applied
sciences
Article
Bedding Slope Destabilization under Rainfall: A Case Study of
Zhuquedong Slope in Hunan Province, China
Fan Xu 1,2 , Huihua Hu 1,3 , Hang Lin 1,2,4, *
Citation: Xu, F.; Hu, H.; Lin, H.; Xie, L.
Bedding Slope Destabilization under
Rainfall: A Case Study of
Zhuquedong Slope in Hunan
Province, China. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14,
1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app14041394
Academic Editor: Tiago Miranda
Received: 17 January 2024
Revised: 6 February 2024
Accepted: 6 February 2024
Published: 8 February 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14041394
and Linglin Xie 2,4
1 School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China;
csu_xufan@163.com (F.X.); huhuihuahnjg@126.com (H.H.)
2 Key Laboratory of Natural Resources Monitoring and Supervision in Southern Hilly Region,
Ministry of Natural Resources, Changsha 430071, China; xielinglincs@126.com
3 Hunan Provincial Communications Planning, Survey and Design Institute, Changsha 410200, China
4 The Second Surveying and Mapping Institude of Hunan Province, Changsha 430071, China
* Correspondence: hanglin@csu.edu.cn
Abstract: The soft interlayer and rock structure play a significant role in controlling the deformation
of the bedding slope, and it is necessary to consider the phenomenon of the sudden change of local
response in these key parts under rainfall conditions, and then to clarify the mechanism of rainfall
infiltration and damage mechanism of such slopes. In this paper, a large red-layered flat-dipping
bedding landslide was selected as the research object, and numerical calculations based on the
Van Genuchten model for saturated–unsaturated flow were performed in order to investigate the
hydrological response and distribution patterns of water within the slope during rainfall. Moreover,
stability analysis was performed based on the seepage field results and secondary development of
FLAC3D , and the landslide evolution process was simulated and reproduced using the constitutive
model of double-variables and the strength reduction method (SRM). The results showed that the
effects of heavy rainfall on the water distribution and stability of the highway slope are significant,
while the effects on the natural slope are not significant. There are three phases of the slope destabi-
lization: flexure and uplift state, deformation exacerbation state and shear failure state. The slope
destabilization mechanism is a typical “sliding-bending-shearing” type. The results of the study
can provide a theoretical basis for the study of the seepage, stability analysis and destabilization
mechanism of bedding slopes.
Keywords: bedding slope; rainfall; seepage; stability analysis; destabilization mechanism
1. Introduction
China is a country where geological hazards are extremely frequent, with landslide
hazards accounting for nearly half of them. The contradiction between the rapidly growing
population and the limited urban space has led to the advancement of the scope of human
life and engineering activities to remote areas, and engineering activities such as road,
bridge and tunnel construction are increasingly carried out in mountainous areas [1,2].
As a common slope type in mountainous areas, flat-dipping bedding slopes are widely
distributed in China and present many stability problems, among which rainfall-induced
landslides are widespread and frequent [3–5]. The economic losses caused by bedding
landslides under rainfall conditions are huge, which has become a key problem to be solved
in engineering construction and operation in mountainous areas.
The study of slope seepage under rainfall conditions is the basis of stability studies;
combining hydraulic modeling and examples of slopes, the water distribution and migra-
tion patterns within the slopes were studied. Kacimov et al. [6] studied reservoir bank
slopes under rainfall conditions and found that the water evaporation from the slopes is
characterized by uniform spatial distribution and variation with time. Qi et al. [7] discussed
the mathematical model of rainfall infiltration on rocky slopes, and analyzed the variation
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 2 of 19

of matrix suction and the development of the transient saturation zone. In terms of indoor
experiments, Huat et al. [8] studied the effects of slope angle and surface cover on the
infiltration water volume and matrix suction, and found that the infiltration rate is low
when the surface is covered with grass or geosynthetic mesh, and the infiltration water
volume decreases with the increase in slope angle. Chen et al. [9] used model tests to ana-
lyze the response process of pore water pressure within the slope under rainfall conditions,
and divided the response process into slow-change phase, surge phase and stable phase.
However, the presence of structural surfaces for bedding slope containing weak interlayers
makes the seepage field within the slope complex and variable, which is not well resolved.
Combined with the research results of slope seepage under rainfall conditions, scholars
conducted in-depth research on slope stability under rainfall conditions. In terms of theoret-
ical analysis, Lian et al. [10] combined the Mohr–Coulomb theory to calculate infinitely long
soil slopes under seepage parallel-to-slope surface conditions, and analyzed the soil rupture
surface with logarithmic helix morphological characteristics using the definite integral
element method. Conte et al. [11] proposed a method of practical interest for predicting
shallow landslide triggering due to expected rainfall scenarios, which depends on basic
parameters such as slope geometry and soil properties. In terms of numerical simulation,
Liu and Zhou [12] proposed an unsaturated hydraulic stress coupling model based on the
DDA method and found that the difference of slope stability coefficients, with or without
considering hydraulic coupling, is related to the rainfall intensity. Due to the complexity
of rainfall-induced changes in the seepage and stress fields of slopes, most studies only
considered slopes with simple geological conditions or used statistical methods [13,14].
In general, the principle of rainfall-induced slope instability is summarized as follows:
rainwater softens the mudstone and reduces matric suction in the soil, and changes in
physical and mechanical properties lead to a reduction in slip resistance [15]. Under the
joint action of rainwater equivalent load and slope property change, the sliding force of the
rock–soil body on the slip surface is greater than the sliding resistance force, and the slope
is destabilized and damaged.
However, abundant engineering practice showed that soft interlayer and rock structure
play a significant role in controlling the deformation of bedding slopes [16]. In order to
clarify the mechanism of rainfall infiltration and the damage mechanism of such slopes,
this paper selected a large flat-dipping bedding landslide as the research object, and used
finite element analysis of the rainfall infiltration process of the slope based on the Van
Genuchten model to study the spatial distribution patterns of volumetric water content and
pore water pressure within the slope. Combined with the results of seepage field analysis,
the slope stability analysis was carried out by the strength reduction method, and the finite
difference method was applied to calculate and reveal the deformation and failure modes
of the slope.

2. Engineering Background
The Zhuquedong landslide is located in Luxi County, Hunan Province, China (Figure 1a),
and belongs to the hilly area of tectonic denudation, with an elevation of 282 m at the top
of the slope and about 125 m at the foot of the slope, and a slope gradient of 10◦ –20◦ . The
slope body is basically a bedding slope, forming a stepped slope topography with orange
groves, paddy fields and vegetable fields. The dip angle of the slope ranges from 14◦ to
30◦ , which shows the trend that the dip of the rock layer from the trailing edge to the front
edge gradually changes from steep to gentle. The perimeter of the landslide is in the shape
of a circle chair (Figure 1b,c), which is mainly controlled by the structure. The length of the
landslide is 448 m along the direction perpendicular to Changji Road, the width is 425 m
along Changji Road, and the width of the front edge at the foot of the slope is about 500 m.
 and fragmented, and the lithology is relatively soft. Weakly weathered silty mudstone is
soft and relatively intact, which is enormously easy to be softened by water to form soft
interlayer (Figure 1e), with an interlayer misalignment zone existing locally. Slightly
weathered calcareous sandstone is hard and relatively intact. Sliding zone soils are
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 mainly the soft interlayer and mudification interlayer formed by silty mudstone and 3 ofthe
19
interstratigraphic misalignment zone after water softening, which is about 0.5–2 m thick.

Figure 1.1. Location

Figure Locationofofstudy
study region:
region: (a) (a) geographic
geographic location;
location; (b) sliding
(b) sliding boundary;
boundary; (c) landslide
(c) landslide shape;
shape; (d) a ridge of creeping bend in the lower reaches; (e) siltized intercalation.
(d) a ridge of creeping bend in the lower reaches; (e) siltized intercalation.

