Techniques of Integration Complete Version-1

Techniques of Integration
MATH 1014
MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 1 / 185

7.1: Integration by parts
Two major integration rules:

Substitution (Change of variable/inverse chain rule).
Integration by parts (IBP).
Their corresponding differentiation rules:

Substitution ⇔ Chain rule for differentiation.
Integration by parts ⇔ Product rule for differentiation.

Derivation of integration by parts formula:
The Product Rule states that if f and g are differentiable functions,

then
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x)
dx
Integrate on both sides
Z
[f (x)g ′ (x) + g(x)f ′ (x)] dx = f (x)g(x)
Z Z
f (x)g ′ (x)dx + g(x)f ′ (x)dx = f (x)g(x)
We can rearrange this equation as

Z Z
f (x)g ′ (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f ′ (x)dx.

Integration By Parts Formula
Z Z
′
f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − f ′ (x)g(x)dx.
or simply, udv = uv − vdu,

R R
u = f (x), v = g(x). Moreover, for
definite integrals, we have
Z b Z b
udv = uv|ba − vdu.
a a
Remark: IBP allows us to turn a complicated integral into more

simple ones. We need to make sure we choose u and dv carefully. In
general, the function u is chosen such that du
dx
is simpler than u (or at
least not more diffcult).

R
Example: Find x sin x dx.
Solution: Let u = x, dv = sin x dx. Then du = dx, v = − cos x.
Z Z
x sin xdx = uv − v du
Z
= x · (− cos x) − (− cos x) · 1dx
Z
= −x cos x + cos xdx
= −x cos x + sin x + c

Our aim in using integration by parts is to obtain a simpler
integral than the one we started with.
R R
x sin xdx changes to cos xdx.
It is important to choose suitable u and v
In previous example, if we choose
u = sin x, dv = x.
x2
Then du = cos xdx, v = 2
. By using integration by parts.
Z Z
x sin xdx = uv − vdu
Z 2
1 2 x
= x sin x − cos xdx ⇒ hard to evaluate!
2 2
Try to choose u = f (x) to be a function that becomes simpler when

differentiated.
R
Example: Evaluate ln x dx.
Solution: Here we don’t have much choice for u and dv. Let
u = ln x dv = dx
Then we have
1
du = dx v = x.
x
Integrating by parts, we get
Z Z
dx
ln x dx = x ln x − x
Z x
= x ln x − 1dx
= x ln x − x + C
Remark: Integration by parts is effective in this example because the

derivative of the function f (x) = ln x is simpler than f .
R
Exercise: Evaluate the integral x cos 5x dx.
Solution:
Z Z
1
x cos 5xdx = x · d sin 5x
5
x Z
x
= sin 5x − sin 5xd
5 5
x 1 Z
= sin 5x − sin 5xd(5x)
5 25
x 1
= sin 5x + cos 5x + c
5 25

R 2 t
Example: Find t e dt.
Solution: Z Z
t2 et dt = t2 det
Z
2 t
=t e − et dt2
Z
= t2 et − 2 et tdt
Z
2 t
=t e −2 tdet
Z
2 t t t
= t e − 2 te − e dt
Z
= t2 et − 2tet + 2 et dt
= t2 et − 2tet + 2et + c
Remark: In this example, we used integration by parts twice.

(x2 + 2x) cos xdx
R
Exercise: Evaluate
(x2 + 2x) cos xdx
R
Solution:
Z
= x2 + 2x d sin x
Z
2
= x + 2x sin x − sin xd x2 + 2x
Z
= x2 + 2x sin x − sin x · (2x + 2)dx
Z Z
2
= x + 2x sin x − 2 sin x · xdx − 2 sin xdx
Z
= x2 + 2x sin x + 2 xd cos x + 2 cos x
Z
2
= x + 2x sin x + 2 x cos x − cos xdx + 2 cos x

= x2 + 2x sin x + 2x cos x − 2 sin x + 2 cos x + C

R x
Example: Evaluate e sin xdx.
Solution: Neither ex nor sin x becomes simpler when differentiated,
but we try choosing u = ex and dv = sin xdx anyway. Then
integration by parts gives
Z Z
x x
e sin xdx = −e cos x + ex cos xdx (1)
R x
e cos xdx is no simpler than the original one, but at least it’s no
more difficult. We persevere and integrate by parts again. Use
u = ex and dv = Z
cos xdx. Z
ex cos xdx = ex sin x − ex sin xdx
It appears Ras if we have accomplished nothing because we have
arrived
R x
at ex sin xdx. However, if we put the expression for
e cos xdx from Equation (1), we get
Z Z
x x x
e sin xdx = −e cos x + e sin x − ex sin xdx.
Can be regarded as equation to be solved for the unknown integral!
R x
Solution Continued: Adding e sin xdx to both sides, we obtain
Z
2 ex sin xdx = −ex cos x + ex sin x.
Dividing by 2 and adding the constant of integration, we get

Z
1
ex sin xdx = ex (sin x − cos x) + C.
2

R 2θ
Exercise: Evaluate e sin 3θ dθ.
Solution:
Z
1 Z 2θ
e2θ sin 3θdθ = − e d cos 3θ
3
1 Z
= − e2θ cos 3θ − cos 3θde2θ
3
1 1 Z 2θ
= − e2θ cos 3θ + 2e cos 3θdθ
3 3Z
1 2
= − e2θ cos 3θ + e2θ d sin 3θ
3 9
1 2 2θ Z
= − e2θ cos 3θ + e sin 3θ − sin 3θde2θ
3 9
1 2θ 2 4 Z 2θ
= − e cos 3θ + e2θ sin 3θ − e sin 3θdθ
3 9 9

Solution Continued: Hence
4 Z 2θ 1 2

1+ e sin 3θdθ = − e2θ cos 3θ + e2θ sin 3θ + c
9 3 9
9 1 2
Z
e2θ sin 3θdθ = − e2θ cos 3θ + e2θ sin 3θ + c
13 3 9
3 2θ 2 2θ
= − e cos 3θ + e sin 3θ + c
13 13

R √
Example: Evaluate cos xdx.
√ 1
Solution: Let u = x. Then du = 12 x− 2 dx and
√
dx = 2 xdu = 2udu
Z √ Z
cos xdx = 2 u cos udu
Z
=2 ud sin u
Z
= 2 u sin u − sin udu + C
= 2u sin u + 2 cos u + C
√ √ √
= 2 x sin x + 2 cos x + C.
Remark: Substitution + Integration by parts.

