MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE
FIELD OF ORGANIZATION
BEHAVIOR
BY: PHILIP HENRY F. CONTAOI, MBA
Meaning of Human Behavior
 Human Behavior refers to the full
range of physical and emotional
behaviors that humans engage in,
biologically, socially, intellectually,
etc. and are influenced by culture,
attitudes, emotions, values, ethics,
authority, rapport, persuasion,
coercion and/or genetics.
 The capacity of mental, physical,
emotional, and social activities
experienced during the five stages
of a human being’s life – prenatal,
infancy, childhood, adolescence,
and adulthood. Includes the
behaviors as dictated by culture,
society, values, morals, ethics,
and genetics.
Meaning of Human Behavior
A study on human behavior has
revealed that 90% of the population can
be classified into four basic
personality types:
 Optimistic
 Pessimistic
 Trusting
 Envious
Organizational Behavior
 Organizational behavior is the
study of individuals and groups
within an organizational context,
and the study of internal
processes and practices as they
influence the effectiveness of
individuals, teams, and
organizations.
 Organizational Behavior is the
understanding, prediction, and
management of human behavior
in the organization (Luthans, e-b)
 Organizational Behavior is the
study of human behavior in
organizational settings, of the
interface between human behavior
and the organization, and the
organization itself.
 Organizational Behavior is the
study of what people think, feel,
and do in and around
organization.
What is an Organization?
 Organization is a group of people
who work interdependently toward
some purpose.
 Organization is a collection of
people working together to
achieve a common purpose.
 Organizations consist of people
who communicate, coordinate,
and collaborate with each other to
achieve common objectives.
(MCS)
TWO (2) Key Feature of Organization
1. It is a collective entity. It consists
of human beings (not necessarily
Employees) and these people
interact with each other in an
organized way.
 This organizational relationship
requires minimal level of the 3 C’s
to achieve a common goal.
 The organizational members have
degrees of interdependence from
each other.
  They accomplish goals by sharing
materials, information, or expertise
with co-workers.
Individual vs. Organizational Goals
1. The goals that individuals are
trying to accomplish as members
of an organization are:

2. The members have a collective

sense of purpose.

 Earning a lot of money

 An organization without a goal and  Helping promote a worthy cause
purpose will consist of a mass of  Achieving certain levels of
people wandering around personal power and prestige
aimlessly without any sense of  Enjoying a satisfying work
direction. experience, and so forth.
 So, whatever people are doing in
an organization, they have some
sense of collective purpose. 2. The goals that organization as a
whole is trying to accomplish are:

 Providing innovative goods and

The Emphasis of Organizational services that customers want
Behavior  getting candidates elected
 raising money for medical
 OB’s focus is on employee research
behavior, decisions, perceptions,  making a profit to reward
and emotional responses. stockholders, managers, and
employees
 OB looks at how individuals and  being socially responsible and
teams in organizations relate to protecting the natural
each other and to their environment.
counterparts in other
organizations.
At individual level, objectives are
of two types: one, performance of
 OB also encompasses the study individuals which leads to attainment of
of how organizations interact with overall goals and two, personal
the external environments, objectives of individuals.
particularly in the context of Individual goals should be
employee behavior and decisions. consistent with organizational goals.
Organizational and individual goals
 OB researchers systematically should be in complete harmony with
study these topics at multiple each other.
levels of analysis, namely, the
individual, team (including
interpersonal), and organization.
Essence of Organizations
The Emphasis of Organizational
Behavior.  Organizations exist to provide
goods and services that people
want, and the amount and quality
of these goods and services are
 products of the behaviors and
performance of an organization’s
employees-of its managers, of
highly skilled employees in sales
or research and development, and
of the employees who actually
produce or provide the goods and
services.
 Today, most people make their
living by working in or for some
kind of company or organization.
People such as a company’s
owners or managers or company
employees who desire to become
future owners or managers-all
benefit from studying
organizational behavior.
Essence of Organizations
 People who seek to help or
volunteer their time to work in
nonprofit or charitable
organizations also must learn the
principles of organizational
behavior.
 Like most employees today,
volunteers attend training courses
that help them understand the
many kinds of issues and
challenges that arise when people
work together and cooperate in a
company or organization to benefit
others, such as when they seek to
aid ill. Distressed, or homeless
people, or managers – all benefit
from studying organizational
behavior.
Reasons and Methods of Studying
Human Behavior in organization.
 Understanding how people
behave in organizations is
important because they are
affected-positively and negatively-
by their experiences in it.
 An understanding of OB can help
people to enhance the positive,
while reducing the negative,
effects of working in organizations.
 Most people think they have
intuitive, commonsense
understanding of human behavior
in organization because we are all
humans and have been exposed
to organizations.
 The study of OB provides
guidelines that help people at work
to understand and appreciate
the many forces that affect
behavior in organizations.
 It allows employees at all levels in
an organization to make the right
decisions about how to behave
and work with other people in
order to achieve organizational
goals.
 OB replaces intuition and gut-
feeling with a well-researched
body of theories and systematic
guidelines for managing behavior
in organizations.
Methods in Studying Organizational
Behavior or Human Behavior
1. Experiment
2. Surveys
3. Case Method
4. Observation
5. Interview
6. Interview Questionnaire
7. Check List
8. Scales Psychological Tests
9. Statistics
History of Organizational Behavior
Research
 Began in the closing decades of
19th Century after the industrial
revolution swept across Europe
and America.
  As a result there were many
changes taking place in the
economic, technical and cultural
areas.
 Taylor was a manufacturing
manager who eventually became
a consultant and taught other
managers how to apply his
scientific management techniques.

 Focus of managers – political,

educational, and economic-shifted
to finding better ways to satisfy
customers.
MODULE 2:

The Historical, Theoretical and

Ethical Foundations of Organizational
 The manner in which goods were
Behavior
produced changed because of the
introduction of steam power and
intro of sophisticated machineries
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF O.B.
and equipment.
(ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR)
Ex: Weaving and clothing industries
(craft production).
What is Organizational Behavior?
Small workshops of skilled workers were
replaced by large factories with unskilled  Organizational behavior is the
or semi-skilled workers. study of both group and individual
performance and activity within an
organization. Internal and external
 Owners and managers, with only a perspectives are two theories of
technical orientation, were caught how organizational behavior can
unprepared to deal with the social be viewed by companies.
problem of people working in a big
group
 Managers began searching new  Organizational Studies,
techniques to manage human Organizational Behavior and
resources to increase efficiency of Organizational Theory is the
the employee-tax mix . systematic study and careful
application of knowledge about
how people - as individuals and as
Frederick Winslow Taylor and
groups- act within organizations.
Scientific Management

Historical Perspective of
 Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
Organisational Behaviour
is best known for defining the
techniques of scientific mgmt,  In 1776, Adam Smith advocated
systematic study of a new form of organisational
relationships between people structure based on the division of
and tasks for the purpose of labour.
redesigning the work process to  One hundred years later, German
increase efficiency. Sociologist Max Weber introduced
the concept about rational
 organisations and initiated the 3. Mary Parker Follett,
concept of charismatic leadership. 4. Frederick Herzberg
5. Abraham Mas low
6. David Mc Cellan
 Though the origin to the study of 7. Victor Vroom
Organisational Behaviour can
contributed to the growth of
trace its roots back to Max Weber
Organisational Behaviour as a
and earlier organisational studies,
discipline.
it is generally considered to have
begun as an academic discipline
with the advent of scientific
THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES
management in the 1890's, with
Taylorism representing the peak of
the movement.
The Hawthorne Experiments
 Thus, it was Fredrick Winslow
Taylor who introduced the  The experiments were carried out
systematic use of goal setting and between 1927 and 1933 at the
rewards to motivate employees Chicago Hawthorne plant of the
that could be considered as the Western Electric Company. Four
starting of the academic discipline studies were carried out namely:
of Organizational Behavior.
1. The illumination studies
2. The Relay Assembly Test Room
Historical Perspective of Studies
Organizational Behaviour 3. The interviewing Program
4. The Bank Wiring Room studies
 In 1920's Elton Mayo an
Australian born Harvard Professor
1. The illumination studies
and his colleagues conducted
productivity studies at Western
 These studies were expected to
Electric's Hawthorne Plant.
determine the relationship
 With this epoch making study the
between the level of illumination
focus of organisational studies
and worker's productivity.
shifted to analysis of how human
 It was expected that worker's
factors and psychology affected
productivity would increase with
organisations.
increasing levels of illumination
 The studies failed to prove any
 This shift of focus in the study of
relationship between worker's
organisations was called the
productivity and level of
Hawthorne Effect.
illumination.

 The Human Relations Movement

2. Relay assembly test room
focused on teams, motivation, and
studies.
the actualisation of goals of
individuals within organisations.
 These studies were carried out to
 Studies conducted by prominent
determine the relationship
scholars like :
between worker's productivity and
1. Chester Barnard,
improved benefits and working
2. Henri Fayol
conditions.
 Manipulated factors of production
to measure effect on output:
 Pay Incentives
 Length of Work Day & Work Week
 Use of Rest Periods
 Company Sponsored Meals
 The studies found out that there
was no cause - and - effect
relationship between working
conditions and output.
 Rather, there were other factors
that affected worker's output such
as his/her attitudes and supervisor
behavior.
3. Interview programmed
 A group of employees were
interviewed to learn more about
their opinions with respect to their
work, working conditions and
supervision. The workers
suggested that:
 Psychological factors help
determine whether a worker is
satisfied or dissatisfied in any
particular work situation
 The person's need for self-
actualization determines his/her
satisfaction in the work.
 A person's work group and his
relationship to it, also determines
his/her productivity.
 Behavior of managers and
workers in the work setting is as
important in explaining the level of
performance as the technical
aspects of the task.
4. Bank wiring room studies
 This study was expected to study
the effect of group influence on
workers productivity.
Few Special Conditions
 Segregated work area
 No Management Visits
 Supervision would remain the
same
 Observer would record data only-
no interaction with workers..
 New incentive pay rate was
established for the small group.
 Any increases in output would be
included in departmental pay
incentives
 The researchers found out that an
informal grouping and relationship
was a critical factor in the workers'
productivity.
 The informal group determined the
group's productivity, and
functioned as a protective
mechanism (served both for
internal and external purposes).
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR’S
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
 Cognitive Framework of
Organizational Behaviour
 Cognition means the mental action
or process of acquiring knowledge
and understanding through
thought, experience and the
sense.
 As per cognitive framework of
organizational behaviour, before
the behaviour of the person
cognition starts and giving input to
the thinking, perception and
problem solving of the person.
 This framework on the concept of  Sinner advocates that behaviour is
Expectancy, demand and intention not the outcome of stimulus alone,
of the human being. but it is an outcome which also
 According to Edward Tolman, depends on contingent
learning consists of the environmental consequence of a
expectancy that a particular event behaviour.
will lead to a particular
consequence.
 If we use this to represent  This means that a human can
cognitive framework it simply project different behaviour for the
means every individual set his same stimulus and he exhibit a
goal and he also know the response depending on
behavior will we take him to environmental consequence.
achieve goal.
 This cognitive framework is useful  Overall it can be said that
in analyzing perception, Behavioural framework is based
personality, motivation, decision on observable behaviour and
making of human in the observable environmental
organization. variables.