The landslide
The landslide toe is located
is located at the
in the redfoot of area
layer the slope,
whereand part number
a large of the rock–soil body
of geological
washes into the Danqing River. The sliding surface (belt)
hazards occur. Mudstone, siltstone and other soft rocks with weak permeability and attitude of the slope body is
controlled by the attitude of bedrock. The dip angle of the slide
strong hydrophilicity are more abundant in the red layer, which have the characteristics surface (belt) is steep in
theeasy
of trailing and slow
softening withinwater,
the front,
easywith the dip angle
disintegration of the
with trailing
water edgelow
loss and about 21–30° The
strength. and
the dip
soft angle offormed
interlayer the front
byedgewater about 14–17°.
softening ofThe shape ofand
mudstone thethe
sliding surface
interlayer is controlled
misalignment
by theinrock
zone strata,
the red and
layer also
rock by the
body influence
largely of the
controls steeply dipping joints,
deformation so the mode
and damage slidingofsur-
the
face is locally stepped. The slide surface develops landslide scrapes,
rock body [10]. Therefore, red-layered mudstone slope instability is characterized by and its slip direction
strong
is consistent and
suddenness withdifficulty
the maininslide earlydirection. The lower
identification. slidesurvey
The field bed lithology
results showof thethatsliding
the
surfacepart
upper is mainly relatively intact
of the Zhuquedong slopeweakly
is coveredandby slightly weathered
the Quaternary rocks.and
System, Thethe landslide
surface
mass exposed
layer is mainly composed
is mainly of residual
fill soil, plantinggravelly soil—strongly
soil distributed and weakly
in farmland, sub-clayweathered
and block
rocks, with
gravel, a slide
etc. The thickness
underlying of about
rocks 0–20 m
are mainly and
silty a slidingand
mudstone volume of about
calcareous 2.6 million
sandstone, and
m3. Landsliderocks
decomposed uplift
andand
softdepressions
interlayer are appear together,
revealed duringmainly near The
the survey. the front edge of the
silty mudstone of
slope;
the the front
strongly end of the
weathered layer depression
is relatively is uplift;
broken,thethelocal
corepresence
is gravelly of and
the fragmented,
uplift is the trapand
pit; lithology
the and the formation
is relativelyofsoft.
the uplift
Weakly is weathered
affected bysiltythe mudstone
sliding and is bending deformation
soft and relatively of
intact,
which is enormously easy to be softened by water to form soft interlayer (Figure 1e), with
an interlayer misalignment zone existing locally. Slightly weathered calcareous sandstone is
hard and relatively intact. Sliding zone soils are mainly the soft interlayer and mudification
interlayer formed by silty mudstone and the interstratigraphic misalignment zone after
water softening, which is about 0.5–2 m thick.
The landslide toe is located at the foot of the slope, and part of the rock–soil body
washes into the Danqing River. The sliding surface (belt) attitude of the slope body is
controlled by the attitude of bedrock. The dip angle of the slide surface (belt) is steep in the
trailing and slow in the front, with the dip angle of the trailing edge about 21–30◦ and the
dip angle of the front edge about 14–17◦ . The shape of the sliding surface is controlled by
the rock strata, and also by the influence of steeply dipping joints, so the sliding surface
is locally stepped. The slide surface develops landslide scrapes, and its slip direction is
consistent with the main slide direction. The lower slide bed lithology of the sliding surface
is mainly relatively intact weakly and slightly weathered rocks. The landslide mass is
mainly composed of residual gravelly soil—strongly and weakly weathered rocks, with a
slide thickness of about 0–20 m and a sliding volume of about 2.6 million m3 . Landslide
uplift and depressions appear together, mainly near the front edge of the slope; the front
end of the depression is uplift; the local presence of the uplift is the trap pit; and the
formation of the uplift is affected by the sliding and bending deformation of the rock
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 4 of 19

layer (Figure 1d). The cracks in the landslide mass can be divided into tension cracks and
bulging cracks according to the mechanical properties. Affected by the high-speed slip,
some landslide mass in the front has been dismembered into loose bodies, and the landslide
cracks are relatively clear at the boundary and bulging mound.
The surface water catchment area of the landslide area is large, and atmospheric
precipitation is the main source of groundwater and surface water. The surface water
mainly exists in the Danqing River, which flows from north to south through the about
900 m long foot of the slope, forming an obvious U-shaped bend, and the mountain
is located on the scouring bank of the river bend. The river level is greatly influenced
by atmospheric precipitation, which rises abruptly during the rainy season. Before the
occurrence of landslide, the elevation of Danqing River bed was about 124–125 m, and the
foot of the slope near the river was a steep terrain. After the landslide occurred, the front
edge of the slide washed into the Danqing River, causing the river to be blocked to form a
weir. After dredging the river, the riverbed height was raised to 127–130 m.

3. Theoretical Model of Slope Seepage and Stability under Rainfall Conditions

3.1. Seepage Theory
The calculation of rainfall infiltration considering the unsaturated zone can better
reflect the actual situation. The differential equation for saturated–unsaturated seepage in
a homogeneous isotropic medium expressed by the improved Darcy’s law is as follows:
     
∂ ∂h p ∂ ∂h p ∂ ∂h p ∂ku 
 ∂h p
ku + ku + ku + = C h p + βSs (1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂t


ku = ks kr h p (2)
Ss = ρw g(αr + ϕαw ) (3)
where ku is the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (m/s); ks is the saturated hydraulic
conductivity (m/s); kr is the relative permeability; hp is the pressure head (m); C is the
water capacity (−); Ss is the specific storage (m−1 ), for unsaturated media, Ss = 0; β is the
selection parameter (−) with saturated region β = 1 and unsaturated region β = 0; αr is the
compressibility of rock (−); αw is the compressibility of water (−); ϕ is the porosity (−);
and ρw is the density of water (kg/m3 ).
The water content curve (moisture characteristic curve) of the material expresses the
relationship between the volumetric water content θ and the matrix suction ψ. Numerous
experiments and numerical simulations [17,18] showed that the classical Van Genuchten
model with appropriate parameters is suitable for representing the water content rela-
tionship in unsaturated fractured rocks and soils, and accordingly, accurate seepage field
results are beneficial for slope stability analysis, expressed as
m
θ − θr

1
Se = = (4)
θs − θr 1 + (αψ)n

where Se is the effective saturation (−); θ s is the saturated volumetric water content (−);
θ r is the residual volumetric water content (−); and α, n and m are empirical parameters
indicating the shape of the soil moisture characteristic curve with m = 1 − 1/n.
The permeability function (ku − ψ equation) of the material is related to the relationship
of θ − kr . The moisture characteristic curve is brought into the Mualem [19] conceptual
model to calculate kr :
h   m i2
kr = Se1/2 1 − 1 − Se1/m (5)

Combining Equations (4) and (5), the permeability function of the material can be
obtained.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 5 of 19

3.2. Slope Stability Theory

The double-variables strength theory proposed by Fredlund and Rahardjo [20] is used
to describe the shear strength of fractured rocks and soils:

τf = c′ + (σn − µa ) tan φ′ + (µa − µw ) tan φb (6)

where τf is the shear strength of unsaturated material (kPa); c′ is the effective cohesion
(kPa); σn is the effective normal stress (kPa); ua is the pore air pressure (kPa); uw is the pore
water pressure (kPa); φ′ is the effective friction angle (◦ ); φb is the suction internal friction
angle (◦ ); and µa − µw is the matrix suction (kPa). Without considering the matrix suction
or when the material is close to saturation, (µa − µw ) tan φb = 0, and Equation (6) is the
formula for saturated materials.
The rock–soil body is assumed to be ideal elastic-plastic bodies, and the constitutive
model of the double-variables strength theory is used [21]. Based on SRM [22], the shear
strength of the material is reduced when the three shear strength parameters are simultane-
ously divided by an increasing reduction factor until the slope is in a state of instability
and failure [23]:

τf c′ tan φ′ tan φb
= + (σn − ua ) + χ ( ua − uw ) (7)
SRF SRFc′ SRFφ′ SRFφb

where SRF is the strength reduction factor—the slope is critically unstable with SRF = FOS;
SRFc′ , SRFφ′ , SRFφb are the reduction factors of effective cohesion, effective friction angle
and suction internal friction angle, respectively; and χ is the empirical coefficient.
It is usually assumed that SRFc′ = SRFφ′ = SRFφb = SRF. Combined with Equation (7),
the shear strength parameters of the rock–soil body when the slope is in ultimate equilib-
rium can be obtained as follows:
c′


 c′ F = FOS



tan φ′
  
φ′ F = arctan FOS (8)


  b

 φb = arctan tan φ


F FOS

4. Numerical Model of Bedding Slope

4.1. Parameterization
The shear strength parameters of the rock–soil body were obtained by drilling the in
situ samples of landslide mass for the indoor large-scale direct shear test, combined with
the physical exploration technology. The VG model parameters of the rock–soil body are
determined by combining the characteristics of this project and similar projects [24], and
the hydraulic parameters and mechanical parameters are presented in Table 1.
Combining the above VG-M theoretical model and parameters, the soil–water char-
acteristic curves and the permeability functions (ku − ψ equation) of the material are
calculated, as shown in Figure 2.
Based on the data of Jishou ground meteorological station in Hunan Province, the
meteorological conditions of the Zhuquedong landslide were summarized and the rainfall
observation data were analyzed; the variation of rain intensity with time is shown in
Figure 3. The rainfall in July 2007 was the maximum of the year in the area, with 98.2 mm of
cumulative rainfall from the 10th to the 14th, and 229.3 mm of cumulative rainfall from the
21st to the 26th. In total, there were five days with daily rainfall exceeding the heavy rainfall
standard and four times with daily rainfall exceeding the torrential rainfall standard.
 Table 1. Summary of parameters.

Strongly Weakly Weath- Slightly Weath-

Sub-Clay/Fill
Symbol Parameter Name Units Weathered Silty ered Silty Mud- Soft Interlayer ered Calcareous
Soil
Mudstone stone Sandstone
Appl. Sci.θ2024, Saturated water
14, 1394
s (–) 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 6 of 19
content
Residual water
θr (–) 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.02
content
Saturated hydraulic
Table 1. Summary of parameters.
ks (m/s) 1 × 10−6 1 × 10−6 5 × 10−4 1 × 10−6 1 × 10−5
conductivity
Sub- Strongly Weakly Slightly Weathered
Van Genuchten Soft
Symbolα Parameter Name Units
(kPa) Clay/Fill
100 Weathered 1 Silty Weathered
0.5 Silty 10 Calcareous
0.2
fitting parameter Interlayer
Soil Mudstone Mudstone Sandstone
Van Genuchten
Saturated water
θs n fitting parameter
(–)
(–) 0.31.5 0.31.5 20.2 1.5
0.3 5 0.1
content
θr E Young
Residual s modulus
water content (MPa)
(–) 0.0510 1000
0.05 1500
0.03 20
0.05 1 × 0.02
104
v Saturated
Poissonhydraulic
s ratio (–) 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.35
ks (m/s) 1 × 10 − 6 1 × 10 −6 5 × 10−4 1 × 10−6 10.15
× 10−5
c′ conductivity
Effective cohesion
Van Genuchten fitting
(kPa) 10 25 27 6 390
α (kPa) 100 1 0.5 10 0.2
ϕ′ Effective
parameter friction
anglefitting
(°) 14 19 24 12 40
Van Genuchten
n (–) 1.5 1.5 2 1.5 5
parameter
Suction internal
E ϕb Young’s modulus
friction angle (MPa)(°) 10 14 100014 14
1500 14
20 114× 104
v Poisson’s ratio (–) 3 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.35 0.15
c′ ρ EffectiveDensity
cohesion (kg/m )
(kPa) 101900 2430
25 2500
27 1920
6 2600
390
φ′ Effective friction angle (◦ ) 14 19 24 12 40
Suction internal friction Combining the above VG-M
φb (◦ ) 14 14 theoretical model
14 and parameters,
14 the soil–water
14
angle
characteristic
3 curves and the permeability functions (ku − ψ equation) of the material are
ρ Density (kg/m ) 1900 2430 2500 1920 2600
calculated, as shown in Figure 2.

0.4
Sub-clay/fill soil
(a) Strongly weathered silty mudstone
Weakly weathered silty mudstone
Soft interlayer
Slightly weathered calcareous siltstone
0.3
Volumetric water content

0.2

0.1

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 0.0 7 of 20

0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Matrix suction (kPa)
10-3
(b) Sub-clay/fill soil
Strongly weathered silty mudstone
Weakly weathered silty mudstone
Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

Soft interlayer
10-4 Slightly weathered calcareous siltstone

10-5

10-6

10-7
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102
Matrix suction (kPa) .
(a) Soil–water
Figure2.2. (a)
Figure Soil–water characteristic
characteristic curves;
curves; (b) Permeability
Permeability functions
functions for
fordifferent
differentmaterials
materialszones.
zones.

Based on the data of Jishou ground meteorological station in Hunan Province, the
meteorological conditions of the Zhuquedong landslide were summarized and the rain-
fall observation data were analyzed; the variation of rain intensity with time is shown in
Figure 3. The rainfall in July 2007 was the maximum of the year in the area, with 98.2 mm
 fall observation data were analyzed; the variation of rain intensity with time is shown in
Figure 3. The rainfall in July 2007 was the maximum of the year in the area, with 98.2 mm
of cumulative rainfall from the 10th to the 14th, and 229.3 mm of cumulative rainfall from
the 21st to the 26th. In total, there were five days with daily rainfall exceeding the heavy
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 7 of 19
rainfall standard and four times with daily rainfall exceeding the torrential rainfall
standard.

80 Early rainfall Mid-rainfall Late rainfall End of

rainfall
70

60

Daily rainfall (mm/d)

50
Torrential
40 rainfall standard
30 Heavy
rainfall standard
20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Date (day)
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Rainfall
Rainfall monitoring
monitoring data.
data.

Numerical Modeling
4.2. Numerical
The slope
slope height
height is
is 164
164 m,
m,and
andthethelength
lengthisis536
536m.
m.The
Thewhole
wholemodel
modelisisdefined
defined
asas
a
a series
series of of geometric
geometric objects,
objects, andand
thethe
typetype of zone
of zone is given
is given as quadrilateral
as quadrilateral and triangle.
and triangle. The
The global
global zonezone size
size is is 5with
5 m, m, with the local
the local meshmesh encryption
encryption carried
carried outthe
out for forsurface
the surface
and
and interlayer.
interlayer. The post-excavation
The post-excavation (highway)
(highway) slopeslope
modelmodel
has ahas
totala of
total of nodes
2497 2497 nodes and
and 2382
2382 zones, and the pre-excavation (natural) slope model has a total of
zones, and the pre-excavation (natural) slope model has a total of 2512 nodes and 23962512 nodes and
2396 zones. The numerical calculation model of the slope and its boundary conditions is
shown in Figure 4a,b. For seepage calculations, the left and right boundaries below the
initial water table are set as boundaries of the constant water head, with the hydraulic head
of 136 m and 29.5 m, respectively. Moreover, the left and right boundaries above the initial
water table and the bottom boundary are set as impermeable boundaries. The surface of
the slope is the rainfall infiltration boundary and set as the flow boundary. The rainfall
infiltration boundary needs to be considered in relation to the magnitude of the rainfall
intensity and the infiltration capacity of the topsoil: when the rainfall intensity is less than
the infiltration capacity of the topsoil, it is treated as the flow boundary condition; when the
rainfall intensity is stronger than the infiltration capacity of the topsoil, part of the rainfall
forms overland runoff, and the boundary is treated as the boundary of the fixed water
level. For stress and strain calculations, the left and right boundaries are constrained in the
horizontal direction, and the bottom boundary is fixed in all directions.
Because the modeling conditions and influencing factors of Zhuquedong slope are
complex and the theoretical analysis is difficult to apply directly, the finite-difference
numerical software FLAC3D 6.0 is used to analyze the evolution process and damage
mechanism of the whole process of the slope. When FLAC3D software performs seepage
analysis, it automatically adjusts the negative pore water pressure to zero and is unable
to determine the hydraulic conductivity based on the saturated state of the geotechnical
body [25]. In this paper, we choose to import the finite element seepage calculation results
of saturated–unsaturated slope geotechnical bodies into FLAC3D , which mainly considers
two main effects of rainfall infiltration on the slope.
(1) Rainwater has a deteriorating effect on geotechnical bodies and reduces their shear
strength [26]. For this purpose, the strength decay function of the geotechnical body is
constructed through the FISH language, as in Equations (9) and (10), where c(µw ) is the
integrated cohesion value related to the pore water pressure, and in general, c(µw ) decreases
with the increase in pore water pressure. Based on the pore water pressure value of each
node obtained by traversing, the attenuated geotechnical body shear strength value is
 shown in Figure 4a,b. For seepage calculations, the left and right boundaries below the
initial water table are set as boundaries of the constant water head, with the hydraulic
head of 136 m and 29.5 m, respectively. Moreover, the left and right boundaries above the
initial water table and the bottom boundary are set as impermeable boundaries. The
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 surface of the slope is the rainfall infiltration boundary and set as the flow boundary.8 of The
19
rainfall infiltration boundary needs to be considered in relation to the magnitude of the
rainfall intensity and the infiltration capacity of the topsoil: when the rainfall intensity is
less than the
calculated andinfiltration
assigned capacity of theaccording
to the zones topsoil, ittoisthe
treated as the
spatial flow boundary
coordinates, condi-
as shown in
tion; when
Figure 5. the rainfall intensity is stronger than the infiltration capacity of the topsoil,
′
τf = crunoff,
part of the rainfall forms overland (µw ) +and − µboundary
(σn the a ) f tan φ is treated as the boundary (9) of
the fixed water level. For stress and strain calculations, the left and right boundaries are
(µw ) = c′ and
constrained in the horizontalcdirection, µa −
+ χ(the µw ) f tan
bottom φb
boundary (10)
is fixed in all directions.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