R 3 −t2
Exercise: Evaluate the integral te dt.
Solution: Let u = t2 . Then du = 2tdt and
1 1
t3 dt = t2 · tdt = u · du = udu.
2 2
R 3 −t2 1
ue−u du
R
Hence t e dt = 2
1Z
=− ude−u
2
1 Z
−u −u
= − ue − e du
2
1 1
= − ue−u + · −e−u + c
2 2
1 −u 1 −u
= − ue − e + c
2 2

Evaluate definite integral by integration by parts.
Z b Z b
′
f (x)g (x)dx = f (x)g(x)|ba − g(x)f ′ (x)dx.
a a
R1
Example: Calculate 0 tan−1 x dx.
Solution: Let u = tan−1 x, dv = dx. Then

Z 1 Z 1
−1 −1 1
tan xdx = x tan x − x d tan−1 x
0 0 0
π Z 1
x
=1· −0·0− dx
4 0 1 + x2
π Z1 x
= − dx.
4 0 1 + x2

Solution Continued: To evaluate the integral 01 1+x
x R
2 dx, we use the
substitution t = 1 + x . Then dt = 2xdx, so xdx = 12 dt. When

2
x = 0, t = 1; when x = 1, t = 2; so
2
Z 1
x 1 Z 2 dt 1
2
dx = = ln |t|
0 1+x 2 1 t 2 1
1 1
= (ln 2 − ln 1) = ln 2
2 2
Therefore
Z 1
−1 π Z1 x π ln 2
tan xdx = − 2
dx = − .
0 4 0 1+x 4 2

Example: Prove the reduction formula
Z
1 n−1Z
sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x + sinn−2 xdx.
n n
Proof: Let u = sinn−1 x, dv = sin xdx. Then integration by parts
gives
Z Z
sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) sinn−2 x cos2 xdx
Since cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x, we have

Z Z Z
n n−1 n−2
sin xdx = − cos x sin x+(n−1) sin xdx−(n−1) sinn xdx
We solve this equation for the desired integral by taking the last term
on the right side to the left side. Thus we have
Z Z
n sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x + (n − 1) sinn−2 xdx
Z
1 n−1Z
sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x + sinn−2 xdx
n n
The reduction formula
Z
1 n−1Z
sinn xdx = − cos x sinn−1 x + sinn−2 xdx
n n
is useful because by using it repeatedly, i.e.,
1
sinn−2 xdx = − n−2 cos x sinn−3 x + n−3 sinn−4 xdx
R R
n−2
···
sin xdx = − 3 cos x sin2 x + 23 sin xdx (n is odd).
3 1
R R
sinn x dx in terms of
R R
We couldR eventually express sin x dx (if n is
odd) or (sin x)0 dx = dx (if n is even).
R

Priorities for choosing u. When the function to be integrated is a mix
of functions, usually, use the following for your choice of u, in order.
1 Let u = ln x.
2 Let u = xn (n ⩾ 0).
3 Let u = enx .

Extra (after class) exercises for IBP.
√ 3 5
x x + 1dx. (Solution: 23 x(x + 1) 2 − 15 4
R
1 (x + 1) 2 + c ).
x ln 4xdx. (Solution: 13 x3 ln 4x − 91 x3 + c ).
R 2
2
x sec2 xdx. (Solution: x tan x + ln | cos x| + c ).

R
3
√
sin−1 xdx. (Solution: x sin−1 x + 1 − x2 + c ).
R
4

7.2: Trigonometric Integrals
We will focus on integrals of the form:

Z
sinm x · cosn xdx;
Z
tanm x · secn xdx;
Z Z Z
sin mx cos nxdx, sin mx sin nxdx, cos mx cos nxdx.
→ sinm x · cosn xdx. (Integrating a product of powers of sin and

R
cos).

Main trigonometric identities:
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1;
1 1
cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x), sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x)
2 2
1
or sin x cos x = sin 2x.
2
sinm x · cosn xdx :
R
Strategy for evaluating
Case 1. One power odd. We use cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 and (usually

just) substitution.
Case 2. Both powers even. We use

cos2 x = 21 (1 + cos 2x), sin2 x = 21 (1 − cos 2x) or
sin x cos x = 21 sin 2x.

cos3 xdx
R
Example: Evaluate
cos3 xdx = cos2 x cos xdx

R R
Solution:
Z
= 1 − sin2 x cos xdx
Z
= 1 − sin2 x d sin x
sin3 x
= sin x − +C
3

sin5 x cos2 xdx
R
Example: Find
Solution:
Z
sin5 x cos2 xdx
Z 2
= sin2 x cos2 x sin xdx
Z 2
= 1 − cos2 x cos2 x sin xdx
Z
=− 1 − 2 cos2 x + cos4 x cos2 xd cos x
Z
=− cos2 x − 2 cos4 x + cos6 x d cos x
" #
cos3 x cos5 x cos7 x
=− −2· + +C
3 5 7
1 2 1
= − cos3 x + cos5 x − cos7 x + C.
3 5 7
Remark: An odd power of sine or cosine enabled us to separate a
single factor and convert the remaining even power.
Question: How to deal with even powers of both sine. and cosine?