 Behaviouristic Framework of
Organizational Behaviour
 Social Cognitive Framework in
Organizational behaviour
 Pioneer behaviourist Ivan Pavlov
and John B. Watson insist that it
 The Social Cognitive Theory is a
is advisable and fruitful to the
framework which give a base to
study the behaviour of the human
understand the human behaviour.
being which is visible than
studying the mind is elusive in
 The Social cognitive framework
nature.
in organizational behaviour states
that the person and external
 The concept of behaviouristic
situations are interdependence
framework of organizational
with each other along with the
behaviour can be clearly
behaviour itself to determine the
explained with the help of stimulus
behaviour.
and respond.

 It means that along with cognitive

 Stimulus is the force of action or and external situation the
motivation and response is the experiences faced through
reaction or the behaviour. relevant past events determines
what a person becomes and this
 Further behaviourist B.F. will create an impact in
Skinner developed this concept subsequent behaviour.
by considering the environmental  The person and the environmental
consequences which leads to a situation do not function as
certain behaviour. independent units but, in
conjunction with behaviour itself,
 reciprocally interact to determine
behaviour.
 It means that cognitive variables
and environmental variables are
relevant, but the experiences
generated by previous behaviour
also partly determine what a
person becomes and can do,
which, in turn, affects
subsequently behaviour.
. productivity, and the bottom line of
BANDURA & STAJKOVIC/LUTHANS
 Bandura developed social
learning theory into the more
comprehensive social cognitive
theory (SkCT).
 Stajkovic and Luthans have
translated this SCT into theoretical
framework for organizational
behaviour.
Bandura identified 5 basic human
capabilities as a part of SCT
1. Symbolizing: People process visual
experiences into cognitive models. They
help in future action.
2. Forethought: Employees plan their
action.
3. Observational: Employees learn by
observing the performance of the
referent groups (peers, supervisors, and
high performers) and the consequence
of their action.
4. Self Regulatory: Employees self
regulate their actions by setting internal
standards (aspired level of
performance).
5. Self-reflective: Employees reflect
back on their actions (how did I do?)
and perceptually determine how they
believe then can successfully
accomplish the task in the future given
the context (probability of success
between 0 to 100% is estimated).
IMPLICATIONS AND IMPACTS OF
ETHICS IN ORGANIZATION
 An organization's ethical
philosophy can affect the
organization in many ways
including its reputation,
the organization.
 Ethics within an organization can
offer many benefits. A positive
ethical corporate culture improves
the morale among the workers in
an organization, which could
increase productivity, employee
retention and loyalty.
 Higher productivity improves the
efficiency of the organizations and
increased employee retention
reduces the cost of replacing
employees.
 Other essential benefits of an
ethical culture include better
internal communication and wider
community development through
corporate social responsibility.
 Organizations that lack ethical
practices as a mandatory basis of
their business structure and
corporate culture, have commonly
been found to fail due to the
absence of business ethics.
 Corporate downfalls would
include, but are not limited to, the
recent Enron and WorldCom
scandals, two primary examples of
unethical business practices
concerning questionable
accounting transactions.
 Organizations focusing on
encouraging ethical practices are
commonly viewed with respect by
 their employees, the community,
and corresponding industries.
 Ethical business practices of
organizations have resulted in a
solid financial bottom-line. This
has been seen through greater
sales and increased revenue by
companies retaining talented
personnel and attracting new
skilled employees.
 More importantly, an ethical
organization will have the ability to
retain employees that are
experienced and knowledgeable
(generally referred to as human
capital).
 This human capital results in less
employee turnover, less training
time for new employees, and
greater output regarding services
(or production of goods).
MODULE 3: The Changing
Environment of Organizations
By: Philip Henry F. Contaoi, MBA
Effects of Globalization in the
Behavior of People in the
Organizational Setting
 Globalization is the process in
which people, ideas and goods
spread throughout the world,
spurring more interaction and
integration between the world's
cultures, governments and
economies
 Globalization is the spread of
products, technology, information,
and jobs across national borders
and cultures. In economic terms, it
describes an interdependence of
nations around the globe fostered
through free trade.
 Globalization leads to increased
competition. This competition can
be related to product and service
cost and price, target market,
technological adaptation, quick
response, quick production by
companies etc. When a company
produces with less cost and sells
cheaper, it is able to increase its
market share.
Globalization and Changes in Wages
 When companies expand
overseas to countries with a lower
standard of living, they gain
access to products and services at
a much lower cost. Because of
this, an increasing number of
companies outsource. Although
good for businesses, this can
result in lower wages for workers.
Effects of Diversity in the Behavior of
People in the Organizational Setting
 It means understanding that each
individual is unique, and
recognizing our individual
differences. These can be along
the dimensions of race, ethnicity,
gender, sexual orientation, socio-
economic status, age, physical
abilities, religious beliefs, political
beliefs, or other ideologies.
 Diversity in the workplace makes
teams perform more creatively
and innovatively than teams with
similar backgrounds. When people
react and think differently,
approach challenges and solve
problems differently, it can mean
that customers receive a better
level of service and teams achieve
their goals.
There are some very positive benefits
that can be hard from having a more
diverse workforce. Let's discuss eight
(8) amazing benefits to individuals
and employing companies;
1. Increased productivity
2. Improved creativity
3. Increased profits
4. Improved employee engagement
5. Reduced employee turnover
6. Improved company reputation
7. Wider range of skills
8. Improves cultural insights
Effects of Technology in the Behavior
of People in the Organizational
Setting
 Technology in the workplace has
helped workers become more
efficient than ever before.
 Technology can help your
business grow from a small,
homegrown company to a large
corporation. However, technology
has a more immediate impact on
your employees. Regardless of
where you implement new
technology in your organization,
employees throughout your
company will be directly affected
in plenty of positive ways.
EFFICIENCY
 Technology can improve the way
your employees do their jobs,
making them more efficient and
free from the burden of tedious,
repetitive tasks. Technology
simplifies many job functions,
which in turn strengthens
performance and improves job
satisfaction.
COMMUNICATION
 Remote employees benefit from
communication technology. With
VOIP (Voice Over Internet
Protocol), employees who
telecommute don't need to rely on
their cell phones since the same
type of multi-line office phone can
be connected to an ethernet cord
in a home office mirroring the
typical office setting, assuring
remote employees they're part of a
team.
 Strictly using technology for all
workplace communication can be
problematic if employees begin to
avoid in-person or face-to-face
interactions. All workplace
conversations should not be
conducted electronically,
especially for sensitive topics,
such as performance evaluations
and disciplinary actions.
TRAINING
 Technology can dramatically
change the landscape for training
within your organization, for new
technology itself or ongoing
professional training and personal
development.
Effects of Corporate Governance in
the Behavior of People in the
Organizational Setting
 Corporate governance is the
system used to direct and control
organizations. One of the many
important roles played by
corporate boards and executive
committees is to establish and
enforce policies deemed
 necessary for the effective
operation of the company. •
 These may include codes of
ethical conduct towards
customers, vendors, employees
and shareholders, input into the
organization's structure, as well as
approval of functional positions
and responsibilities.
Establishing Corporate Strategy
 An organization's corporate board
must be intimately involved with
establishing a clear definition for
the organization's purpose and
desired outcomes.
 If a company sets the goal to
become the global leader in
telecom technology for the military
market, for instance, then
corporate objectives, strategic
plans, financial allocations and
measurable outcomes should all
be measured against their ability
to move the company toward that
goal.
Effects of Corporate Governance in
the Behavior of People in the
Organizational Setting
5 Common Issues that Arise in
Corporate Governance
1. Conflicts of Interest
2. Oversight Issues
3. Accountability Issues
4. Transparency
5. Ethics Violation
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
 Avoiding conflicts of interest is
vital. A conflict of interest within
the framework of corporate
governance occurs when an
officer or other controlling member
of a corporation has other financial
interests that directly conflict with
the objectives of the corporation.
OVERSIGHT ISSUES
 Effective corporate governance
requires the board of directors to
have substantial oversight of the
company's procedures and
practices. Oversight is a broad
term that encompasses the
executive staff reporting to the
board and the board's awareness
of the daily operations of the
company and the way in which its
objectives are being achieved.
ACCOUNTABILITY ISSUES
 Accountability is necessary for
effective corporate governance.
From the top-level executives to
lower-tier employees, each level
and division of the corporation
should report and be accountable
to another as a system of checks
and balances.
TRANSPARENCY
 To be transparent, a corporation
must accurately report their profits
and losses and make those
figures available to those who
invest in their company.
 Overinflating profits or minimizing
losses can seriously damage the
company's relationship with
stockholders in that they are
enticed to invest under false
pretenses.
ETHICS VIOLATIONS
 Members of the executive board
have an ethical duty to make
decisions based on the best
 interests of the stockholders.
Further, a corporation has an
ethical duty to protect the social
welfare of others, including the
greater community in which they
operate.
Effects of New Employment
Relationships in the Behavior of
People in the Organizational Setting
 The term 'employee relations'
refers to a company's efforts to
manage relationships between
employers and employees. An
organization with a good
employee relations program
provides fair and consistent
treatment to all employees so they
will be committed to their jobs and
loyal to the company. Such
programs also aim to prevent and
resolve problems arising from
situations at work.
 One of the most effective ways for
a company to ensure good
employee relations is to adopt a
human resource strategy that
places a high value on employees
as stakeholders in the business.
 Stakeholders are people who are
committed, financially or
otherwise, to a company and are
affected by its success or failure.
When employees are treated as
more than just paid laborers, but
as actual stakeholders with the
power to affect outcomes, they
feel more valued for the job they
do.
 An effective employee relations
program starts with clearly written
policies. Employee relations
policies describe the company's
philosophy, rules, and procedures
for addressing employee-related
matters and resolving problems in
the workplace.
Communication
 Perhaps the most important
element for successful
relationships with employees is
communication. To feel engaged
in the business, employees need
to be informed of what's going on
with the company, including
management's plans and how
those plans may affect their jobs.
 Challenges Facing the
Employment Relationship in
Future Organizations addresses
the issues of change within
employee relationships resulting
from the impact of factors such as:
* international competitive
pressures. * technological change.
changing individual expectations
and behaviours.
 Poor communication is one of
the main causes of conflict
between employees in the
workplace. This can result in a
difference in communication styles
or a failure to communicate. For
example, a manager reassigned
an employee's task to the
employee's co-worker but failed to
communicate the reassignment to
the employee.
Impact of High Performance
Practices in the Organization
 High-performance work practices
(HPWPs) can be defined as
practices that have been shown to
 improve an organization's capacity
to effectively attract, select, hire,
develop, and retain high-
performing personnel.
Impact of E-Learning in the
Organization
 E-learning materials are stored
online, so employees can access
importantresources any time they
encounter a question or difficult
situation.... E-learninghelps
companies create a higher quality,
more effective training experience
for employees, at a more
affordable cost.
Why E-learning is important?
 With e-learning, each time the
course is accessed your return on
investment improves because you
are dividing the fixed production
costs by number of uses. You also
have savings through decreased
travel, reduced material, and
hopefully improved (and more
efficient) performance.
MODULE 4:
THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE
ORGANIZATION
By, Philip henry F. Contaoi, MBA
Foundation of Individual Behavior
Biographical Characteristics
 Personal characteristics - such
as age, gender, and marital
status-that are objective and easily
obtained from personnel records.
 Age: - Older workers bring
experience, judgment, a strong
work ethic, and commitment to
quality .
 Gender: - Few differences
between men and women that
affect job performance. Marital
status: - No enough research to
show the effect of marital status
on productivity - but there are
evidences that married people
have fever absences, undergo
less turnover and are more
satisfied with their jobs.
 Tenure:
 Tenure and job satisfaction are
positively related.
 Seniority and job productivity have
positive relationship
 Seniority is negatively related to
absenteeism.
 The longer a person stays in a job
is less likely to quit the job, has
more productivity, and more
satisfied.
 Race (the biological heritage used
to identify oneself):
 Contentious issue: differences
exist, but could be more culture-
based than race-based.
ABILITY
What is ability?
 An individual's capacity to perform
the various tasks in a job.
 Not all individuals are equal in
terms of abilities, each has
strength and weaknesses.
Types of Ability:
 Intellectual Ability
 Physical Ability
1. Intellectual Ability: (plays an
important role in complex jobs
demanding information process)
  -The abilities needed to perform
mental activities.
 -No correlation between
intelligence and job satisfaction
2. IQ (intelligence Quotient): tests
are designed to ascertain one's
general intellectual abilities.
Dimensions of Intellectual Ability
Induction:
1. Inductive argument is radically
different. There is no such
strength of relationship between
reasons and conclusions in
induction.
2. In induction you draw a conclusion
from one or more particular facts
or pieces of evidence. The
conclusion explains the facts and
the facts support the conclusion.