(1) Rainwater has a deteriorating effect on geotechnical bodies and reduces their
shear strength [26]. For this purpose, the strength decay function of the geotechnical body
is constructed through the FISH language, as in Equations (9) and (10), where c(µw) is the
integrated cohesion value related to the pore water pressure, and in general, c(µw) de-
creases with the increase in pore water pressure. Based on the pore water pressure value
of each node obtained by traversing, the attenuated geotechnical body shear strength
value is calculated and assigned to the zones according to the spatial coordinates, as
shown in Figure 5.

τ f = c( μ w ) + (σ n − μa ) f tan ϕ ′ (9)

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Numerical model of
Numerical model
c( μ w ) = c′slope:
of Zhuquedong
Zhuquedong + χ μ(a)
slope: (
a −
(a)
)
μ w f tan ϕ profile;
hydrogeological
hydrogeological
b
(b) mesh
profile; (b) (10)
mesh generation
generation
and boundary conditions.
and boundary conditions.

Because the modeling conditions and influencing factors of Zhuquedong slope are
complex and the theoretical analysis is difficult to apply directly, the finite-difference
numerical software FLAC3D 6.0 is used to analyze the evolution process and damage
mechanism of the whole process of the slope. When FLAC3D software performs seepage
analysis, it automatically adjusts the negative pore water pressure to zero and is unable to
determine the hydraulic conductivity based on the saturated state of the geotechnical
body [25]. In this paper, we choose to import the finite element seepage calculation re-
sults of saturated–unsaturated slope geotechnical bodies into FLAC3D, which mainly
considers two main effects of rainfall infiltration on the slope.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Slope
Slope cohesion
cohesion distribution
distribution after
after strength
strength decay.
decay.

(2) The infiltration and recharge of rainwater increases the pore water pressure in the
slope, and the presence of buoyancy
buoyancy forces
forces reduces
reduces the
the pressure
pressure between
between the
the rock
rock layers,
layers,
which reduces the slip resistance of the slip surface and leads to shear damage, and
rupture of the top of the slope occurs when the buoyancy force is too large [27]. For this
purpose, the pore water pressure values at each node are traversed and determined to be
positive or negative through the FISH language, and the positive values are applied to
the nodes of the slope model according to the spatial coordinates, as shown in Figure 6.
 Figure 5. Slope cohesion distribution after strength decay.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 9 of 19
(2) The infiltration and recharge of rainwater increases the pore water pressure in the
slope, and the presence of buoyancy forces reduces the pressure between the rock layers,
which reduces
reducesthe
theslip resistance
slip resistanceof the slip slip
of the surface and leads
surface to shear
and leads to damage, and rupture
shear damage, and
of the top
rupture ofof the
the slope
top occurs
of the slopewhen
occursthewhen
buoyancy force is too
the buoyancy large
force [27].large
is too For this
[27].purpose,
For this
the pore water
purpose, pressure
the pore watervalues
pressureat each node
values are traversed
at each node are and determined
traversed to be positive
and determined or
to be
negativeor
positive through thethrough
negative FISH language,
the FISHand the positive
language, values
and the are applied
positive values to arethe nodes to
applied of
the nodes
slope model according to the spatial coordinates, as shown in Figure 6.
of the slope model according to the spatial coordinates, as shown in Figure 6.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Water
Water pressure
pressure distribution in the
distribution in the slope.
slope.
After solving the problem of rainfall infiltration on the slope in FLAC3D, the zones
After solving 3D , the zones are
are modeled with the
theproblem of rainfallcriterion,
Mohr–Coulomb infiltration on the
which slopefor
allows in FLAC
normal iterative com-
modeled
putation with the Mohr–Coulomb
[28]. Finally, the slope unitcriterion,
flow and which
poreallows
water for normaldistribution
pressure iterative computa-
are de-
tion
rived[28].
for Finally,
seepagethe slope unit
analysis, andflow and pore water
the deformation andpressure distribution
the factor of safety are
(Fs)derived for
results are
seepage
derived analysis,
for slope and the deformation
evolution process andandstability
the factor of safety
analysis, and(Fs) results
the areisderived
process shownfor
in
slope evolution
Figure 7. process and stability analysis, and the process is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Slope seepage-deformation calculation
calculation process.
process.

4.3. Analysis of
4.3. Analysis of Seepage
Seepage Results
Results
4.3.1. Highway Slope Seepage Analysis
4.3.1. Highway Slope Seepage Analysis
In order to obtain the initial conditions of flow, geotechnical saturation and pore
In order to obtain the initial conditions of flow, geotechnical saturation and pore
water pressure inside the slope at the beginning of the calculation, the highway slope is
water pressure inside the slope at the beginning of the calculation, the highway slope is
pre-analyzed and processed for 30 days under no-rainfall conditions. The initial state of the
pre-analyzed and processed for 30 days under no-rainfall conditions. The initial state of
slope is shown in Figures 8a and 9a, where there is essentially no flow within the slope, and
the phreatic
the slope is line
shown
(the in Figuresbetween
boundary 8a and 9a, whereand
saturated there is essentially
unsaturated no remains
zones) flow within the
near the
slope, and the phreatic line (the boundary between saturated and unsaturated zones)
initial water level (29.5 m). The distribution of pore water pressure in the slope is relatively
remains near the initial water level (29.5 m). The distribution of pore water pressure in
the slope is relatively uniform, the pore water pressure in the area above 35 m height is
greater than −47.88 kPa, and the pore water pressure in the area below 35 m height in-
creases with the depth in an approximately equal gradient, and the maximum pore water
pressure is 311.22 kPa.
The transient seepage analysis is carried out using a finite element program that di-
 the layers to the deeper part of the slope and connects to the water table line at 30 m.
this time, the infiltrated rainwater is controlled by gravity to flow from the high side
the roadbed to the low side of the foot of the slope, forming a laminar flow movement
the pores and fissures of the rock layer, and lifting the overall groundwater level line
the slope. Phreatic water is exposed at the foot of the slope in the form of a confluen
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 10 of 19
with the Danqing River, and the pore water pressure in a small area near the Danqi
River is essentially stable. The geotechnical body in the roadbed–foot of the slope co
nection area is close to saturation, the pore water pressure rises rapidly, and local hi
uniform, the porepressure
water pressure
is formedininside
the area
the above
foot of 35
themslope,
height is greater
with than −pore
the maximum 47.88water
kPa, pressure
and the pore water pressure in the area below 35 m height increases with the depth
383.04 kPa. In summary, under highway slope conditions, the effect of heavy in an rainfall
approximately equal gradient, and the maximum pore water pressure
the moisture distribution within the slope is significant. is 311.22 kPa.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of