Example: Evaluate 0π sin2 xdx
R
Solution: Using the half-angle formula for sin2 x. We have

1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x).
2
Hence Z π
sin2 xdx
0
Z π
1
= (1 − cos 2x)dx
0 2
1 Z π
1Z π
= 1dx − cos 2xdx
2 0 2 0
1 π 1Z π
= x − cos 2xd2x
2 0 4 0
π
1 1
= π − sin 2x
2 4 0
1 1 1 1

= π− sin 2π − sin 0 = π
2 4 4 2
sin4 xdx.
R
Example: Find
Solution:
Z Z 2
4
sin xdx = sin2 x dx
2
Z
1 − cos 2x
= dx
2
1Z
= 1 − 2 cos 2x + cos2 2x dx
4Z
1 1

= 1 − 2 cos 2x + (1 + cos 4x) dx
4 2
1Z 3 1

= − 2 cos 2x + cos 4x dx
4 2 2
1 3 1 1

= · x − sin 2x + · sin 4x + C
4 2 2 4
3 1 1
= x − sin 2x + sin 4x + C
8 4 32

Strategy for Evaluating sinm x cosn xdx
R
(a) If n = 2k + 1, k ∈ N, then save one cosine factor and use

cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x to express the remaining factor in terms of sine:
Z Z k
m
sin x cos2k+1
xdx = sinm x cos2 x cos xdx
Z k
= sinm x 1 − sin2 x cos xdx
Then substitute u = sin x.
(b) If m = 2k + 1, k ∈ N, save one sine factor and use

sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x to express the remaining factor in terms of cosine:
Z Z k
sin2k+1 x cosn xdx = sin2 x cosn x sin xdx
Z k
= 1 − cos2 x cosn x sin xdx
Then substitute u = cos x. (If the powers of both sine and cosine are
odd, either (a) or (b) can be used. )
Strategy for Evaluating sinm x cosn xdx
R
(c) If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, use the half-angle
identities
1 1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x), cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2 2
or sin x cos x = 21 sin 2x.

Exercise: sin2 (πx) cos5 (πx)dx
R
Solution: Let u = πx, du = πdx. Then dx = π1 du

Z
1Z
sin2 (πx) cos5 (πx)dx = sin2 u cos5 udu
πZ
1
= sin2 u cos4 u cos udu
πZ
1 2
= sin2 u 1 − sin2 u d sin u
πZ
1
= sin2 u 1 − 2 sin2 u + sin4 u d sin u
πZ
1 2
= sin u − 2 sin4 u + sin6 u d sin u
π"
1 sin3 u sin5 u sin7 u
#
= −2· + +C
π 3 5 7
1 2 1
= sin3 u − sin5 u + sin7 u + C
3π 5π 7π
1 2 1
= sin3 πx − sin5 πx + sin7 πx + C
MATH 1014
3π 5π
Techniques of Integration
7π 32 / 185
Example: Evaluate tan6 x sec4 xdx
R
Solution: Note that 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x and d tan x = sec2 xdx. We

have Z
tan6 x sec4 xdx
Z
= tan6 x sec2 x · sec2 xdx
Z
= tan6 x 1 + tan2 x d tan x
Z h i
= tan6 x + tan8 x d tan x
1 1
= tan7 x + tan9 x + C
7 9

Example: Find tan5 θ sec7 θdθ
R
Solution: Note that d sec θ = tan θ sec θdθ and tan2 θ = sec2 θ − 1.
We have Z
tan5 θ sec7 θdθ
Z
= tan4 θ sec6 θd sec θ
Z 2
= sec2 θ − 1 sec6 θd sec θ
Z
= sec4 θ − 2 sec2 θ + 1 sec6 θd sec θ
Z
= sec10 θ − 2 sec8 θ + sec6 θ d sec θ
1 1 1
= sec11 θ − 2 · sec9 θ + sec7 θ + C
11 9 7
1 2 1
= sec11 θ − sec9 θ + sec7 θ + C
11 9 7

Strategy for Evaluating tanm x secn xdx
R
(a) If n = 2k, k ∈ N, save a factor of sec2 x and use

sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x to express the remaining factors in terms of tan x:
Z Z
m 2k
tan x sec xdx = tanm x sec2(k−1) x sec2 xdx
Z
= tanm x sec2(k−1) xd tan x
Then substitute u = tan x.
(b) If m = 2k + 1 and n ⩾ 1, save sec x tan x and use

tan2 x = sec2 x − 1 to express the remaining factors in terms of sec x:
Z Z k
tan2k+1 x secn xdx = tan2 x secn−1 x sec x tan xdx
Z k
= sec2 x − 1 secn−1 xd sec x
Then substitute u = sec x.

Identities:
(I) R tan xdx = ln | sec x| + C
R
(II) sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| + c

Proof: (I) Z Z
sin x
tan xdx = dx
cos x
Z
1
=− d cos x
cos x
= − ln | cos x| + C
= ln | sec x| + C
(II)
Z
sec x(sec x + tan x)
Z
sec xdx = dx
sec x + tan x
Z
1
= d(sec x + tan x)
sec x + tan x
= ln | sec x + tan x| + C

tan3 xdx
R
Example: Evaluate
Solution:
Z Z
3
tan xdx = tan x sec2 x − 1 dx
Z Z
= tan xd tan x − tan xdx
tan2 x
= − ln | sec x| + C
2

sec3 xdx
R
Example: Find
Solution:
Z Z
3
sec xdx = sec x · sec2 xdx
Z
= sec xd tan x
Z
= sec x tan x − tan xd sec x
Z
= sec x tan x − tan2 x sec xdx
Z
= sec x tan x − sec2 x − 1 sec xdx
Z Z
= sec x tan x − sec3 xdx + sec xdx
So
1
Z Z
sec3 xdx = sec x tan x + sec xdx
2
1
= (sec x tan x + ln | sec x + tan x|) + C
2
R R
How
R
to evaluate sin mx cos nxdx, sin mx sin nxdx or
cos mx cos nxdx
Identities:
(a) sin A cos B = 21 [sin(A − B) + sin(A + B)]
(b) sin A sin B = 21 [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
(c) cos A cos B = 12 [cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)]

R
Example: sin 4x cos 5xdx
Solution:
Z Z
1
sin 4x cos 5xdx = [sin(4x − 5x) + sin(4x + 5x)]dx
2
Z
1
= [sin(−x) + sin 9x]dx
2
Z
1
= (sin 9x − sin x)dx
2
1 1