The seven most frequent cited

dimension making up intellectual Example: the company spent money on
abilities are: sales promotion but sales didn't
increase.
1. Number Aptitude
2. Verbal Comprehension Now we investigate this situation.
3. Perceptual Speed
1. Why didn't sales increase? Fact
4. Deductive Reasoning (explanation
2. The answer to this question can
in the next slides)
be many and each answer
5. Inductive Reasoning (explanation
(conclusion) in this case becomes
in the next slides)
a hypothesis which could either be
6. Spatial Visualization
true or false and which would
7. Memory
need further investigation.

Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
 Deduction: is a form of argument
We assume that:
that supports to be conclusive.
The conclusion must necessarily 1. The promotional campaign was
follow the reason given. poorly executed. (conclusion-1)
(hypothesis-1)
2. A strike by the employees of our
 Deductive Reasoning: trucking firm prevented stock from
Reasoning from the general to the arriving in time for promotion to be
particular or from cause to effect. effective. (Conclusion-2)
For instance: (hypothesis-2)
3. A strong rain closed all our
 All human beings are mortal. retailers locations in the region for
Premise 1 10 days during the promotion.
 Shah is human being, Premise 2 (conclusion-3) (Hypothesis-3)
 a Therefore shah is mortal.
Conclusion
What is Learning

• Learning: is any relatively permanent

change in behavior that occurs as a
Inductive Reasoning result of experience.
  All complex behaviors are learned
 To explain and predict behaviour
we need to understand how
people learn
one is watching are explained by
operant learning.
 People learn to behave to get
something they want or to avoid
something they do not want.

Learning
Behavior Modification (known as OB
 Involves change (could be good or
Mod)
bad)
 Is relatively permanent The application of reinforcement
 Is acquired through experience concepts to individuals in setting
(direct or indirect observation)

Follows the 5 step problem solving

Three Theories of Learning model:
1. Classical Conditioning 1. Identify critical behaviour
2. Develop baseline data
 This is a type of conditioning in
3. Identify behavioral consequence
which an individual responds to
4. Develop and implement an
some stimulus that would not
interview strategy
ordinarily produce such as
5. Evaluate performance
response. It is elicited in respose
improvement the working
to a specific identifiable event. It
can explain simple reflexive
behaviour.
Some Specific Organizational
Applications
2. Pavlov's Dog Drool concepts:

 Unconditioned stimulus: A • Well pay versus sick pay

naturally occurring phenomenon.
 -Reduces absenteeism by
 Unconditioned response: The
rewarding attendance, not
natural occurring response to a
absence
natural stimulus
 Conditioned stimulus: An • Employee Discipline
artificial stimulus introduced into
the situation  -The use of punishment can be
 Conditioned response: The counter-productive
response to the artificial stimulus.

• Developing Training Programs

3. Operant Conditioning: A type of  -OB MOD methods improve
conditioning in which desired voluntary training effectiveness
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a
punishment. • Self-management

 Emmitted & volunteer behaviour  -Reduces the need for external

such as choosing to arrive at work management control
on time, asking boss for
assistance or goof off when no Problems With OB MOD
  OB MOD ignores thoughts and
feelings
 OB MOD may not explain complex
behaviors that involve thinking and
feeling.
M.A.R.S. Model of Individual Behavior
and Performance
Motivation
 Motivation represents the forces
within a person that affects his or
her direction, intensity and
persistence of voluntary behavior.
Direction refers to the path along
which people engage their effort.
People have choices about where
they put their effort; they have a
sense of what they are trying to
achieve and at what level of
quality, quantity, and so forth. In
other words, motivation is goal-
directed, not random.
 People are motivated to arrive at
work on time, finish a project a few
hours early, or aim for many other
targets. The second element of
motivation, called intensity, is the
amount of effort allocated to the
goal. Intensity is all about how
much people push themselves to
complete a task. For example, two
employees might be motivated to
finish their project a few hours
early (direction), but only one of
them puts forth enough effort
(intensity) to achieve this goal.
M.A.R.S. Model of Individual Behavior
and Performance
MOTIVATION
 Finally, motivation involves varying
levels of persistence that is,
continuing the effort for a certain
amount of time. Employees
sustain their effort until they reach
their goal or give up beforehand.
Remember that motivation exists
within individuals; it is not their
actual behavior. Thus, direction,
intensity, and persistence are
cognitive (thoughts) and emotional
conditions that directly cause us to
move.
ABILITY
 Employee abilities also make a
difference in behavior and task
performance. Ability includes both
the natural aptitudes and the
learned capabilities required to
successfully complete a task.
 Aptitudes are the natural talents
that help employees learn specific
tasks more quickly and perform
them better. There are many
physical and mental aptitudes, and
our ability to acquire skills is
affected by these aptitudes.
 For example, finger dexterity is an
aptitude by which individuals learn
more quickly and potentially
achieve higher performance at
picking up and handling small
objects with their fingers.
 Employees with high finger
dexterity are not necessarily better
than others at first; rather, their
learning tends to be faster and
performance potential tends to be
higher.
ABILITY
 Learned capabilities are the skills
and knowledge that you currently
possess. These capabilities
include the physical and mental
skills and knowledge you have
acquired. Learned capabilities
tend to wane over time when not
in use.
 performance. Some situational
 Aptitudes and learned capabilities characteristics such as consumer
are closely related to preferences and economic
competencies, which has become conditions-originate from the
a frequently used term in external environment and,
business. Competencies are consequently, are beyond the
characteristics of a person that employee's and organization's
result in superior performance. control.
Many experts describe these  However, other situational factors
characteristics as personal traits such as time, people, budget, and
(i.e., knowledge, skills, aptitudes, physical work facilities are
personality, self-concept, values). controlled by people within the
organization. Therefore, corporate
 Others suggest that competencies leaders need to carefully arrange
represent actions produced by a these conditions so that
person's traits, such as serving employees can achieve their
customers, coping with heavy performance potential.
workloads, and providing creative
ideas. With either definition, the
challenge is to match a person's M.A.R.S. Model of Individual Behavior
competencies with the job's task and Performance
requirements. A good person-job
The four elements of the MARS model-
match not only produces higher
motivation, ability, role perceptions, and
performance; it also tends to
situational factors affect all voluntary
increase the employee's well-
workplace behaviors and their
being.
performance outcomes. These elements
are themselves influenced by other
individual differences.
Role Perceptions

