + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
ℳ(𝑡𝑡) ℳ(𝑡𝑡)

Because this equation must be valid for any sized material volume, the integrand must be
equal to zero i.e. our conservation of momentum equation can be written as follows

𝜕𝜕(𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 ) 𝜕𝜕�𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 � 𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

+ = + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

This equation is commonly referred to as the Navier-Stokes equation (or really the 𝑖𝑖 th
component of the Navier-Stokes equations).

1.4.5 The Navier-Stokes equations and simple solutions

You will recall that the stress tensor, 𝛔𝛔, is defined by the following expression

2
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = − �𝑝𝑝 + 𝜇𝜇𝑆𝑆𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 � 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 + 2𝜇𝜇𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ,
3
where 𝐒𝐒 is the rate of strain tensor which is defined by

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑗𝑗
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = � + �.
2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖

Substituting the expression for 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 into the expression for 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 yields

2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑗𝑗

𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = − �𝑝𝑝 + 𝜇𝜇 � 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝜇𝜇 � + �.
3 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖

Solving the full Navier-Stokes equations is exceedingly difficult (there are in fact only a
handful of known exact solutions). Thus, for almost all engineering applications we need to
make appropriate assumptions in order to simplify the Navier-Stokes equations to yield an
equation which we can solve.

In Question 1.4.4 you are asked to show that a simplified version of the Navier-Stokes
equations for an incompressible flow with constant viscosity is:
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕2 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖
+ 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖 = − 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 + 𝜈𝜈 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 + 𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 ,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑗𝑗 𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
and in Question 1.4.5 you are asked to apply this equation to flow between two infinite flat-
plates (plane Couette flow).

You should study both of these questions carefully.

Questions

1.4.1. The velocity and density of a fluid are given by the following expressions

𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥1
𝑢𝑢1 = , 𝑢𝑢2 = 0, 𝑢𝑢3 = 0, 𝜌𝜌 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 exp �− �
𝑡𝑡 𝐿𝐿
where L and K are constants (which have units of m and kg.m-3.s-1 respectively). Does this
flow satisfy the conservation of mass equation? Is this flow incompressible? Make sure you
explain your answer.

1.4.2. A plane incompressible flow has velocity components

𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2
𝑢𝑢1 = , 𝑢𝑢2 = − , 𝑢𝑢3 = 0,
𝜏𝜏 𝜏𝜏
where 𝜏𝜏 is a constant having the dimension of time. Does this flow satisfy the conservation of
mass equation?

1.4.3. Making use of the chain rule and the conservation of mass equation, simplify derive the
following alternative form of the Navier-Stokes equation

𝐷𝐷𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝜌𝜌 = + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 .
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

Note that this equation can be interpreted as follows

𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎
Mass per unit volume (𝜌𝜌) × acceleration (𝐷𝐷𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 /𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷) = Force per unit volume ( 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 ).
𝑗𝑗

1.4.4. Derive a simplified version of the Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible flow
with constant viscosity.

Partial Solution:

Start with

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑗𝑗

𝜌𝜌 + 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 =− 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − � 𝜇𝜇 � 𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + �𝜇𝜇 + 𝜇𝜇 � + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 3 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖

For an incompressible flow, we know that

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕3

= + + = 0.
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥3

Assuming that viscosity, 𝜇𝜇, is constant we can move it outside the derivatives. Also,
 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖
𝛿𝛿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = , 𝜇𝜇 � + � = 𝜇𝜇 + 0.
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

Thus, the incompressible form of the Navier-Stokes equation is given by

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖

𝜌𝜌 + 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 =− + 𝜇𝜇 + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

Dividing through by 𝜌𝜌 (and noting that 𝜇𝜇 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) yields

𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖

+ 𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 =− + 𝜈𝜈 + 𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 .
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗

1.4.5. Flow between two infinite flat-plates (plane Couette flow)

Consider a fluid which flows between two flat-plates. The lower plate occupies the plane
defined by 𝑥𝑥2 = 0, while the second occupies that defined by 𝑥𝑥2 = ℎ . The top plate is
moving at Vm.s-1 in the 𝑥𝑥1 -direction. Determine the velocity profile assuming the flow is
incompressible, steady and the pressure gradient is zero. Also, you may assume that the only
non-zero component of velocity is 𝑢𝑢1 which is only a function of 𝑥𝑥2 . Calculate the shear
stress acting on the upper and lower plates.

𝑢𝑢1 (ℎ) = 𝑉𝑉

𝑥𝑥2
𝑢𝑢1 (𝑥𝑥2 )

𝑥𝑥1

Partial Solution

The 𝑖𝑖 = 1 component of the Navier-Stokes equation simplifies to

𝑑𝑑2 𝑢𝑢1
0 = 𝜈𝜈 .
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥22

Note that the partial derivative has changed to a total derivative because 𝑢𝑢1 depends only on
𝑥𝑥2 . Integrating twice with respect to 𝑥𝑥2 yields

𝑢𝑢1 (𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐2 .

The constants of integration (𝑐𝑐1 and 𝑐𝑐2 ) may be determined by applying the no-slip boundary
condition at the lower and upper flat plate surface i.e.
 𝑢𝑢1 (0) = 0, 𝑢𝑢1 (ℎ) = 𝑉𝑉.

This yields the following expression for the velocity profile between the two flat plates.
𝑥𝑥2
𝑢𝑢1 (𝑥𝑥2 ) = 𝑉𝑉
ℎ
The shear stress, 𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 , acting on the upper plate is equal and opposite to the shear stress acting
on the fluid at y = h.

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉
𝜏𝜏𝑤𝑤 = −𝜏𝜏12 = −𝜇𝜇 � + � = −𝜇𝜇
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥2 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2 =ℎ ℎ

An equal and opposite shear stress acts on the lower plate. Note that the shear stress is
constant in the flow field.