Figure
Figure 8. Unit flow 8. Unit flow
and phreatic lineand
in phreatic line inslope:
the highway the highway slope:
(a) Initial (a) Initial
state; (b) 13state;
July;(b)
(c)13
15July;
July;(c) 15 July;
(d) 27 July. 27 July.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 11 of(d)
19
Figure 8. Unit flow and phreatic line in the highway slope: (a) Initial state; (b) 13 July; (c) 15 July;
27 July.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Pore
Pore water
water pressure
pressure contours
contours for
for the
the highway
highway slope:
slope: (a)
(a) Initial
Initial state;
state; (b)
(b) 22 July;
July; (c)
(c) 15
15 July;
July;
(d) 27 July.
(d) 27 July.

4.3.2.The
Natural Slopeseepage
transient Seepageanalysis
Analysisis carried out using a finite element program that
divides the calculation into
Figure 10 shows the unit27flow
timeand
steps forwater
pore 27 days for thefor
pressure seepage field slope
the natural at oneon
time
27
July, with a significant change in the way rainwater infiltrates. Different from the high-
way slope, in the case of the natural slope, since the roadbed area is not excavated, the
strongly weathered silty mudstone and the weakly weathered silty mudstone below the
surface overburden are not exposed, and the rainwater has no channel for rapid infiltra-
tion from the former roadbed area. After a small amount of the rainwater recharges the
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 12 of 19

step per day. Firstly, as shown in Figure 9b, the change of pore water pressure within the
slope is limited on 2 July. The pore water pressure at the slope surface is in the range of
−47.88 to −23.94 kPa, and the pore water pressure in the vicinity of the roadbed excavation
increases to 0 kPa at the highest. This is because at the beginning of the rainfall period,
the initial saturation of the slope is low, and the hydraulic conductivity of the top sub-clay
and fill soils is greater than the intensity of the rainfall. Rainwater is mainly recharged by
vertical infiltration, which is large and produces little flow. Then, as shown in Figure 8b,
rainwater on 13 July pools in the area of the roadbed excavation and infiltrates the exposed
beds of weakly weathered silty mudstone. Also, because the soft interlayer in the weakly
weathered zone acts as a water barrier, rainwater enters from the rapid infiltration channel
in the roadbed area and then travels down the layers. As shown in Figures 8c and 9c,
rainfall continued to concentrate on infiltration on 15 July, with the phreatic line extending
downward along the layers. Some of the geotechnical bodies are fully saturated, and
the pore water pressure rises rapidly, with the maximum pore water pressure reaching
23.94 kPa at the roadbed.
Finally, the unit flow vectors and pore water pressures in the geotechnical body on
27 July are shown in Figures 8d and 9d, and the phreatic line extends downward along
the layers to the deeper part of the slope and connects to the water table line at 30 m. At
this time, the infiltrated rainwater is controlled by gravity to flow from the high side of the
roadbed to the low side of the foot of the slope, forming a laminar flow movement in the
pores and fissures of the rock layer, and lifting the overall groundwater level line of the
slope. Phreatic water is exposed at the foot of the slope in the form of a confluence with
the Danqing River, and the pore water pressure in a small area near the Danqing River
is essentially stable. The geotechnical body in the roadbed–foot of the slope connection
area is close to saturation, the pore water pressure rises rapidly, and local high pressure is
formed inside the foot of the slope, with the maximum pore water pressure of 383.04 kPa.
In summary, under highway slope conditions, the effect of heavy rainfall on the moisture
distribution within the slope is significant.

4.3.2. Natural Slope Seepage Analysis

Figure 10 shows the unit flow and pore water pressure for the natural slope on 27 July,
with a significant change in the way rainwater infiltrates. Different from the highway
slope, in the case of the natural slope, since the roadbed area is not excavated, the strongly
weathered silty mudstone and the weakly weathered silty mudstone below the surface
overburden are not exposed, and the rainwater has no channel for rapid infiltration from
the former roadbed area. After a small amount of the rainwater recharges the surface
overburden, most of the rest of the rainwater forms surface runoff that flows from above
to below to the Danqing River at the foot of the slope. The change of pore water pressure
inside the slope is limited, the maximum pore water pressure remains at 311.22 kPa, and
no local high pressure is formed. In summary, the effect of heavy rainfall on the internal
moisture distribution of the slope is not significant under natural slope conditions.
Eight monitoring points (nodes 2341, 2347, 2344, 2343, 2342, 2349, 2346, 2348) dis-
tributed from the top to the bottom are set up at the foot of the slope, and the pore water
pressure versus time curves are shown in Figure 11. At the early stages of rainfall, the pore
water pressure at surface node 2341 at the foot of the highway slope and natural slope
rapidly goes up to zero, reflecting the rapid saturation of the soil at the surface and the
formation of surface runoff. In the middle of the rainfall, the pore water pressure at the
foot of the highway slope basically remains unchanged. In the late rainfall period, the pore
water pressure at the bottom of the first soft interlayer, as well as at the top and bottom
of the second and third soft interlayers, in the weakly weathered zones of the highway
slope rises rapidly. The pore water pressure at node 2348, which has the largest increase,
grows from 130 kPa to 210 kPa. The pore water pressure at node 2344 at the top of the
first soft interlayer is similarly trending upward, but by less than 10 kPa. At the end of the
rainfall period, the pore water pressure difference between the top and bottom of the soft
 strongly weathered silty mudstone and the weakly weathered silty mudstone below the
surface overburden are not exposed, and the rainwater has no channel for rapid infiltra-
tion from the former roadbed area. After a small amount of the rainwater recharges the
surface overburden, most of the rest of the rainwater forms surface runoff that flows from
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 above to below to the Danqing River at the foot of the slope. The change of pore 13 water
of 19
pressure inside the slope is limited, the maximum pore water pressure remains at 311.22
kPa, and no local high pressure is formed. In summary, the effect of heavy rainfall on the
interlayers
internal is at its distribution
moisture maximum. However, the pore
of the slope is notwater pressure
significant at allnatural
under nodes of the natural
slope condi-
slope, excluding the surface node 2341, is essentially stable during all rainfall periods.
tions.

Figure 10. Seepage results for the natural slope on 27 July: (a) Unit flow and phreatic line; (b) Pore
water pressure contour.

The change mechanism of pore water pressure in the highway slope is analyzed as
follows: the soft interlayer in the weakly weathered zone is relatively impermeable as a
water-resisting layer, and the weakly weathered silty mudstone is relatively permeable as a
water-permeable layer, and the combination of the rock layers and the groundwater level
reaches the conditions for the composition of typical pressurized water. Rainwater enters
the slope from the fast infiltration channel in the roadbed area and then seeps downward
along the permeable layer to the foot of the slope, and the infiltration and recharge of
rainwater causes the pore water pressure at the bottom of the soft interlayer to increase
rapidly. Although the combination of rock layers in the natural slope meets the conditions
for the formation of pressurized water, the lack of water source results in constant water
pressure.