 Role perceptions are the extent to

which people understand the job Self-Concept. The "I"
duties (roles) assigned to them or
expected of them. These  One's self-concept (also called
perceptions are critical because self-construction, self- identity,
they guide the employee's self-perspective or self-structure)
direction of effort and improve is a collection of beliefs about
coordination with co-workers, oneself. Generally, self-concept
suppliers, and other stakeholders. embodies the answer to "Who am
Unfortunately, many employees I?".
do not have clear role perceptions.  Self-concept is distinguishable
from self-awareness, which refers
to the extent to which self-
knowledge is defined, consistent,
and currently applicable to one's
Situational Factors attitudes and dispositions.
 Situational factors include  Self-concept also differs from
conditions beyond the employee's self-esteem: self-concept is a
immediate control that constrain or cognitive or descriptive component
facilitate behavior and of one's self (e.g. "I am a fast
runner"), while self-esteem is
 evaluative and opinionated (e.g. "I
feel good about being a fast
runner").
 Self-concept is made up of one's
self-schemas, and interacts with
self-esteem, self-knowledge, and
the social self to form the self as
whole. It includes the past,
present, and future selves, where
future selves (or possible selves)
represent individuals' ideas of
what they might become, what
they would like to become, or what
they are afraid of becoming.
Possible selves may function as
incentives for certain behaviour.
The perception people have about their
past or future selves relates to their
perception of their current selves. The
temporal self-appraisal theory argues
that people have a tendency to maintain
a positive self-evaluation by distancing
themselves from their negative self and
paying more attention to their positive
one. In addition, people have a
tendency to perceive the past self less
favourably (e.g. "I'm better than I used to
be") and the future self more positively
(e.g. "I will be better than I am now").
Self-Concept. The "I"
Self-Enhancement
 The self-enhancement motive is
the motive to improve the positivity
of one's self-concept, and to
protect the self from negative
information (we search for
positivity and avoid negativity).
This motive influences people's
self-evaluations.
 For instance, people process
information important to the self in
a selective manner, focusing on
information that has favourable
implications to the self and
discarding information with
unfavourable implications. People
also choose to compare
themselves socially to others so
as to be placed in a favourable
position. By doing this, people
seek to boost the (self-evaluated)
positivity of themselves or to
decrease its negativity, hence
increasing their levels of self-
esteem with the aim of having
others see them as more socially
desirable.
Self-Concept. The "I"
Self-Assessment
 The self-assessment motive is
based on the assumption that
people want to have an accurate
and objective evaluation of the
self. To achieve this goal, they
work so as to reduce any
uncertainty about their abilities or
personality traits, Feedback is
sought to increase the accuracy
and objectivity of previously
formed self-conceptions. This is
regardless of whether the new
information confirms or challenges
the previously existing self-
conceptions.
Self-Verification
 The self-verification motive
asserts that what motivates people
to engage in the self-evaluation
process is the desire to verify their
pre-existing self- conceptions,
maintaining consistency between
their previously formed self-
conceptions and any new
information that could be important
to the self (feedback) By doing
this, people get the sense of
 control and predictability in the
social world.
Social Identity and Self-Concept
 Social identity is a person's
sense of who they are based on
their group membership(s).
 Tajfel (1979) proposed that the
groups (e.g. social class, family,
football team etc.) which people
belonged to were an important
source of pride and self-esteem.
Groups give us a sense of social
identity: a sense of belonging to
the social world.
Social Identity and Self-Concept
 In order to increase our self-image
we enhance the status of the
group to which we belong. For
example, England is the best
country in the world! We can also
increase our self-image by
discriminating and holding
prejudice views against the out
group (the group we don't belong
to). For example, the Americans,
French etc. are a bunch of losers!
 Therefore, we divided the world
into "them" and "us" based
through a process of social
categorization (i.e. we put people
into social groups).
MODULE 6:
VALUES, ATTITUDES, MOODS, AND
EMOTIONS AND THEIR
IMPLICATIONS FOR
UNDERSTANDING
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Effects of Culture & Job Satisfaction
 Nature of work values: Your work
values are the subset of your
beliefs and ideas that are related
to your occupation or job. These
core principles are an important
part of who you are. They include
things like honesty, service, self-
respect, respect for others, peace,
and success. Therefore, you must
identify what work values you
cherish the most before you
choose a career or decide whether
to accept a job offer.
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Work
Values
We all have both intrinsic and extrinsic
work values.
 Intrinsic values have to do with
the actual tasks involved in
practicing a particular occupation
or doing a job. They include
helping others, doing challenging
work, and being an exemplary
leader
 Extrinsic values are concerned
with the by-products of an
occupation or job. In other words,
they refer to what you get out of
your work, rather than what you
put into it. Examples of extrinsic
values include high earnings,
recognition, and job security.
Effects of Culture & Job Satisfaction
Examples and Definitions of Work operation and you have no money.
Values Economic value persuades you to
don't sell the house until two
 Achievement: Doing work that
month later, but ethical values
yields results
force you to sell the house as
 Independence: Working and
soon as possible. What do you
making decisions on your own
choose avoiding selling the house
 Recognition: Receiving attention
or saving your father?
for your work
 Relationships: Working alongside
coworkers as well as helping
Why it is important to understand
others.
employees' Moods and Emotions?
 Support: Having supportive
management. Good decision-making can
 Working Conditions: Being in an therefore hinge on our mood and
environment that you're emotions in the moment Crucially, the
comfortable with emotional responses of staff across
 Autonomy: Receiving little or no each department can have a knock-on
supervision effect across the business. The mood of
 Helping Others: Providing staff members can affect morale and
assistance to individuals or groups lead to a more toxic or more productive
that you will remain employed. work environment
 Prestige: Having high standing
Your mood affects the quality of
 Job Security: Enjoying a high
your work and how many breaks you
probability
take. One study of customer service
reps found that a bad mood made
employees perform worse than those in
Effects of Culture & Job Satisfaction
a good mood, and made them likely to
Ethical Values Ethical values are the take more breaks throughout the day,
ones we make ethical choices based on lowering their total time working
them, or they are the kind of values that
have to do with being good or doing the
right thing. Why it is important to understand
employees' Moods and Emotions?
 There are many ethical values.
Justice, honesty, empathy,  Emotions are reciprocal with
compassion, respect and mood, temperament, personality,
responsibility are the most disposition, and motivation,
important ones Emotions can be influenced by
hormones and neurotransmitters,
Ethical Value
such as dopamine and seratonin.
 Ethical values have the most Dopamine can affect a person's
important role in our life. Imagine energy level and mood, while
you have a house and you know seratonin can affect critical-
that two month later, the value of thinking skills
your house will dramatically
increase and it will be the best  The skills involved in emotional
time to sell your house. But there intelligence are self-awareness,
is a problem. Your father is ill and self-regulation. motivation,
has to have an emergency empathy, and social
 skills....Embracing the nuances of
human emotion in the workplace
can have pragmatic benefits, such
as better collaboration among Hierarchy of needs
employees and a happier
 The theory suggests that human
workplace, according to Rex
needs form a five-level hierarchy
Huppke.
(Figure 1) consisting of
physiological needs, safety,
Filipino Values in the organizational belongingness/love, esteem, and
setting self-actualisation.
 -Professionalism: A norm conduct
wherein officers and employees
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
perform and discharge their duties
postulates that there are essential
to the highest degree of
needs that need to be met first (such as,
excellence, competence,
physiological needs and safety), before
intelligence and skills.
more complex needs can be met (such
 -Work behaviour
as, belonging and esteem).
 -Be careful with your appearance
 -Expand your knowledge
 -Be honest
 -Be friendly Theories of job satisfaction
 -Keep personal information to Motivator-Hygiene Theory
yourself
 Herzberg’s motivator - hygiene
theory suggests that job
Effects of Culture & Job Satisfaction satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
not two opposite ends of the same
Causes of job satisfaction continuum, but instead are two
separate and, at times, even
 Working Environment
unrelated concepts.
 Fair Policies and Practice.
 Motivating factors like pay and
 Caring Organization
benefits, recognition and
 Appreciation achievement need to be met in
 Pay order for an employee to be
 Age satisfied with work. On the other
 Promotion hand, hygiene factors (such as,
 Feel of Belongings working conditions, company
policies and structure, job security,
interaction with colleagues and
Theories of job satisfaction quality of management) are
associated with job dissatisfaction.
Job satisfaction theories have a
strong overlap with theories explaining
human motivation. The most common
Consequences of Job satisfaction
and prominent theories in this area
include Maslow's needs hierarchy  It increases efficiency and
theory, Herzberg's motivator-hygiene effectiveness at work.
theory, the Job Characteristics Model:  It helps to reduce employee s
and the dispositional approach. absenteeism.
  It promotes harmonious
employee’s relation It enhances
organization’s productivity and
employee’s satisfaction.
 It helps to decrease employee’s
turnover.
 It helps to improve the image of
the organization.
Organizational Commitment & Perception: In psychology and the
Organizational Citizenship
Affective commitment
 Affective commitment relates to
how much employees want to stay
at their organisation. If an
employee is affectively committed
to their organisation, it means that
they want to stay at their
organisation. They typically
identify with the organisational
goals, feel that they fit into the
organisation and are satisfied with
their work.
Continuance commitment
 Continuance commitment relates
to how much employees feel the
need to stay at their organisation.
In employees that are continuance
committed, the underlying reason
for their commitment lies in their
need to stay with the organisation.
 Possible reasons for needing to
stay with organisations vary, but
the main reasons relate to a lack
of work alternatives, and
remuneration.
 Organizational citizenship are
behaviour that deals with the
actions and behaviors that are not
required by workers.
MODULE 7: Perception, Attribution,
and the Management of Diversity
Nature of Perception
cognitive sciences, perception is the
process of getting, interpreting,
selecting, and organizing sensory
information. It includes the collection of
data from sense organs through to the
interpretation made by the brain. ...
Perception is a lot more than just
"information coming in". Perception
means perceiving, i.e., giving meaning
to the environment around us. It can be
defined as a process which involves
seeing, receiving, selecting, organising,
interpreting and giving meaning to the
environment.
Nature of perception
 (1)Perception is the intellectual
process.
 (2)Perception is the basic
cognitive or psychological
process.
 (3)Perception becomes a
subjective process and different
people may perceive the same
event
Characteristics of the Perceiver, the
Target, and Situation subjective
perception has a slightly different
meaning. It means every sensation that
you feel. ...
 Color is only one example of what
constitutes subjective perception.
All other senses and everything
that happens inside one's own
 mind constitute an individual's
subjective perception.
 Characteristics of the Perceiver
Several characteristics of the
perceiver can affect perception.
When an individual looks at a
target and attempts to interpret
what he or she, that interpretation
is heavily influenced by personal
characteristics of individual
perceiver. The major
characteristics of the perceiver
influencing perception are:
Attitudes Moods Motives Self-
Concept Interest Cognitive
Structure Expectations
Characteristics of the Target
 Characteristics in the target that is
being observed can affect what is
perceived. Physical appearance
plays a big role in our perception
of others. Extremely attractive or
unattractive individuals are more
likely to be noticed in a group than
ordinary liking individuals. Motion,
sound, size and other attributes of
a target shape the way we see it.
 Verbal communication from
targets also affects our perception
of them. We listen to the topics
they speak about, their voice tone,
and their accent and make
judgements based on this input.
 Non-verbal communication
conveys a great deal of
information about the target. The
perceiver deciphers eye contact,
facial expressions, body
movements, and posture all inan
attempt to form an impression of
the target.
 Objects that are close to each
other will tend to be perceived
together rather than separately.
Characteristics of the Situations
 The situation in which the
interaction between the perceiver
and the target takes place has an
influence on the perceiver's
impression of the target. For
example, a professor may not
notice his 20-year-old female
student in a bikini at the swimming
pool. Yet the professor will notice
the same girl if she comes to his
organizational behaviour class in
abikini. In the same way, meeting
a manager in his or her office
affects your impression in a
certain way that may contrast with
the impression you would form
had you met the manager in a
restaurant.
Biases and Problems in Person
Perception
Perception bias is the tendency to be
somewhat subjective about the
gathering and interpretation of
healthcare research and information.
There is evidence that although people
believe they are making impartial
judgements, in fact, they are influenced
by perception biases unconsciously.
Attribution Theory
 Attribution Theory attempts to
explain the world and to determine
the cause of an event or behaviour
 Attribution theory is important for
organizations because it can help
managers understand some of the
causes of employee behavior and
can assist employees in
understanding their thinking about
their own behaviors.
 The fundamental attribution error
is the tendency to attribute other
people's behavior to internal
factors such as personality
 traits ,abilities, and feelings. ...
When explaining their own
behavior , on the other hand ,
people tend to attribute it to
situational factors.
Effectively Managing a Diverse
Workforce
 Diversity management refers to
organizational actions that aim to
promote greater inclusion of
employees from different
backgrounds into an organization's
structure. Depending on a improve. In order to maximize the
company's goals and the industry
which it operates in, corporate
structure can differ significantly
between companies.
Why is it important?
Business Reputation Enhancement.
 Diversity in the workplace is vital
for employees because it
manifests itself in building a great
reputation for the company,
leading to increased profitability
and opportunities for workers.
Workplace diversity is important
within the organization as well as
outside.
MODULE 8: Learning and Creativity
The Nature of Learning and the
Different ways to Learn
 Learning is the process of
acquiring new, or modifying
existing, knowledge, behaviors,
skills, values, or preferences.
 Learning means the act, process,
or experience of gaining
knowledge or skill that brings
change in behavior resulted from
reinforced practice or experience.
 In general, the experts talk about
four different types of knowledge
that exist and grow within an
organization. They divide them up
into “communities” of learning.
Individual Group Organizational Inter-
organizational
Individual,
 When an individual worker learns
new skills or ideas, productivity
and performance generally
benefit of this individual learning to
the organization, the worker who
learns the new skill must share it
with coworkers. Otherwise, that
skill leaves with the worker.
Group
 Groups, or teams of employees,
can also learn new skills together.
When people spend the majority
of their time working on a team
with specific coworkers, those
teams tend to coordinate in such a
way that they learn as a group
Organizational Learning
 Organizational learning is the
organization’s process of gaining
knowledge related to its function
and using that knowledge to adapt
to a changing environment and
increase efficiency.
Inter-organizational Learning
 This is the broadest type of
organizational learning, and it’s
most common in franchises or
large businesses with multiple
locations. For example, a
franchise might learn how to
operate their store by studying the
franchise business model.
Reinforcement Reinforcement
 is a consequence applied that will
strengthen an organism's future
behavior whenever that behavior
is preceded by a specific
antecedent stimulus.
How to effectively use reinforcement
To reinforce successfully, you need to
define exactly what it is that constitutes
desirable behavior. You should then set
specific, measurable work goals with
each employee or with the entire team,
and then decide together, which
behaviors are most important for
achieving the results.
These guidelines will help make your
reinforcements most effective:
 •Be specific.
 •Give the employee concrete,
specific information about what
he/she did right.
 •Reinforce immediately.
 •Reward the employee as soon as
possible after his/her good
 behavior.
 •Be sincere.
 •Show genuine appreciation for
the employee’s achievement.
 •Reinforce often but unpredictably.
 •Regular reinforcement comes to
be expected and fails to motivate.
Frequent, but random,
reinforcement ismore effective.
 •Reward small increments of
improvement.
 •Most performance improvement
is gradual. Rewarding good effort
and small improvements will lead
to bigger improvements.
 •Give realistic reinforcement.
 •Rewards should be proportionate
to the importance of the behavior.
 •Personalize the reinforcement.
Extinction.
 When you remove something in
order to decrease a behavior, this
is called extinction. You are taking
something away so that a
response is decreased.
 In psychology, extinction refers to
the gradual weakening of a
conditioned response that results
in the behavior decreasing or
disappearing. In other words, the
conditioned behavior eventually
stops. ... Eventually, the response
becomes extinct, and your dog no
longer displays the behavior.