= · − cos 9x + cos x + C
2 9
1 1
= − cos 9x + cos x + C
18 2

R cos x+sin 2x
Exercise: Evaluate sin x
dx
Solution:
Z
cos x + sin 2x Z
cos x + 2 sin x cos x
dx = dx
sin x sin x
Z
2 sin x + 1
= cos xdx
sin x
Z
1
= 2+ d sin x
sin x
= 2 sin x + ln | sin x| + C

R cos5 α
Exercise: Evaluate √
sin α
dα
Solution:
Z
cos5 α Z
cos4 α cos α
√ dα = √ dα
sin α sin α
2
Z
(1 − sin2 α)
= √ d sin α
sin α
Z
1 − 2 sin2 α + sin4 α
= √ d sin α
Z
sin α
1 3 7

= sin− 2 α − 2 sin 2 α + sin 2 α d sin α
1 1 1 5 1 9
= 1 sin1− 2 α − α ·
3 sin α +
2
7 sin 2 α
1− 2
1+ 2 1+ 2
1 4 5 2 9
= 2 sin 2 α − sin 2 α + sin 2 α + C.
5 9

7.3: Trigonometric substitution
√
x 4 − x2 dx.
R
Example: Evaluate
Solution: Let u = 4 − x2 , du = −2xdx. Hence xdx = − 12 du and
Z √ Z √ 1

x 4− x2 dx = u · − du
2
1Z 1
=− u 2 du
2
1 1 1+ 12
=− · 1u +C
2 1+ 2
1 3
= − u2 + C
3
1 3
= − 4 − x2 2 + C
3

√
4 − x2 dx?
R
Question: How to evaluate
Solution: Let x = 2 sin θ, − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Then
√ q
4 − x2 = 4 − 4 sin2 θ = 2 cos θ and
dx = d2 sin θ = 2 cos θdθ.
Therefore, using (inverse) substitution, we have
Z √ Z
4 − x2 dx = 2 cos θ · 2 cos θdθ
Z
= 2 (cos 2θ + 1)dθ
Z Z
= cos 2θd(2θ) + 2 1dθ
= sin 2θ + 2θ + c
= 2 sin θ cos θ + 2θ + c
1 √ x
= x · 4 − x2 + 2 arcsin + c
2 2
Table of Trigonometric Substitution.
Expression
√ Substitution Trigonometric Identity
√a − x
2 2 x = a sin θ 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
2
√a + x
2 x = a tan θ 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
x 2 − a2 x = a sec θ sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ
Remark: Even when trig substitutions are possible, they may not give
the easiest solution. Always look for a simpler method first.

R √9−x2
Example: Evaluate dx
x2
Solution: Let x = 3 sin θ, where − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . Then
dx = 3 cos θdθ and

√ q √
9 − x2 = 9 − 9 sin2 θ = 9 cos2 θ = 3| cos θ| = 3 cos θ
R √9−x2 3 cos θ
· 3 cos θdθ
R
Hence x2
dx = (3 sin θ)2
Z
= cot2 θdθ
Z
= csc2 θ − 1 dθ
= − cot θ − θ + C

Solution Continued:
From the figure, √

9 − x2
cot θ = .
x
Therefore,
√ √
Z
9 − x2 9 − x2 x
dx = − − arcsin + c.
x2 x 3

Example: Find the area enclosed by the ellipse
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
Solution: Solving the equation of the

ellipse for y, we get
y2 x2 a2 − x 2
= 1 − = or
b2 a2 a2
b√ 2
y=±a − x2 .
a
Because the ellipse is symmetric with
respect to both axes, the total area A
is four times the area in the first quad-
rant.
Solution Continued: The part of the ellipse in the first quadrant is
given by the function
b√ 2
y= a − x2 0 ⩽ x ⩽ a.
a
and so Z a √
1 b 2
A= a − x2 dx.
4 0 a
To evaluate this integral we substitute x = a sin θ. Then
dx = a cos θdθ.
To change the limits of integration we note that when

x = 0, sin θ = 0, so θ = 0; when x = a, sin θ = 1, so θ = π/2. Also
√ q √
a2 − x 2 = a2 − a2 sin2 θ = a2 cos2 θ = a| cos θ| = a cos θ.

Solution Continued: Since 0 ⩽ θ ⩽ π/2, we have
b Z a√ 2 b Z π/2
A=4 a − x dx = 4
2 a cos θ · a cos θdθ
a 0 a 0
Z π/2 Z π/2
1
= 4ab cos2 θdθ = 4ab (1 + cos 2θ)dθ
0 0 2
π/2
1 π

= 2ab θ + sin 2θ = 2ab + 0 − 0 = πab
2 0 2
We have shown that the area of an ellipse with semiaxes a and b is
πab. In particular, taking a = b = r, we have proved the famous
formula that the area of a circle with radius r is πr2 .
Remark: Since the integral in the above example was a definite

integral, we changed the limits of integration and did not have to
convert back to the original variable x.

√1
R
Example: Find x2 x2 +4
dx.
Solution: Let x = 2 tan θ, −π/2 < θ < π/2. Then dx = 2 sec2 θdθ
and
√ q √
x + 4 = 4 (tan2 θ + 1) = 4 sec2 θ = 2| sec θ| = 2 sec θ
2
Thus we have
Z
dx Z
2 sec2 θdθ 1 Z sec θ
√ = = dθ
x2 x2 + 4 4 tan2 θ · 2 sec θ 4 tan2 θ
To evaluate this trigonometric integral we put everything in terms of
sin θ and cos θ :
sec θ 1 cos2 θ cos θ
2 = · 2 =
tan θ cos θ sin θ sin2 θ

Solution Continued: Therefore, making the substitution u = sin θ, we
have Z
dx 1 Z cos θ 1 Z du
√ = dθ =
x2 x2 + 4 4 sin2 θ 4 u2
1 1 1

= − +C =− +C
4 u 4 sin θ
csc θ
=− +C
4
√
We use above Figure to determine that csc θ = x2 + 4/x and so
√
Z
dx x2 + 4
√ = − + C.
x2 x2 + 4 4x
√ x
R
Example: Find x2 +4
dx.
Solution: Let u = x2 + 4. Then du = 2xdx and xdx = 12 du.. Hence,
Z
x 1Z 1
√ dx = √ du
x2 + 4 2 u
1 Z −1
= u 2 du
2
1 1 1− 21
= · 1u +c
2 1− 2
1
= u2 + c
√
= x2 + 4 + C
Remark: Here the trigonometric substitutions (x = 2 tan θ) is

possible, but it won’t give the easiest solution. We should look for a
simpler method first.