4.4. Slope Stability Analysis

As shown in Figure 12, at the beginning of the rainfall, there is a phase of sudden
decrease in the Fs of the highway slope, where the Fs decreases from 1.29 to 1.07. In the
middle of the rainfall period, the Fs gradually decreases, and the continuous rainfall from
the 10th to the 14th reduces Fs from 1.07 to 1.04, and the Fs remains essentially constant
after the rain stops. In the late rainfall period, rainfall from 21 July to 22 July reduces Fs
from 1.05 to 1.01. The near stopping of rain on 23 July elevates the Fs of the slope from
1.01 to 1.05 on 24 July. The deep part of the foot of the slope is located at the end of the
roadbed–foot connectivity path, and there is a delayed effect in the change of Fs due to the
long time it takes for rainwater to infiltrate and pass through the full path. At the end of
the rainfall period, the Fs of the slope on 27 July is reduced to 0.99, with the slope in a state
of instability.
 increase, grows from 130 kPa to 210 kPa. The pore water pressure at node 2344 at the top
of the first soft interlayer is similarly trending upward, but by less than 10 kPa. At the end
of the rainfall period, the pore water pressure difference between the top and bottom of
the soft interlayers is at its maximum. However, the pore water pressure at all nodes of
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 14 of 19
the natural slope, excluding the surface node 2341, is essentially stable during all rainfall
periods.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

level reaches the conditions for the composition of typical pressurized water. Rainwater
enters the slope from the fast infiltration channel in the roadbed area and then seeps
downward along the permeable layer to the foot of the slope, and the infiltration and
recharge of rainwater causes the pore water pressure at the bottom of the soft interlayer
to increase rapidly. Although the combination of rock layers in the natural slope meets
the conditions for the formation of pressurized water, the lack of water source results in
constant water pressure.

4.4. Slope Stability Analysis

As shown in Figure 12, at the beginning of the rainfall, there is a phase of sudden
decrease in the Fs of the highway slope, where the Fs decreases from 1.29 to 1.07. In the
middle of the rainfall period, the Fs gradually decreases, and the continuous rainfall from
the 10th to the 14th reduces Fs from 1.07 to 1.04, and the Fs remains essentially constant
after the rain stops. In the late rainfall period, rainfall from 21 July to 22 July reduces Fs
from 1.05 to 1.01. The near stopping of rain on 23 July elevates the Fs of the slope from
1.01 to 1.05 on 24 July. The deep part of the foot of the slope is located at the end of the
roadbed–foot connectivity path, and there is a delayed effect in the change of Fs due to
the long time it takes for rainwater to infiltrate and pass through the full path. At the end
Figure 11. Pore water pressure versus time curves at monitoring points: (a) highway slope; (b)
of the rainfall
Figure period,
11. Pore water the Fsversus
pressure of thetime
slope on 27
curves July is reduced
at monitoring points:to(a)0.99, withslope;
highway the slope in a
(b) natural
natural slope.
state
slope.of instability.

90The
change mechanism of pore water pressure in the1.40 highway slope is analyzed as
follows: the soft interlayer in the weakly weathered zone is relatively impermeable as a
Daily rainfall (mm/d) 1.35 is relatively permeable as
80
water-resisting layer, and the weaklyFactor
weathered silty mudstone
of safety
a water-permeable layer, and the combination of the rock 1.30layers and the groundwater
70
1.25
Daily rainfall (mm/d)

60
Factor of safety

1.20
50
1.15
40
1.10
30
1.05
20
1.00

10 0.95

0 0.90
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Date (day)

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Factor
Factorof
ofsafety
safety versus
versustime
time curve
curvefor
forthe
the highway
highwayslope.
slope.

As shown
As shownin inFigure
Figure13,13,after
aftera atotal
total
of of
2727 days
days of discontinuous
of discontinuous rainfall,
rainfall, Fs ofFsthe
the the of
the natural slope is reduced from 1.114 to 1.106, and the slope remains
natural slope is reduced from 1.114 to 1.106, and the slope remains essentially stable.essentially stable.
During all
During all rainfall
rainfallperiods,
periods,thethechange
change in in Fs corresponds
thethe Fs corresponds to the
to daily rainfall,
the daily and there
rainfall, and
is no hysteresis in the effect of rainfall on slope stability. This is because rainfall
there is no hysteresis in the effect of rainfall on slope stability. This is because rainfall mainly
mainly affects the saturation and pore water pressure of sub-clay and fill soils at the slope
surface, and the short time required for rainfall infiltration leads to a simultaneous re-
duction in the shear strength of the soils.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 15 of 19

affects the saturation and pore water pressure of sub-clay and fill soils at the slope surface,
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2024,
2024, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
andthe short time required for rainfall infiltration leads to a simultaneous reduction16
16inof 20
ofthe
20
shear strength of the soils.

90
90 1.120
1.120

80
Daily
Daily rainfall
rainfall (mm)
(mm)
80
Factor
Factor of
of safety
safety
1.116
1.116
70
70
(mm/d)
rainfall (mm/d)

60
60

safety
of safety
1.112
1.112
50
50
Daily rainfall

Factor of
40
40

Factor
1.108
1.108
Daily

30
30

20
20 1.104
1.104
10
10

00 1.100
1.100
00 22 44 66 88 10
10 12
12 14
14 16
16 18
18 20
20 22
22 24
24 26
26 28
28
Date
Date (day)
(day)
Figure 13.
13. Factor
Figure 13.
Figure Factor of
Factor of safety
of safety versus
safety versus time
versus time curve
time curve for
curve for the
for the natural
the slope.
natural slope.
natural slope.

4.5.
4.5. Analysis of Highway Slope Destabilization Process
The
The zone
zone maximum
maximum principal
principal strains
strains are
are shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 14.
14. The
The sliding
sliding surfaces
surfaces
obtained
obtained from numerical
numerical simulation
simulation and actual
actual investigation
investigation are relatively close to to each
each
other;
other; especially in the front-edge part of the slope, they are basically the same,
the slope, they are basically the same, which which
reflects
reflects the
thereliability
reliabilityofofthe
thesolution
solutionmethod
methodbased on the
based on secondary development
the secondary of FISH
development of
language considering the deterioration effect of rainwater on the geotechnical
FISH language considering the deterioration effect of rainwater on the geotechnical body body and
the
andbuoyancy
the buoyancyforce.force.
ThereThere
are local
are differences between
local differences the calculated
between and actual
the calculated andsliding
actual
surface at the trailing edge of the slope, which is due to the fact that the
sliding surface at the trailing edge of the slope, which is due to the fact that theshape of the sliding
shape of
surface in the
the sliding project
surface is not
in the onlyiscontrolled
project by the rock
not only controlled by layers,
the rockbut also but
layers, by the
alsosteeply
by the
dipping joints injoints
steeply dipping the downslope direction.
in the downslope direction.

Figure 14.
14. Maximum
Figure 14.
Figure Maximum principal
Maximum principal strains
principal and
strains and
strains sliding
and sliding surfaces
sliding surfaces of
surfaces of the
of the highway
the highway slope.
highway slope.
slope.

Combining numerical simulation

simulation and physical modeling
modeling experimental
experimental studies
studies [29],
[29],
evolutionary process of the
the evolutionary
the Zhuquedong highway
the Zhuquedong highway landslide
landslide is is visually
visually reproduced.
reproduced.
The slope
The slope destabilization
destabilization has the following
has the following phases:
phases:
Phase 1: Flexure
Flexure and
anduplift
upliftstate,
state,asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure15.15. Gravity-driven
Gravity-driven shear
shear de-
defor-
formation and differential interlayer misalignment in the rear geotechnical
mation and differential interlayer misalignment in the rear geotechnical body produces body pro-
duces extrusion
extrusion due todue to blockage
blockage of theof the edge,
front front edge, andcombined
and the the combinedactionaction of extrusion
of extrusion and
and water
water pressure
pressure causes
causes flexural
flexural and uplift
and uplift deformation
deformation of theoflower
the lower rock layers.
rock layers. As
As time
time progresses, the trailing edge of the slope is tensile, and the geotechnical body at the
slope surface begins to slide down in small quantities.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 16 of 19

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

progresses, 17slope
the trailing edge of the slope is tensile, and the geotechnical body at the of 20
surface begins to slide down in small quantities.

Figure
Figure 15.
15. Highway
Highway slope
slope flexure
flexure and
and uplift
uplift state.
state.