Importance of self-control and self-
efficacy
 Self control is defined as the
ability to manage your actions,
feelings and emotions. An
example of self control is when
you want the last cookie but you
use your willpower to avoid eating
it because you know it isn't good
for you.
 Self efficacy is commonly defined
as the belief in one's capabilities to
achieve a goal or an outcome.
Students with a strong sense of
efficacy are more likely to
challenge themselves with difficult
tasks and be intrinsically
motivated.
 While self-control refers to
intentional regulated actions in an
attempt to achieve future goals,
self-efficacy refers to individuals'
beliefs in their abilities to execute
actions successfully
Importance of self control for
students
 If students can maintain focus and
block out potentially exciting but
handicapping short-term
 distractions, they can benefit from searching for magic leaps of
sustained improvement in their understanding, your brain is using
knowledge. attention, reasoning, and planning
to gather information.
Importance of self efficacy for
students Stage 2: Incubation

 Self efficacy is commonly defined  "Then there is this important stage

as the belief in one's capabilities to
achieve a goal or an outcome.
Students with a strong sense of
efficacy are more likely to
challenge themselves with difficult
tasks and be intrinsically
motivated.
The Learnings Organization
where you let it go," Kaufman
explains, stressing that "it's really
important." This stage is the one
where you might actually want to
climb into the bathtub or go for a
walk and stop consciously thinking
about the problem you're trying to
solve. Research shows that letting
your mind wander in this way
leads to greater creativity.

Creativity is the intellectual ability to Stage 3: Illumination

make creations, inventions, and
 This is the scientific name for that
discoveries that brings novel relations,
classic "eureka!" moment when
entities, and/or unexpected solutions
"connections automatically,
into existence [Wang, 2009, 2013].
subconsciously collide and then
Creativity is a gifted ability of humans in
reach the threshold of
thinking, inference, problem solving, and
consciousness," says Kaufman's
product development.
words. "You're like 'oh my God!
The creative process can be divided That's the idea!'"
into 4 stages:

 preparation, Stage 4: Verification Laypeople

 incubation,
 illumination,
 verification.
In the first stage, your brain is gathering
information After all, creative ideas don't
come from a vacuum. In the second
stage, you let your mind wander and
stretch your ideas.
Stage 1: Preparation
 If you want your brain to come up
with innovative notions, you need
to feed it materials to work with.
This essential but under-
celebrated stage of the process is
simply called preparation and
involves trying to learn lots of
things. At this point, rather than
 may understand creativity as
pretty much ending with the
thrilling light-bulb moment of the
illumination stage, but Kaufman
insists that at that point "you're not
done." For creativity to reach
others and accomplish anything,
you need to once again use those
critical thinking skills to think about
your audience and craft your
message or idea. "Some of the
greatest creative ideas of all time
can easily be lost because they're
not packaged in the right way or
consumable," Kaufman warns.
Determinants of organizational creativity
According to Andriopoulos (2001),
there are five factors that have an
influence on both the individual’s and
the organization’s creative performance: while evaluation should be
the organizational climate, leadership supportive and informative.
style, organizational culture, resources
5. Leadership style:
and skills, and the structure and
systems of organization.  A democratic and participative
leadership style is known to boost
creativity. What’s more, constant
1. The organizational climate employee encouragement and
conveying vision from the highest
 is related to the atmosphere or
level to the lowest are also needed
feeling in the environment, where
for managing creative individuals.
expression, participation, and
In addition, leaders should be able
creativity can be boosted. To
to form effective work groups,
create this climate, interaction
which involves trusting individuals
barriers should be lowered, stimuli
from diverse backgrounds.
should be increased, experiment
should be encouraged, and
building on early ideas should be
MODULE 9: THE NATURE OF WORK
allowed.
MOTIVATION
2. The term “Organizational Culture”
Motivation
 refers to the deepest level of basic
 Motivation is the word derived
values, assumptions and beliefs in
from the word ’motive’ which
a group. Those values are shared
means needs, desires, wants or
by all its members and are shown
drives within the individuals. It is
by the rites, language used,
the process of stimulating people
stories, legends and myths shared
to actions to accomplish the goals.
by all members.
In the work goal context the
3. “Resources and Skills” psychological factors stimulating
the people’s behaviour can be :
 here emphasizes human
 •desire for money
resources. It is obvious that if
 •success
organizations want to keep
 •recognition
creative, they should hire people
 •job-satisfaction
who are creative in their thinking
 •team work, etc
processes. The managers of
organizations also have to offer
sufficient resources and training to NEED THEORY
boost creativity.
• Need for power People in this
4. “Structure and Systems” category enjoy work and place a high
value on discipline. The downside to this
 refers to both the formal and the
motivational type is that group goals can
informal processes within the
become zero-sum in nature, that is, for
company. The structure and
one person to win, another must lose.
systems truly enhance creativity
when the organization • Need for achievement They prefer
wholeheartedly gives its support. working on tasks of moderate difficulty,
To motivate creativity the structure prefer work in which the results are
of the organization should be flat based on their effort rather than on
to allow decisions at all levels,
anything else, and prefer to receive
feedback on their work.
Importance of Employee Motivation
• Mainly because it allows
management to meet the company's
goals. Without a motivated workplace,
companies could be placed in a very
risky position. Motivated employees can
lead to increased productivity and allow
an organisation to achieve higher levels
of output.
• Motivation in the workplace is
defined as the willingness to exert high
levels of effort toward organizational
goals conditioned by the effort's ability to
satisfy some individual needs
• Motivation is a powerful energy
that drives and excites employees,
which results in their maximum
contribution. Setting and achieving
goals, clear expectations, recognition,
feedback, as well as encouraging
management all contribute to an
increase in workplace motivation.
EXPECTANCY THEORY
Importance of expectancy
• Expectancy theory. Expectancy
theory (or expectancy theory of
motivation) proposes that an individual
will behave or act in a certain way
because they are motivated to select a
specific behavior over others due to
what they expect the result of that
selected behavior will be.
• Expectancy theory predicts that
employees in an organization will be
motivated when they believe that:
Putting in more effort will yield better job
performance. Better job performance
will lead to organizational rewards, such
as an increase in salary or benefits.
Importance of valence
• The valence of anything is the
emotional charge that we feel when we
think about it. This can be positive or
negative emotion, which indicates
positive valence or negative valence. It
is natural for us to want good things and
so we think more about them. The
reverse is generally true when we think
less of bad things.
• Valence is the importance that the
individual places upon the expected
outcome. For the valence to be positive,
the person must prefer attaining the
outcome to not attaining it. For example,
if someone is mainly motivated by
money, he or she might not value offers
of additional time off.
Instrumentality in work motivation
• Instrumentality is the belief that a
person will receive a desired outcome
(O) if the performance expectation is
met. This outcome may come in the
form of a pay increase, promotion,
recognition, or sense of
accomplishment. Instrumentality is low
when the outcome is the same for all
possible levels of performance
ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE
Importance of organizational justice
• Organizational Justice has been
seen as an important variable that plays
major role in improving the performance
of employees of an organization.
Because different studies have shown, if
employees are not treated fairly it
results in reduced output from the
employees as a natural response to the
unfair treatment.
• Organizational justice refers to
employee perceptions of fairness in the
workplace.
 purchasing, stores keeping and
accounting.
Importance of equity and the dangers
of inequity • It aims to standardize the
materials, tools, equipment and
Importance of equity
methods of work.
Equity in a workplace means everyone
• It offers facilities for specialization
receives fair treatment. There's a
and division of labour.
transparency to cause and effect, and
everyone knows what to expect in terms • It replaces the old system of
of consequences and rewards. When management rule of thumb method and
equity exists, people have equal access introduces new and scientific methods.
to opportunities. It sets up an
advantageous environment for both the
employees and the employer. A Disadvantages from Employers point of
workplace with fair treatment to their view:
employees can attract more talented
1. High Costs
employees and can have employee
retention or reducing of employee It is a costly affair. A thorough
turnover. overhauling of the existing plant and
organizational structure is highly
Dangers of inequity
expensive. Time and motion studies as
Inequity in the workplace leads to low well as other improvements involve a
motivation, reduced performance and a heavy initial outlay of capital.
tendency to withdraw from the
2. Unsuitable for Small Firms
workplace.
Since the introduction of Scientific
Example of inequity in the
Management involves huge
descrimination is gender discrimination.
expenditure, small firms cannot afford to
Because there is a negative impact on
adopt it.
one's happiness and health, sexual
harassment increases the chances of 3. Response from the workers
employee turnover. Women, more often
than men, leave high paying executive The system can be successfully
positions, citing lack of opportunities, implemented only with the heart felt co-
inflexible work hours and a lack of operation of the workers. If they fail to
female peers. respond favorably, the system shall fail
to bring the desired results.

WORK DESIGN
Disadvantages from Employees point
Advantage and Disadvantages of of view
Scientific Management of Work Design
Advantages: 1. Loss of Individual’s Initiative The
leading objection to Scientific
• It provides trained minds for Management that comes from workers
achieving higher degree of excellence in is that it leads to excessive job
all branches of shop management. standardization. Under Scientific
Management, methods of work are all
• It completely revolutionizes and
standardized and instructions are given
improves layout, routing, scheduling,
to the workers by the foreman.
2. Speeding up of Workers Scientific
Management aims to speed up the
workers, not consideration of their
health and well being.
3. Autocratic Control of Functional
Bosses Another severe objection raised
against the Scientific Management is
that it is undemocratic in nature as it
gives absolute control to the functional
bosses and lessens the interest and
responsibility of the workers.
4. Creation of Unemployment The critics
of scientific management also argue that
scientific management creates
unemployment and hits the workers
hard as a consequence of the adoption
of labour saving devices both in the
machinery and in the arrangement of
work.
5. Unfairness Another objection is that it
tends to be unfair to the workers. A
lion’s share of the additional profit
arising out of increased efficiency does
not go to the workers but goes to the
coffers of the employer
often recognized as a basis of
status, respect and power.
 Money is also a significant means
of getting a minimum standard of
living’ although this minimum has
the tendency to go up as people
become more affluent. Money will
not always be a motivating factor
to all people.
Money provides for the
satisfaction of physiological and security
and safety need only which have been
called hygienic factors by Herzberg
Hygienic factors include wages and
salaries and other fringe benefits. The
presence of these factors at a
satisfactory level prevents job
dissatisfaction. They do not provide on
the job satisfaction to the workers and,
therefore cannot be regarded as
motivational factors, Herzberg’s findings
are based on empirical research.
MODULE 10: PAY, CAREERS, AND
CHANGING EMPLOYMENT
RELATIONSHIPS

MANAGING REWARD SYSTEM

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACTS
Money plays an important role in
motivation. Managements make use of
financial incentives for example wages
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACTS ARE
and salaries, bonus, retirement benefits,
A SET OF “PROMISES’ OR
health insurance, medical
‘EXPECTATIONS’ THAT ARE
reimbursement, etc. to motivate
EXCHANGED BETWEEN THE
employees.
PARTIES IN AN EMPLOYMENT
 Money is a real motivating factor RELATIONSHIP. THESE PARTIES
when the psychological and INCLUDE EMPLOYERS, MANAGERS,
security needs of the employees INDIVIDUAL EMPLOYEES AND THEIR
have not been fully fulfilled. Money WORK COLLEAGUES. UNLIKE
plays an importance role in FORMAL CONTRACTS OF
satisfying these needs. Therefore, EMPLOYMENT, THEY ARE OFTEN
management can use financial TACIT OR IMPLICIT.
incentives for motivation.
 Money helps in satisfying the
social needs of the employees to TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL
some extent because money is CONTRACT
1. TRANSACTIONAL: OF THE SENIOR
 TRANSACTIONAL THE MANAGERIAL/SUPERVISORY
TRANSACTIONAL CONTRACT WORK IN THE ORGANISATION
IS PRESENT WHEN
EMPLOYMENT ARRANGEMENT
IS OF A SHORT-TERM OR 3. TRANSITIONAL:
LIMITED DURATION PRIMARILY
FOCUSED ON EXCHANGE OF
WORK IN LIEU OF MONEY WITH  TRANSITIONAL IT IS A
A SPECIFIC & DEFINITE COGNITIVE STATE WHICH
DESCRIPTION OF DUTIES & REFLECTS THE CHANGES IN
RESPONSIBILITIES AND ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT &
LIMITED INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHANGES
ORGANISATION THIS IS AND TRANSITIONS THAT ARE
PARTICULARLY TRUE FOR IN CONTRADICTION WITH A
EMPLOYEES HIRED ON PREVIOUSLY ESTABLISHED
SHORT-TERM CONTRACTS AS ARRANGEMENT OR
WELL AS WORKERS LOCATED PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT.
OFF-SITE THIS TYPE OF COGNITIVE
STATE IS APPARENT DURING
COMPANY MERGERS AND
ACQUISITION, DOWNSIZING AS
WELL AS RELATED STATE OF
UNCERTAINTIES IN WORK LIFE.

2. RELATIONAL:
4. BALANCED:
 BALANCED BALANCED
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT
 RELATIONAL THE RELATIONAL
REFERS TO: A DYNAMIC AND
CONTRACT RESULTS FROM
OPEN-ENDED EMPLOYMENT
LONG-TERM EMPLOYMENT
ENGAGEMENT PRE-
ARRANGEMENTS BASED UPON
CONDITIONED ON BUSINESS
MUTUAL TRUST AND LOYALTY
SUCCESS OF THE EMPLOYER
GROWTH IN CAREER AND
ORGANISATION EMPLOYEE
REMUNERATION COMES
HAS OPPORTUNITIES TO
MAINLY FROM SENIORITY
DEVELOP SKILL SETS AND
OTHER BENEFITS AND
OPPORTUNITIES FOR CAREER
REWARDS ARE ONLY LOOSELY
ADVANCEMENT BASED ON
RELATED TO WORK
SKILLS AND PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE THE
BOTH EMPLOYEE AND
CONTRACT IS DERIVED FROM
ORGANISATION CONTRIBUTE
LONG TERM MEMBERSHIP AND
TO EACH OTHER’S
PARTICIPATION IN THE
DEVELOPMENT REWARDS TO
ORGANISATION THIS TYPE OF
WORKERS ARE BASED UPON
CONTRACT IS VERY COMMON
PERFORMANCE AND
IN FAMILY RUN
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
ORGANISATIONS IN INDIA
ORGANISATION’S BUSINESS
WHERE TRUSTED AND LOYAL
SUCCESS OR COMPETITIVE
EMPLOYEES MANAGE MOST
ADVANTAGES, PARTICULARLY
 IN THE FACE OF CHANGING ORGANIZATIONS TO BE
BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT. CAUTIOUS ABOUT PROMISES
MADE TO POTENTIAL
EMPLOYEES.
EFFECT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL
CONTRACT BREACH
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