√ dx
R
Example: Evaluate x2 −a2
, where a > 0.
Solution: Let x = a sec θ, 0 < θ < π2 , π < θ < 3π
2
. Then
dx = a sec θ tan θdθ and
√ √
x2 − a2 = a2 sec2 θ − a2 = a| tan θ| = a tan θ.
Therefore,
Z
dx Z
a sec θ tan θ
√ = dθ
x 2 − a2 Z a tan θ
= sec θdθ
= ln | sec θ + tan θ| + c
√
x x 2 − a2
= ln + +c
a a
√
= ln x + x2 − a2 − ln a + c
√
= ln x + x2 − a2 + c.
R 3√3/2 x3
Example: Find 0 (4x2 +9)3/2
dx.
√ 3
3/2
Solution: First we note that (4x2 + 9) = 4x2 + 9 , so
√
trigonometric substitution is appropriate. Although 4x2 + 9 is not
quite one of the expressions in the table of trigonometric
substitutions, it becomes one of them if we make the preliminary
substitution u = 2x. Then
Z 3√3/2 Z 3√3
x3 1 u3
3/2
dx = du.
0 (4x2 + 9) 0 16 u2 + 9
The make a tangent substitution, we have u = 3 tan θ, which gives

du = 3 sec2 θdθ and
√ q
u + 9 = 9 tan2 θ + 9 = 3 sec θ
2
√ √
When u = 0, tan θ = 0, so θ = 0; when u = 3 3, tan θ = 3, so
θ = π/3.
Solution Continued: So we have
Z 3√3 Z π/3 27
1 u3 tan3 θ 3
du = 8
sec2 θdθ
0 16 u2 + 9 0 27 sec3 θ 2
3 Z π/3 tan3 θ 3 Z π/3 sin3 θ
= dθ = dθ
16 0 sec θ 16 0 cos2 θ
3 Z π/3 1 − cos2 θ
= sin θdθ
16 0 cos2 θ
Now we substitute u = cos θ so that du = − sin θdθ. When
θ = 0, u = 1; when θ = π/3, u = 12 . Therefore
Z 3√3/2
x3 3 Z 1/2 1 − u2 3 Z 1/2 −2

dx = − du = 1 − u du
0 (4x2 + 9)3/2 16 1 u2 16 1
1/2
3 1 3 1

= u+ = + 2 − (1 + 1)
16 u 1 16 2
3
= .
32
R x
Example: Evaluate √
3−2x−x2
dx.
Solution: We can transform the integrand into a function for which
trigonometric substitution is appropriate by first completing the
square under the root sign:

3 − 2x − x2 = 3 − x2 + 2x = 3 + 1 − x2 + 2x + 1
= 4 − (x + 1)2
This suggests that we make the substitution u = x + 1. Then

du = dx and x = u − 1, so
Z
x Z
u−1
√ dx = √ du.
3 − 2x − x2 4 − u2

Solution Continued: √We now substitute u = 2 sin θ, giving
du = 2 cos θdθ and 4 − u2 = 2 cos θ, so
Z
x Z
2 sin θ − 1
√ dx = 2 cos θdθ
3 − 2x − x 2 2 cos θ
Z
= (2 sin θ − 1)dθ
= −2 cos θ − θ + C
√ −1 u

= − 4 − u − sin
2 +C
2
√ −1 x + 1

= − 3 − 2x − x − sin
2 + C.
2

R x
Exercise: Evaluate the integral √
x2 +x+1
dx.
2 √
1
Solution: x2 + x + 1 = x + 2
+ 34 . Let x + 1
2√
= 2
3
tan θ with
√
− π2 < θ < π2 . Then x = 2
3
tan θ − 1
2
and dx = 23 sec2 θdθ
√ √
3
x 2
tan θ − 12 3
2 √
tan θ − 21
√ = r √ 2 =
x2 + x + 1 3 3
3
sec θ
2
tan θ + 4
2

Solution Continued:
Z
x
√ dx
x2 + x + 1
√
3
√
Z
tan θ − 21 3
= 2 √
sec2 θdθ
3
sec θ 2
2
Z "√ #
3 1
= tan θ sec θ − sec θ dθ
2 2
√
3 1
= sec θ − ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C
2 2
√ √ √
3 x2 + x + 1 1 x2 + x + 1 x + 21
= · √ − ln √ + √3 + c
2 3 2 3
2 2 2
√ #
√ √
"
1 1 3
= x2 + x + 1 − ln x2 + x + 1 + x + − ln +c
2 2 2
√ 1 √ 1
= x2 + x + 1 − ln x2 + x + 1 + x + + c.
2 2
Exercise:

Find the length

of the arc of the curve y = 12 x2 from point
P −1, 12 to point Q 1, 12 .
R1 √ R √
Solution: L = −1 1 + x2 dx = 2 01 1 + x2 dx Let
x = tan θ, − π2 ⩽ θ ⩽ π2 . when x = 0, tan θ = 0, θ = 0 when
√ √
x = 1, tan θ = 1, θ = π4 . Moreover, 1 + x2 = 1 + tan2 θ = sec θ
and dx = d tan θ = sec2 θ. Hence,
Z π
4
L =2 sec θ · sec2 θdθ
0
π
4
= sec θ tan θ + ln | sec θ + tan θ|
0
π π π π
= sec tan + ln sec + tan
4 4 4 4
− [sec 0 tan 0 + ln | sec 0 + tan 0|]
√ √
= 2 + ln( 2 + 1) − 0
√ √
= 2 + ln( 2 + 1).
10.3: Polar Coordinates
Coordinates: A coordinate system represents a point in the plane by

an ordered pair of numbers.
Cartesian coordinates :