Phase 2: 2: Deformation
Deformation exacerbation
exacerbationstate,
state,asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure16.16.
TheThe tensile
tensile defor-
deforma-
mation at the trailing edge of the slope increases, and the middle and rear
tion at the trailing edge of the slope increases, and the middle and rear geotechnical body geotechnical
bodydownward
slips slips downward
along thealong theThe
layer. layer. The and
flexural flexural
upliftand uplift deformation
deformation of the frontofedge
the of
front
the
edge
slope of the slope isand
is intensified intensified and forms
forms a fold-like a fold-like
bending patternbending patternlocalized
that produces that produces lo-
crushing,
calized crushing,
mixing and mixing and
densification densification
of the of the
rock at the end of rock at theIn
the uplift. end of the uplift.
addition, In addition,
the extrusion and
deformation
the extrusionofand thedeformation
rock layers toward the Danqing
of the rock River inthe
layers toward theDanqing
riparianRiver
zone atin the
thefoot of
ripar-
the zone
ian slopeat is the
intensified.
foot of the slope is intensified.

Figure 16. Highway slope deformation exacerbation state.

Figure 16. Highway slope deformation exacerbation state.

Phase 3:
Phase 3: Shear
Shear failure
failure state,
state, as
as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 17.17. The
The upper-middle
upper-middle silty silty mudstone
mudstone
shear deformed
is shear deformed and andcontinuously
continuouslypushedpushedforward
forwardalongalongthethesoft
soft interlayers,
interlayers, and and de-
defor-
formation
mation andand damage
damage continue
continue to accumulate
to accumulate in theinuplift
the uplift and flexural
and flexural fold structure.
fold structure. When
When shear failure
shear failure occurs occurs in this
in this area, thearea, the geotechnical
geotechnical body slidesbodyrapidly
slides along
rapidly along
this this
through
through surface, and the slope undergoes an overall destabilization failure.
surface, and the slope undergoes an overall destabilization failure. The actual investigation The actual
investigation
found that before foundthethat before theofoccurrence
occurrence the landslide, of the landslide,
there was a 2–3 therem was
higha water
2–3 mspray
high
water
near thespray
shearnear the at
outlet shear outlet
the foot at the
of the footwhich
slope, of theillustrated
slope, which the illustrated
buoyant effectthe buoyant
of water
effect of water
pressure on thepressure on the
uplift area. Whenuplift
the area. When
landslide the landslide
occurred, wateroccurred,
pressure in water pressure
the fissures in
and
porefissures
the spaces wasand released,
pore spacesdriving
wasthe slide mass
released, forward
driving the and
slideinto
masstheforward
Danqingand River.
intoAfter
the
Danqing
the end ofRiver. After theaend
the landslide, of thedistributed
linearly landslide, water
a linearly distributed
leakage phenomenonwater remained
leakage phe- on
the front edge.
nomenon The geological
remained on the frontsurvey
edge. results
The showed
geological that the landslide
survey bed outcropping
results showed that the
was visiblebed
landslide at the site, the surface
outcropping abrasion
was visible at was
the developed, and its
site, the surface directionwas
abrasion wasdeveloped,
consistent
with thedirection
and its dip direction of strata. The
was consistent landslide
with the dip mass was mainly
direction of strata.composed of medium-thin
The landslide mass was
laminated
mainly silty mudstone
composed sandwiched
of medium-thin by siltstone
laminated of the Lower
silty mudstone CretaceousbyTonglanlong
sandwiched siltstone of
Formation, which basically
the Lower Cretaceous maintained
Tonglanlong the laminae,
Formation, and basically
which the rock at the front edge
maintained the was bent
laminae,
and elevated, and these characteristics validate the reliability of the simulation
and the rock at the front edge was bent and elevated, and these characteristics validate experiments.
the reliability of the simulation experiments.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, x1394
FOR PEER REVIEW 1817of
of 20
19

Figure
Figure 17.
17. Highway
Highway slope
slope shear
shear failure
failure state.
state.

The destabilization
destabilization processes
processesand andmechanisms
mechanismsofof thethe Zhuquedong
Zhuquedong highway
highway slopeslope
are
are as follows:
as follows: the slope
the slope was subject
was subject to continuous
to continuous heavy rainfall,
heavy rainfall, and the and the ponding
ponding of water on of
water on the of
the platform platform of the excavated
the excavated section of section of thewas
the roadbed roadbed was more conducive
more conducive to the
to the infiltration
infiltration
of rainwaterofintorainwater intoUnder
the slope. the slope. Under theeffects
the combined combined effects
of gravity of gravity
loading, loading,
geotechnical
geotechnical
deteriorationdeterioration and water
and water flotation, the flotation, the softand
soft interlayers interlayers and silty
silty mudstone mudstone
layers at the
front edge
layers of front
at the the slope
edgeunderwent
of the slope flexural and uplift
underwent deformation,
flexural and upliftwhich was gradually
deformation, which
intensified,
was graduallyforming the uplift
intensified, and flexural
forming fold and
the uplift structure thatfold
flexural produces localized
structure crushing,
that produces
mixing and densification of the rock at the end of the uplift. The tensile
localized crushing, mixing and densification of the rock at the end of the uplift. The ten- deformation at
the trailing
sile edge at
deformation of the slope
trailingincreases,
edge of and the middle
the slope and and
increases, rear the
geotechnical
middle and bodies
rear slip
ge-
downwardbodies
otechnical along thesliplayer. As timealong
downward progressed, deformation
the layer. As time and damage accumulated,
progressed, deformation and and
eventually
damage shear failure
accumulated, occurred
and in the
eventually uplift
shear and flexural
failure occurred fold structure.
in the However,
uplift and flexuralinfold
the
middle and upper parts of the slope, the structural layering characteristics
structure. However, in the middle and upper parts of the slope, the structural layering of the original
rock were preserved,
characteristics of theforming
originala typical
rock were“sliding-bending-shearing”
preserved, forming type of instability
a typical “slid-
pattern.
ing-bending-shearing” type of instability pattern.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Through numerical simulation and theoretical analysis of large red-layered flat-
Through numerical simulation and theoretical analysis of large red-layered
dipping bedding landslides, the mechanism of rainfall infiltration and damage mech-
flat-dipping bedding landslides, the mechanism of rainfall infiltration and damage
anism of the bedding slope are clarified in this study, and the following conclusions can
mechanism of the bedding slope are clarified in this study, and the following conclusions
be obtained:
can be obtained:
(1) The effect of heavy rainfall on the water distribution inside the highway slope is
(1) The effect of heavy rainfall on the water distribution inside the highway slope is
significant, while Fs decreases from 1.29 to 0.99, and the slope is in a state of instability.
significant, while Fs decreases from 1.29 to 0.99, and the slope is in a state of insta-
Due to the lack of rapid rainwater infiltration channels, the effect of heavy rainfall on
bility. Due to the lack of rapid rainwater infiltration channels, the effect of heavy
the water distribution inside the natural slope is not significant, while Fs decreases
rainfall on the water distribution inside the natural slope is not significant, while Fs
from 1.114 to 1.106.
decreases from 1.114 to 1.106.
(2) The sliding surfaces obtained from numerical simulation and actual investigation
(2) The sliding surfaces
are relatively close toobtained from
each other, numerical
which simulation
reflects the and
reliability actual
of the investigation
solution method
are relatively close to each other, which reflects3Dthe reliability
based on the secondary development of FLAC considering the deteriorationof the solution method
effect
based on the secondary
of rainwater development
on the geotechnical bodyofandFLAC 3D considering the deterioration effect
the buoyancy force.
(3) of rainwater
Three phasesonofthe geotechnical
instability body and
and failure the rainfall-induced
of the buoyancy force. red-layered bedding
(3) Three
slope phases of instability
are generalized: andand
flexure failure of state,
uplift the rainfall-induced red-layeredstate
deformation exacerbation bedding
and
slope are generalized: flexure and uplift state, deformation exacerbation
shear failure state. The slope destabilization mechanism is a typical “sliding-bending-state and
shear failure
shearing” type.state. The slope destabilization mechanism is a typical “slid-
ing-bending-shearing” type.
Author Contributions: Software, H.L. and L.X.; Validation, F.X. and H.H.; Formal analysis, F.X.,
Author Contributions: Software, H.L. and L.X.; Validation, F.X. and H.H.; Formal analysis, F.X.,
H.H., H.L. and L.X.; Investigation, L.X.; Resources, H.H.; Writing—original draft, F.X. and H.L.;
H.H., H.L. and L.X.; Investigation, L.X.; Resources, H.H.; Writing—original draft, F.X. and H.L.;
Writing—review & editing, F.X. and H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
Writing—review & editing, F.X. and H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published ver-
of the manuscript.
sion of the manuscript.
Funding: This paper received funding from Postgraduate Innovative Project (2021XQLH152) of
Central South University; Projects (42277175, 52204119) supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China; and Project (NRMSSHR-2022-Z08) supported by Key Laboratory of Natural
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 18 of 19