 EMPLOYEES WHO
EXPERIENCE PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE
CONTRACT BREACH ENGAGED APPRAISAL
IN WORKPLACE DEVIANT
BEHAVIOR, OR VOLUNTARY
BEHAVIOR THAT GO AGAINST • PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES PROVIDES IMPORTANT AND USEFUL
AND EXPECTATIONS. THIS IS INFORMATION FOR THE
ESPECIALLY TRUE FOR ASSESSMENT OF EMPLOYEE’S
INDIVIDUALS WHO VIEW THEIR SKILL, KNOWLEDGE, ABILITY AND
RELATIONSHIP TO THE OVERALL JOB PERFORMANCE.
ORGANIZATION AS MORE
• AN EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE
TRANSACTIONAL (ENTITLED
APPRAISAL CAN ACT AS
EMPLOYEES WHO FOCUS
MOTIVATION FOR AN EMPLOYEE TO
MORE ON THE BENEFITS THAT
IMPROVE HIS PRODUCTIVITY. WHEN
THEY GET FROM THE
EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP) AN EMPLOYEE SEES HIS GOALS
CLEARLY DEFINED, HIS
THAN RELATIONAL
PERFORMANCE CHALLENGES
(BENEVOLENT EMPLOYEES
IDENTIFIED AND CAREER
WHO GIVE MORE IMPORTANCE
DEVELOPMENT SOLUTIONS IN
TO THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH
PLACE TO HELP ADVANCE HIS
THE ORGANIZATION AND ITS
CAREER, THE EFFECT IS TO
MEMBERS).
MOTIVATE THE EMPLOYEE TO
ACHIEVE THOSE GOALS.
 ENTITLED INDIVIDUALS WHO
EXPERIENCE PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONTRACT BREACH HAVE THE
TENDENCY TO ‘EVEN THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
SCORE WITH THE BENEFIT THE COMPANY AS WELL
ORGANIZATION BY ENGAGING AS INDIVIDUAL EMPLOYEES. THEY
IN DEVIANT BEHAVIOR SUCH INCREASE RAPPORT BETWEEN
AS SLACKING-OFF, AND MANAGEMENT AND EMPLOYEES,
STARTING RUMORS AND INCREASE JOB SATISFACTION AND
CONFLICT THAT NEGATIVELY IMPROVE EMPLOYEES’ SENSE OF
AFFECT PRODUCTIVITY AND LOYALTY TOWARD THE
WELL-BEING OF THEIR CO- COMPANY…. ALL OF THESE LEAD
EMPLOYEES. TO HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY AMONG
EMPLOYEES, WHICH IMPROVES
ORGANIZATIONAL PRODUCTIVITY.
 TO AVOID PSYCHOLOGICAL
CONTRACT BREACH, IT IS
CRITICAL FOR THE MEANING OF MONEY
IMPORTANCE OF MERIT PAY

 A GOOD AND STABLE CAREER

OFFERS STABILITY AND PEACE
• MERIT PAY SYSTEMS ARE
OF MIND IN LIFE. BEING
DESIGNED TO MOTIVATE
ASSURED OF A STABLE
EMPLOYEES BY PROVIDING
INCOME STREAM, WE ARE
FINANCIAL REWARDS BASED ON
SPARED A LOT OF STRESS
EMPLOYEES’ PERSONAL
AND TENSIONS WHICH LIFE
ACHIEVEMENTS. IF AN EMPLOYEE
WITHOUT CAREER BRINGS IN
SUCCESSFULLY ATTAINS HER
ITS WAKE.
GOALS AND TARGETS SHE WILL
 GOOD CAREER MEANS WE
RECEIVE A BONUS PAYMENT OR A
CAN LIVE A REASONABLY
LARGER- THAN-AVERAGE SALARY
GOOD LIFE AND ACHIEVE
INCREASE.
MANY OF OUR DREAMS.
• BECAUSE MERIT PAY REWARDS HAVING LITTLE TENSIONS DUE
THE INDIVIDUAL FOR TO CAREER INSECURITY, WE
PERFORMANCE RATHER THAN THE CAN ALWAYS
PERFORMANCE OF A GROUP,  FOLLOW OUR HOBBIES AND
INDIVIDUAL WORKERS INTERESTS TO LEAD A MORE
UNDERSTAND THAT THEY’RE BEING FULFILLING LIFE.
TREATED AND COMPENSATED-
FAIRLY, ACCORDING TO THEIR
INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO
THE COMPANY, AND THEREFORE
TEND TO PUT FORTH MORE
EFFORT.

PAY AND EMPLOYMENT RELATION PAY AND EMPLOYMENT RELATION

IMPORTANCE OF CAREER IMPORTANCE OF CAREER

 GOOD CAREERS CAN HELP US

PROVIDE FINANCIAL SECURITY
 HAVING A REALISTIC CAREER
TO RAISE OUR FAMILY IN A
PLAN IN PLACE IS OFTEN AN
SECURE AND SAFE
ESSENTIAL PART OF OUR
ENVIRONMENT.
PERSONAL GROWTH AND
 IT GIVES A SENSE OF
DEVELOPMENT. WITHOUT
DIRECTION TO OUR LIFE BY
GOALS TO STRIVE FOR, MOST
GIVING LIFE A PURPOSE
PEOPLE FIND IT DIFFICULT TO
WORTH FULFILLING,
STRAY FROM THE EASY NORM
ACHIEVING CAREER GOALS
OR TO GAIN SKILLS WHICH
AND PROGRESSING IN
MAKE THEM A MORE
CAREER GIVES A SENSE OF
VALUABLE COMMODITY IN THE
SATISFACTION TO US.
BUSINESS WORLD.
 IT ALSO HELPS US ATTAIN
CERTAIN STATUS IN LIFE AND
SOCIETY. IT HELPS IN GETTING
HAVING CAREER IS VERY
SOCIETAL ACCEPTANCE AS
IMPORTANT IN LIFE DUE TO
PERSONS WITH GOOD
FOLLOWING REASONS:
 CAREERS ARE TREATED WITH
RESPECT.
 IT PROVIDES STRUCTURE TO
LIFE BECAUSE TO ACHIEVE
CAREER GOALS FOLLOW A
STRUCTURED AND
PREDICTABLE PATH.
CAREER
KEYS TO EFFECTIVE CAREER
MANAGEMENT IN THE NEW WORK
CONTRACT
CONTINUOUS LEARNING IS
CRITICAL.
THE LOVE OF LIFELONG LEARNING
IS MORE CRITICAL NOW THAN
EVER. LEARNING IN THE NEW
WORKPLACE IS INCREASINGLY THE
KEY TO CAREER VIABILITY, FOR
THE SHIFTS IN THE STRUCTURE
AND SHAPE OF JOBS WILL REQUIRE
YOU TO CULTIVATE NEW SKILLS
THROUGHOUT YOUR CAREER.
EMPLOYABILITY, DEFINED AS
“TAKING RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE
SHAPE AND MOTION OF YOUR OWN
CAREER,” IS THE NEW MANDATE IN
CAREER DEVELOPMENT. MORE
THAN EVER, YOU WILL NEED TO
TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FOR
CHOREOGRAPHING YOUR OWN
CAREER, INCLUDING LONG-TERM
CAREER TRAINING AND RE-
TRAINING, MANAGE YOUR CAREER
AS IF YOU WERE SELF-EMPLOYED.
WHILE EMPLOYERS NO LONGER
PROMISE JOB SECURITY, THEY DO
PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES AND
RESOURCES FOR YOU TO DEVELOP
NEW SKILLS IN ORDER TO KEEP
YOURSELF EMPLOYABLE
-(I.E. PROFESSIONAL
ASSOCIATIONS, CONFERENCES,
TRAINING IN TECHNOLOGY, ETC.).
• EXCEL IN YOUR PRESENT JOB. BE
PROACTIVE! ASK FOR FEEDBACK
ABOUT YOUR CURRENT SKILLS AND
HOW THEY FIT WITH THE FUTURE
DIRECTION OF THE ORGANIZATION,
ENGAGE YOUR SUPERVISOR IN
DISCUSSIONS ABOUT WHAT “NEXT
STEPS” MIGHT BE GOOD FOR YOU.
IT IS NOW MORE IMPERATIVE THAN
EVER NOT TO WAIT FOR YOUR
MANAGER TO OFFER TO ALTER
YOUR JOB DESCRIPTION, SUGGEST
THAT YOU UPGRADE PARTICULAR
SKILLS, OR ASSIGN YOU TO A NEW
PROJECT.
WITHIN YOUR ORGANIZATION, SEEK
PROJECTS AT THE CORE OF THE
INSTITUTION. LOOK FOR AREAS OF
YOUR OWN CAREER INTEREST
THAT ARE ALIGNED WITH THE
INSTITUTION’S PRIORITIES AND
EMERGING AREAS OF GROWTH.
• DEVELOP EFFECTIVE WORKING
RELATIONSHIPS, WORK WILL
INCREASINGLY BE DONE IN TEAMS.
IF YOU ARE IN MIDDLE
MANAGEMENT, PREPARE FOR
MORE COLLABORATING WITH
DIRECT REPORTS AS EQUALS IN
TEAMS. YOUR IDEAS WILL
INCREASINGLY BE JUDGED FOR
THEIR MERIT, RATHER THAN IN
STATUS AND DEFERENCE TO YOUR
POSITION.
• NETWORK WITH OTHER PEOPLE
WHOSE WORK IS RELATED TO
YOURS-ATTEND EVENTS,
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION
MEETINGS, CONFERENCES, AND
TRAINING BOTH TO LEARN AND TO
MEET PEOPLE. CONDUCT FOR MANAGING YOUR OWN
INFORMATION INTERVIEWS WITH CAREER.
PEOPLE IN OTHER UNITS,
ORGANIZATIONS, OR FIELDS TO
FIND OUT WHAT THEY DO. GOAL SETTING THEORY
• DEVELOP EXPERTISE IN YOUR  IN 1960’S, EDWIN LOCKE PUT
FIELD. DEFINE YOUR CAREER IN FORWARD THE GOAL-SETTING
TERMS OF YOUR CHOSEN FIELD, THEORY OF MOTIVATION. THIS
NOT ONLY IN TERMS OF YOUR THEORY STATES THAT GOAL
SPECIFIC EMPLOYER. READ ABOUT SETTING IS ESSENTIALLY
YOUR AREA OF EXPERTISE, TALK LINKED TO TASK
TO OTHERS IN YOUR FIELD- PERFORMANCE. IT STATES
STRETCH YOURSELF TO THAT SPECIFIC AND
ANTICIPATE THE FUTURE AND CHALLENGING GOALS ALONG
PLACE YOURSELF IN IT. WITH APPROPRIATE
FEEDBACK CONTRIBUTE TO
• FIND MENTORS. THIS PERSON
HIGHER AND BETTER TASK
MAY OR MAY NOT CURRENTLY
PERFORMANCE.
WORK IN YOUR ORGANIZATION,
BUT FREQUENTLY IT IS SOMEONE
WITH WHOM YOU HAVE WORKED
 IN SIMPLE WORDS, GOALS
BEFORE. PEOPLE WHO HAVE BEEN
INDICATE AND GIVE
MENTORED OFTEN SECURE MORE
DIRECTION TO AN EMPLOYEE
KEY ASSIGNMENTS, PROMOTIONS,
ABOUT WHAT NEEDS TO BE
AND BETTER SALARIES DURING
DONE AND HOW MUCH
THE COURSE OF THEIR CAREER. AS
EFFORTS ARE REQUIRED TO
THEY ACQUIRE EXPERIENCE, THEY
BE PUT IN.
ALSO TEND TO BECOME MENTORS
THEMSELVES.