Polar coordinate system
We choose a point O in the plane that
is called the pole (or origin). Then
we draw a ray (half-line) starting at
O called the polar axis. This axis is
usually drawn horizontally to the right
and corresponds to the positive x-axis
in Cartesian coordinates.
Let r be the distance from O to P

and let θ be the angle (usually mea-
sured in radians) between the polar axis
and the line OP . Then the point P is
represented by the ordered pair (r, θ)
and r, θ are called polar coordinates of
P.
θ > 0 : measured in counterclockwise
direction
θ < 0 : measured in clockwise direc-
tion
each point has many representation
(r, θ) and (−r, θ) lie on the same line

through 0 and the same distance from
0 , but on the opposite sites of 0 .

Example:
Plot the points whose polar coordinates are given.
5π
(a) 1, 4 , (b) (2, 3π), (c) (2, −2π/3), (d) (−3, 3π/4).

In polar coordinate system, each point has many representation the
point represented by polar coordinates (r, θ) is also represented by
(r, θ + 2nπ) and (−r, θ + (2n + 1)π), where n is any integer.

Example: 1, 5π
4
could be written as (1, −3π/4) or (1, 13π/4) or

−1, π4 etc.

Connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates:
cos θ = xr , sin θ = yr
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
valid for all of r and θ.

r 2 = x2 + y 2
y
tan θ =
x

Example: Convert the point 2, π3 from polar to Cartesian
coordinates.
π
Solution: r = 2, θ = 3
π 1
x = r cos θ = 2 cos =2· =1
3 √2
π 3 √
y = r sin θ = 2 sin = 2 · = 3
3 2
√
Therefore, the point is (1, 3) in Cartesian coordinates

Example: Represent the point with Cartesian coordinates (1, -1) in
terms of polar coordinates.
Solution: x = 1, y = −1
q q √
r= x2 + y 2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 2
y −1
tan θ = = = −1
x 1
Since (1, −1) lies
√
in thefourth
√
quadrant,

we can choose θ = − π4 or
θ = 7π
4
. Thus 2, − π4 or 2, 7π
4
are the possible answers.

Definition: Polar Curves
The graph of a polar equation r = f (θ) (or F (r, θ) = 0 ) consists of
all points P that have at least one polar representation (r, θ) whose
coordinates satisfy the equation.
Example: What curve is represented by the polar equation r = 2 ?
Solution: r = 2 represents a circle with

center O and radius 2 .

Example: Sketch the polar curve θ = 1.

Example:
(a) Sketch the curve with polar equation r = 2 cos θ
(b) Find a Cartesian equation for this curve.
Solution: (a) We find the values of r for some convenient values of θ

and plot the corresponding points (r, θ). Then we join these points
to sketch the curve, which appears to be a circle. We have used only
values of θ between 0 and π, since if we let θ increase beyond π, we
obtain the same points again.

Solution continued:
(b) From x = r cos θ we have cos θ = x/r, so the equation
r = 2 cos θ becomes r = 2x/r, which gives
2x = r2 = x2 + y 2 or x2 + y 2 − 2x = 0
Completing the square, we obtain
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 1
which is an equation of a circle with center (1, 0) and radius 1 .

Example: Sketch the curve r = 1 + sin θ.
Solution: First, sketch the graph of r = 1 + sin θ in Cartesian
coordinates. h i
a) θ ∈ 0, π2 , r increasing from 1 to 2
h i
π
b) θ ∈ , π , r decreasing from 2 to 1
h2 i
c) θ ∈ π, 3π2 i
, r decreasing from 1 to 0
h
3π
d) θ ∈ 2
, 2π , r increasing from 0 to 1
When θ increase beyond 2π or decrease

beyond 0 , the figure repeat itself.
Cardioid
Example: Sketch the curve r = cos 2θ
Solution: First, sketch r = cos 2θ, 0 ⩽ θ ⩽ 2π in Cartesian

coordinates.
Four-leaved rose: symmetric about the polar axis, about θ = π2 ,

about pole.

Definition: Symmetry
1) If polar equation is unchanged when θ is replaced by −θ, the curve
is symmetric about the polar axis.
2) If the equation is unchanged when r is replaced by −r, or when θ
is replaced by θ + π, the curve is symmetric about the pole.
3) If the equation is unchanged when θ is replaced by π − θ, the
curve is symmetric about the vertical line θ = π2 .

Tangents to Polar Curves
For a given polar curve r = f (θ).
x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ

y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ
dy dy dx
We know that y is a function of x. By chain rule dθ
= dx
· dθ
. Hence
dy dr
dy dθ dθ
sin θ + r cos θ
= dx = dr .
dx dθ dθ
cos θ − r sin θ
Horizontal tangent: dy
dθ
= 0 provided that dx
dθ
̸= 0
dx dy
Vertical tangent: dθ
= 0 provided that dθ ̸= 0
dy dx dy
when dθ = dθ = 0. check the limit of dx at those points.