Funding: This paper received funding from Postgraduate Innovative Project (2021XQLH152) of
Central South University; Projects (42277175, 52204119) supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China; and Project (NRMSSHR-2022-Z08) supported by Key Laboratory of Natural
Resources Monitoring and Supervision in Southern Hilly Region, Ministry of Natural Resources. The
authors wish to acknowledge this support.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made
available by the authors on request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References
1. Chae, B.-G.; Park, H.-J.; Catani, F.; Simoni, A.; Berti, M. Landslide prediction, monitoring and early warning: A concise review of
state-of-the-art. Geosci. J. 2017, 21, 1033–1070. [CrossRef]
2. Tang, Y.; Xie, L.; Chen, Y.; Sun, S.; Zha, W.; Lin, H. Automatic recognition of slide mass and inversion analysis of landslide based
on discrete element method. Comput. Geosci. 2023, 176, 105338. [CrossRef]
3. Yang, H.-T.; Bai, B.; Lin, H. Seismic magnitude calculation based on rate- and state-dependent friction law. J. Cent. South Univ.
2023, 30, 2671–2685. [CrossRef]
4. Jiang, X.; Zhu, H.; Yan, Z.; Zhang, F.; Ye, F.; Li, P.; Zhang, X.; Dai, Z.; Bai, Y.; Huang, B. A state-of-art review on development and
progress of backfill grouting materials for shield tunneling. Dev. Built Environ. 2023, 16, 100250. [CrossRef]
5. Zhu, X.; Xie, L.; Tang, Y.; Chen, Y.; Hu, H.; Lu, G.; Chen, C.; Lin, H. Progressive formation of retrogressive landslide and the
lateral length of instability. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 799. [CrossRef]
6. Kacimov, A.; Obnosov, Y.V.; Perret, J. Phreatic surface flow from a near-reservoir saturated tongue. J. Hydrol. 2004, 296, 271–281.
[CrossRef]
7. Qi, G.Q.; Huang, R.Q.; Su, B.Y.; Hu, Y.J.; Zhan, M.L. Numeric simulation on rainfall infiltration on rock slope. Chin. J. Rock Mech.
Eng. 2003, 22, 625–629.
8. Huat, B.B.; Ali, F.H.; Low, T. Water infiltration characteristics of unsaturated soil slope and its effect on suction and stability.
Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2006, 24, 1293–1306. [CrossRef]
9. Chen, H.K.; Zhou, X.H.; Tan, L. Experimental study on the influence for rainfall characteristics to pore water pressure in landslide.
J. Chongqing Norm. Univ. 2017, 34, 49–54.
10. Lian, J.F.; Luo, Q.; Jiang, L.W.; Liu, G.; Xie, T. Shallow stability analysis of soil slopes under seepage parallel to slope surface. Chin.
J. Geotech. Eng. 2015, 37, 1440–1448.
11. Conte, E.; Pugliese, L.; Troncone, A. A Simple Method for Predicting Rainfall-Induced Shallow Landslides. J. Geotech. Geoenviron-
mental Eng. 2022, 148, 04022079. [CrossRef]
12. Liu, X.S.; Zhou, C.B. Study on discontinuous medium model for unsaturated hydro-mechanical coupling of fractured rock masses.
Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng. 2007, 26, 1485–1491.
13. Robson, E.; Milledge, D.; Utili, S.; Dattola, G. A Computationally Efficient Method to Determine the Probability of Rainfall-
Triggered Cut Slope Failure Accounting for Upslope Hydrological Conditions. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 2023, ahead of print.
14. Troncone, A.; Pugliese, L.; Parise, A.; Conte, E. A simple method to reduce mesh dependency in modelling landslides involving
brittle soils. Géotechnique Lett. 2022, 12, 167–173. [CrossRef]
15. Lin, H.Z.; Yu, Y.Z.; Li, G.X.; Peng, J.B. Influence of rainfall characteristics on soil slope failure. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng. 2009,
28, 198–204.
16. Huang, R.Q.; Zhao, J.J.; Ju, N.P.; Deng, H.; Duan, H.P. Study on deformation mechanism and control method of bedding rock
slope along tangtun expressway. Chin. J. Rock Mech. Eng. 2007, 26, 239–246.
17. Liu, H.; Bodvarsson, G. Upscaling of constitutive relations in unsaturated heterogeneous tuff matrix. J. Hydrol. 2003, 276, 198–209.
[CrossRef]
18. Wu, Y.-S.; Liu, H.; Bodvarsson, G. A triple-continuum approach for modeling flow and transport processes in fractured rock. J.
Contam. Hydrol. 2004, 73, 145–179. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Mualem, Y. A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media. Water Resour. Res. 1976, 12,
513–522. [CrossRef]
20. Fredlund, D.G.; Rahardjo, H. Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1993.
21. Huang, L.; Lin, H.; Cao, P.; Zhao, Q.; Pang, Y.; Yong, W. Investigation of the Degradation Mechanism of the Tensile Mechanical
Properties of Sandstone under the Corrosion of Various pH Solutions. Materials 2023, 16, 6536. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Cheng, Y.M.; Lansivaara, T.; Wei, W. Two-dimensional slope stability analysis by limit equilibrium and strength reduction
methods. Comput. Geotech. 2007, 34, 137–150. [CrossRef]
23. Arvin, M.R.; Zakeri, A.; Bahmani Shoorijeh, M. Using finite element strength reduction method for stability analysis of geocell-
reinforced slopes. Geotech. Geol. Eng. 2019, 37, 1453–1467. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 1394 19 of 19

24. Zhang, Y.; Xu, W.Y.; Zou, L.F.; Sun, H.K. Analysis of seepage stability of large-scale landslide under rainfall condition. Rock Soil
Mech. 2013, 34, 833–841.
25. He, C.M.; Deng, X.; Fu, H.Y.; Zeng, L. Influence of Seepage Force on Stability of Coarse Grained Soil High Embankment under
Rainfall Condition. J. Highw. Transp. Res. Dev. 2017, 34, 9.
26. Chen, C.Y.; Chen, H.W.; Wu, W.C. Numerical modeling of interactions of rainfall and earthquakes on slope stability analysis.
Environ. Earth Sci. 2021, 80, 11. [CrossRef]
27. Zhang, X.; Yan, C.H.; Guo, S.L.; Tan, J.Z.; Xu, C.H.; Yu, L.C.; Liu, Y. Derivation of stability formula of gentle slope affected by
temporary confined water. J. Eng. Geol. 2021, 29, 1507–1514.
28. Li, P.; Liu, X.; Jiang, X.; Zhang, X.; Wu, J.; Chen, P. Investigation of the first quasi-rectangular metro tunnel constructed by the 0-θ
method. Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 2023, 17, 1707–1722. [CrossRef]
29. Chen, Q.M.; Fang, Q.; Luo, G.Z.; Wang, G.W. Failure conditions and mechanism of the gentle dip bedding slopes: A case study of
the Zhuquedong Landslide. Chin. J. Geol. Hazard Control 2020, 31, 18–23+32.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.