MAINTAIN A “WHAT’S NEXT?”

PERSPECTIVE. COLLECT
MATERIALS ABOUT YOURSELF  GOAL SETTING THEORY HAS
CERTAIN EVENTUALITIES
COMMENDATIONS, EXAMPLES OF SUCH AS
YOUR WORK, IDEAS FOR
PROJECTS, AND KEEP THEM
ORGANIZED SO THAT YOU ARE  SELF-EFFICIENCY- SELF-
READY TO LET OTHERS KNOW OF EFFICIENCY IS THE
YOUR QUALIFICATIONS AND INDIVIDUAL’S SELF-
ACCOMPLISHMENTS SHOULD AN CONFIDENCE AND FAITH THAT
OPPORTUNITY ARISE. HE HAS POTENTIAL OF
• RE-EXAMINE YOUR GOALS. PERFORMING THE TASK.
REGULARLY RE-EXAMINE AND HIGHER THE LEVEL OF SELF-
REVISIT YOUR LIFE’S WORK AND EFFICIENCY, GREATER WILL
DIRECTION, A SOLID SENSE OF BE THE EFFORTS PUT IN BY
SELF IS MORE CRITICAL THAN EVER THE INDIVIDUAL WHEN THEY
IN ORDER TO TAKE RESPONSIBILITY FACE CHALLENGING TASKS.
WHILE, LOWER THE LEVEL OF
 SELF-EFFICIENCY, LESS WILL
BE THE EFFORTS PUT IN BY
THE INDIVIDUAL OR HE MIGHT
EVEN QUIT WHILE MEETING
CHALLENGES.
 GOAL COMMITMENT-GOAL
SETTING THEORY ASSUMES
THAT THE INDIVIDUAL IS
COMMITTED TO THE GOAL
AND WILL NOT LEAVE THE
GOAL THE GOAL COMMITMENT
IS DEPENDENT ON THE
FOLLOWING FACTORS:
A. GOALS ARE MADE OPEN, KNOWN
AND BROADCASTED.
B. GOALS SHOULD BE SET-SELF BY
INDIVIDUAL RATHER THAN
DESIGNATED.
C. INDIVIDUAL’S SET GOALS
SHOULD BE CONSISTENT WITH THE
ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS AND
VISION.
MODULE 2:
THEORY STRESS, AGGRESSION.
AND WORK- LIFE BALANCE
THE NATURE OF STRESS
• Perceived stress is the feelings or
thoughts that an individual has about
how much stress they are under at a
given point in time or over a given time
period. … Perceived stress measures
are often used to examine relationships
between stress and health within
behavioral medicine research.
Lazarus’ Theory Of Stress
•Lazarus states that stress is
experienced when a person perceives
that the “demands exceed the personal
and social resources the individual is
able to mobilise.” This is called the
‘transactional model of stress and
coping.”
•Individual differences and stress-
performance relationship…. Personality
traits are often thought to affect the
stress that a person perceives.
• Specific types of personalities seem to
be more susceptible to the effects of
stress than others. Job performance is
associated with different levels of stress.
THE NATURE OF STRESS
Positive and Negative Consequence of
Stress
•Stress can be positive or negative,
depending on the situation. Positive
stressors (called eustress) may include
an upcoming wedding, the holidays, or
pregnancy.
•On the other hand, negative stress
(called distress) results in the full-blown
stress response. If continuous, negative
stress can lead to loss of productivity,
health problems, and exhaustion.
THE NATURE OF STRESS
Positive and Negative Consequence
of Stress
Positive Consequence
• Stress is also a vital warning system,
producing the fight-or-flight response.
When the brain perceives some kind of
stress, it starts flooding the body with
chemicals like epinephrine,
norepinephrine and cortisol. This
creates a variety of reactions such as an
increase in blood pressure and heart
rate. Plus, the senses suddenly have a
laser-like focus so you can avoid
physically stressful situations – such as
jumping away from a moving car- and
be safe.
• According to experts, stress is a burst
of energy that basically advises you on
what to do. In small doses, stress has
many advantages. For instance, stress
can help you meet daily challenges and
motivates you to reach your goals. In
fact, stress can help you accomplish
tasks more efficiently. It can even boost
memory.
•In addition, there are various health
benefits with a little bit of stress.
Researchers believe that some stress
can help to fortify the immune system.
For instance, stress an improve how
your heart works and protect your body
from infection. In one can: study,
individuals who experienced moderate
levels of stress before surgery were able
to recover faster than individuals who
had low or high levels.
THE NATURE OF STRESS
Positive and Negative Consequence of
Stress
Negative Consequence
Stress is key for survival, but too much
stress can be detrimental. Emotional
stress that stays around for weeks or
months can weaken the immune system
and cause high blood pressure, fatigue,
depression, anxiety and even heart
disease. In particular, too much
epinephrine can be harmful to your
heart. It can change the arteries and
how their cells are able to regenerate.
THE NATURE OF STRESS
Signals of Too Much Stress
It may be tough to tell when you’re
experiencing good or bad stress, but
there are important ways that your body
lets you know that you’re struggling with
too much stress. Watch out for the
following warning signs
 •Inability to concentrate or
complete tasks •Get sick more
often with colds
 •Body aches
 •Other illnesses like autoimmune
diseases flare up
 •Headaches
 Irritability
 •Trouble falling sleeping or staying
awake
 •Changes in appetite
 •More angry or anxious than usual
SOURCES OF STRESS
Stressors that arises from workplace
 Some of the many causes of work-
related stress include long hours,
heavy workload, job insecurity and
conflicts with co-workers or
bosses. Symptoms include a drop
in work performance, depression,
anxiety and sleeping difficulties.
What are the main work-related
stressors?
All the following issues have been
identified as potential stressors at
workplaces. A risk management
approach will identify which ones exist in
your own workplace and what causes
them.
They include:Organization culture
  Bad management practices performance, depression, anxiety
 Job content and demands and sleeping difficulties.
 Physical work environment
 Relationships at work
 Change management Here are her top 20 tips for achieving
 Lack of support and maintaining a healthy work/life
 Role conflict balance.
 Trauma
 •Play to your strengths….
 •Prioritise your time….
 •Know your peaks and troughs….
What are the main work-related
 •Plot some personal time….
stressors
 •Have set work hours and stick to
 Causes of work-related stress them…. •Find time for your
 Some of the factors that finances….
commonly cause work-related  •Manage your time, long term….
stress include:Long hours  •Make your workspace work for
 Heavy workload you.
 Changes within theorganisation
 Tight deadlines
 Changes to duties COPING WITH STRESS
 Job insecurity
 Problem-focused coping targets
 Lack of autonomy
the causes of stress in practical
 Boring workInsufficient skills for
ways which tackles the problem or
the job
stressful situation that is causing
 Over-supervision
stress, consequently directly
 Inadequate working
reducing the stress. Problem
 Lack of proper resources
focused strategies aim to remove
environment
or reduce the cause of the
 Lack of equipment
stressor, including: Problem-
 Few promotional opportunities
solving. Time-management.
 Harassment
 Discrimination
 Poor relationships with colleagues Problem-focused coping
or bosses
 Crisis incidents, such as an armed  •Coping refers to the intentional
hold-up or workplace death. efforts we engage in to minimize
the physical, psychological, or
social harm of an event or
situation.
SOURCES OF STRESS

Stressors that arises from work-life

balance  •Problem-focused coping focuses
on the changing or modifying the
 •Some of the many causes of
fundamental cause of the stress.
work-related stress include long
This can be an effective method of
hours, heavy workload, job
coping when it is practical, and the
insecurity and conflicts with co-
stressor is changeable or
workers or bosses. Symptoms
modifiable. The overarching goal
include a drop in work
for this type of coping is to reduce
 or remove the cause of the
stressor.

Problem-focused coping

 This type of coping focuses on

individuals talding control of the
relationship between them and the
stressor (Lazarus, 1991). In
addition, problem-focused coping
may include employing information
seeking, or developing strategies
to avoid the source of the stress.

Emotion-Focused Coping

 •Emotion-focused coping is a type

of stress management that
attempts to reduce negative
emotional responses that occur
due to exposure to stressors.
 •Negative emotions such as fear,
anxiety, aggression, depression,
humiliation are reduced or
removed by the individual by
various methods of coping.
Emotion- focused coping can be
positive or negative.

Emotion-Focused Coping

 •Positive examples include talking

or writing about their emotions
through therapy or journaling,
mindful meditation, or distraction
with other activities.
 •Negative examples of emotion-
focused coping (that typically are
not beneficial or helpful in the long
term) are suppression of
emotions, avoidance, and alcohol
or drug use in order to dull or
avoid emotions.