Example:
a) For the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ, find the slope of the tangent line
when θ = π3
b) Find the points on the cardioid where the tangent line is horizontal
or vertical.
Solution:
dr
dy sin θ + r cos θ
dθ
= dr
dx cos θ − r sin θ
dθ
cos θ sin θ + (1 + sin θ) cos θ
=
cos2 θ − (1 + sin θ) sin θ
(1 + 2 sin θ) cos θ
=
1 − sin2 θ − (sin θ + sin2 θ)
cos θ(1 + 2 sin θ)
=
(1 + sin θ)(1 − 2 sin θ)

Solution continued:
(a)
dy cos π3 1 + 2 sin π3
=
dx θ= π3 1 + sin π3 1 − 2 sin π3
√
1 3
2
1+2· 2
= √
3
√
1+ 1 − 2 · 23
2
√
1+ 3
= √ √
(2 + 3)(1 − 3)
√ √
1+ 3 1+ 3
= √ √ = √ = −1
2+ 3−2 3−3 −1 − 3

Solution continued:
(b) Observe that
dy π 3π 7π 11π
= cos θ(1 + 2 sin θ) = 0 when θ = , , ,
dθ 2 2 6 6
dx 3π π 5π
= (1 + sin θ)(1 − 2 sin θ) = 0 when θ = , ,
dθ 2 6 6
Therefore,
there
are horizontal
tangents at the points

2, π2 , 12 , 7π
6
, 1 11π
2
, 6
and vertical tangents at 3 π
,
2 6
and 3 5π
,
2 6
.
dy
when θ = 3π , = dx
2 dθ dθ
= 0. We calculate its limit.

dy cos θ(1 + 2 sin θ)
lim − = lim −
θ→( 3π
2 )
dx θ→( 3π2 ) (1 + sin θ)(1 − 2 sin θ)
1 + 2 sin θ cos θ
= lim − lim −
θ→( 3π
2 )
1 − 2 sin θ θ→( 3π2 ) 1 + sin θ
1−2·1 − sin θ
= lim −
1 − 2 · (−1) θ→( 3π2 ) cos θ
1
= lim tan θ = ∞
3 θ→( 3π2 )−
dy
Similarly, limθ→ 3π + dx = 13 limθ→ π + tan θ = −∞ Thus, there is
(2) (2)
a vertical tangent line at the pole.

Exercise: Find the points on the curve r = 1 − sin θ where the
tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
Solution: x = r cos θ = (1 − sin θ) cos θ
y = r sin θ = (1 − sin θ) sin θ

dx
Then dθ
= − cos θ · cos θ + (1 − sin θ) · (− sin θ)
= sin2 θ − 1 − sin θ + sin2 θ

= 2 sin2 θ − sin θ − 1
= (2 sin θ + 1)(sin θ − 1)
dy
= − cos θ sin θ + (1 − sin θ) cos θ
dθ
= cos θ(1 − 2 sin θ).

Solution continued: So
dx
dθ
= 0 ⇒ (2 sin θ + 1)(sin θ − 1) = 0 ⇒ sin θ = 1 or sin θ = − 12
π 7π 11π
⇒θ= , or
2 6 6
dy 1
= 0 ⇒ cos θ(1 − 2 sin θ) = 0 ⇒ cos θ = 0 or sin θ =
dθ 2
π 3π π 5π
⇒θ= , , ,
2 2 6 6
dy
dy 3π π 5π
Hence, dx = dxdθ
= 0 when θ = ,
2 6
or 6
and the given curve has
dθ
horizontal line at
3π 3π 3π

(r, θ) = 1 − sin , = 2,
2 2 2
π π 1 π

(r, θ) = 1 − sin , = ,
6 6 2 6
5π 5π 1 5π

(r, θ) = 1 − sin , = ,
6 6 2 6
Solution continued: Similarly, the given curve has vertical line when
θ = 7π
6
or 11π
6
and the points are
7π 7π 3 7π

(r, θ) = 1 − sin , = ,
6 6 2 6
11π 11π 3 11π

(r, θ) = 1 − sin , = ,
6 6 2 6
dy
when θ = π2 , dx
dθ
= dθ = 0.
dy dy/dθ cos θ(1 − 2 sin θ)
lim − = lim − = lim −
θ→( π2 ) dx θ→( π2 ) dx/dθ θ→( π2 ) (sin θ − 1)(2 sin θ + 1)
1 − 2 sin θ cos θ
= lim − lim −
θ→( π2 ) 2 sin θ − 1 θ→( π2 ) sin θ − 1
1−2 − sin θ
= lim −
2 − 1 θ→( π2 ) cos θ
= lim − tan θ = +∞
θ→( π2 )

dy
Similarly, limθ→ π + dx = limθ→ π + tan θ = −∞. So the curve has
(2) (2)
a vertical tangent line at
π π π

(r, θ) = 1 − sin , = 0, .
2 2 2

10.4: Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinate
Base Case: Area of a sector of a circle: A = 12 r2 θ.
General Case: Area bounded by the polar curve r = f (θ) and by the
rays θ = a and θ = b.

1 Divide the interval [a, b] into
equal little intervals
[θ0 , θ1 ] , [θ1 , θ2 ] , · · · , [θn−1 , θn ]
with length ∆θ = θi − θi−1 .
2 Pick θi∗ from [θi−1 , θi ], the area
Ai ≈ 21 f (θi∗ )2 ∆θi .
3 Approximation of the actual area
n n
1
f (θi∗ )2 ∆θi .
X X
A≈ Ai =
i=1 i=1 2
4 Set n → +∞.
n
1
f (θi∗ )2 ∆θi .
X
A = lim
n→∞
i=1 2
Z b
1
= [f (θ)]2 dθ.
a 2

Formula for area: The area of the region bounded by r = f (θ), θ = a
and θ = b is given by
Z b
1 2 Z b
1
A= r dθ = [f (θ)]2 dθ.
a 2 a 2

Example: Find the area enclosed by one loop of the four-leaved rose
r = cos 2θ.
Solution: Notice from the Figure that
the region enclosed by the right loop is
swept out by a ray that rotates from
θ = −π/4 to θ = π/4. Therefore,
Z π/4
1 2 1 Z π/4
A= r dθ = cos2 2θdθ
−π/4 2 2 −π/4
Z π/4
= cos2 2θdθ
0
Z π/4
1
= (1 + cos 4θ)dθ
0 2
π/4
1 1 π

= θ + sin 4θ = .
2 4 0 8

Example: Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle
r = 3 sin θ and outside the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
Solution: The values of a and b in Area Formula are determined by

finding the points of intersection of the two curves.
3 sin θ = 1 + sin θ
1
↔ sin θ =
2
↔ θ = π/6, 5π/6.
Solution Continued: The desired area can be found by subtracting
the area inside the cardioid between θ = π/6 and θ = 5π/6 from the
area inside the circle from π/6 to 5π/6. Thus
1 Z 5π/6 1 Z 5π/6
A= (3 sin θ)2 dθ − (1 + sin θ)2 dθ
2 π/6 2 π/6
Since the region is symmetric about the vertical axis θ = π/2, we can
write
" Z #
1 π/2 2 1 Z π/2 2

A=2 9 sin θdθ − 1 + 2 sin θ + sin θ dθ .
2 π/6 2 π/6
Solution Continued:
" #
1 Z π/2 2 1 Z π/2
A=2 9 sin θdθ − 1 + 2 sin θ + sin2 θ dθ
2 π/6 2 π/6
Z π/2
= 8 sin2 θ − 1 − 2 sin θ dθ
π/6
Z π/2
1
= (3 − 4 cos 2θ − 2 sin θ)dθ [because sin2 θ = (1 − cos 2θ)]
π/6 2
π/2
= 3θ − 2 sin 2θ + 2 cos θ]π/6 = π.

The area of region bounded by two polar curves:
R=
Rb 1
[f (θ)]2 dθ − b 1 [g(θ)]2 dθ.
R
a 2 a 2

Remark: It is tricky to find all intersections of two polar curves.
Example: Find all points of intersection of the curves r = cos 2θ and
r = 12 .
(
r = cos 2θ
Solution: Solve , we get
r = 12
1
cos 2θ =
2
π 5π
2θ = 2kπ + or 2θ = 2kπ +
3 3
π 5π
θ = kπ + or θ = kπ +
6 6
π 7π 5π 11π
θ= , , ,
6 6 6 6
We
got
four points
of
intersection:

1 π 1 5π 1 7π 1 11π
,
2 6
, ,
2 6
, ,
2 6
, 2
, 6
.
Solution Continued: However,
we can see from the Figure
that the curves have four other
points
of intersection-namely,

1 1 1
2
, π/3 , 2
, 2π/3 , 2
, 4π/3 ,

and 12 , 5π/3 . These can be found
using symmetry or by noticing that
another equation of the circle is
r = − 12 and then solving the equa-
tions r = cos 2θ and r = − 12 .
Remark: To find all points of intersection of two polar curves, it is

recommended that you draw the graphs of curves.

Arc Length in Polar Coordinate
Previously, we have the arc length formula
Z Z q
L= ds = (dx)2 + (dy)2 .
Now, in polar coordinates, the curve is r = f (θ). To find the length

of a polar curve r = f (θ), a ⩽ θ ⩽ b, we regard θ as a parameter and
write the parametric equations of the curve as
x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ
Using the Product Rule and differentiating with respect to θ, we

obtain
dx dr dy dr
= cos θ − r sin θ = sin θ + r cos θ
dθ dθ dθ dθ

Continued: So, using cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, we have
!2 !2
dx dy dr dr
+ =( cos θ − r sin θ)2 + ( sin θ + r cos θ)2
dθ dθ dθ dθ
!2
dr dr
= cos2 θ − 2r cos θ sin θ + r2 sin2 θ
dθ dθ
!2
dr dr
+ sin2 θ + 2r sin θ cos θ + r2 cos2 θ
dθ dθ
!2
dr
= + r2
dθ
v
Z u !2
Z q u dr
⇒L= (dx)2 + (dy)2 = t 2
r + dθ.
dθ
The length of a curve with polar equation r = f (θ), a ⩽ θ ⩽ b, is
v
Z bu !2
u
t 2 dr
L= r + dθ.
a dθ
Example: Find the length of the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ.
Solution: Its full length is given by the parameter interval

0 ⩽ θ ⩽ 2π, so
v
Z 2π u !2 Z 2π q
u
t 2 dr
L= r + dθ = (1 + sin θ)2 + cos2 θdθ
0 dθ 0
Z 2π √
= 2 + 2 sin θdθ
0

Solution Continued:
Z 2π √
= 2 + 2 sin θdθ
0
√ √
Z 2π
2 + 2 sin θ · 2 − 2 sin θ
= √ dθ
0 2 − 2 sin θ
Z 2π √
4 cos2 θ
= √ dθ
0 2 − 2 sin θ
Z 2π
|2 cos θ|
= √ dθ
0 2 − 2 sin θ
Z π Z 3π
2 2 cos θ 2 −2 cos θ Z 2π
2 cos θ
= √ dθ + π √ dθ + 3π √ dθ
0 2 − 2 sin θ 2 2 − 2 sin θ 2 2 − 2 sin θ

Solution Continued: Since
Z
2 cos θ Z
1
√ dθ = − (2 − 2 sin θ)− 2 d(2 − 2 sin θ)
2 − 2 sin θ
1 1
=− 1 (2 − 2 sin θ) + C
2
1− 2
√
= −2 2 − 2 sin θ + C.
√ π √ 3π √ 2π
L = − 2 2 − 2 sin θ 2 + 2 2 − 2 sin θ π2 − 2 2 − 2 sin θ 3π
0 2 2
s
r
π √ 3π
= − 2 2 − 2 sin − (−2 2 − 2 sin 0) + 2 2 − 2 sin
2 2
s
r
π √ 3π
− 2 2 − 2 sin − 2 2 − 2 sin 2π + 2 2 − 2 sin
2 2
√ √ √ √ √
=0 + 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 − 2 2 − 2 − 2 2 − 0 + 2 2 + 2
√ √
=2 2 + 4 − 0 − 2 2 + 4
=8
7.4: Integration of rational functions by partial
fractions
Purpose: Evaluate integrals of rational functions.

p(x)
Rational functions are functions of the form r(x) = q(x)
, where
2 3 2
x +1 5x −3x +x
p(x) and q(x) are polynomials. Eg, x+2
, −2x4 +7 .
Polynomial p(x) (or q(x)) is of the form
p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , where
an , an−1 , · · · , a0 are constants; an ̸= 0. The degree of P (x) is n
(largest exponent of the variable x) and is denoted by
deg(p) = n. Examples:
▶ Polynomials: x2 + 1 with degree 2 ; −10x10 + 6x7 + x with
degree 10 ; 1 with degree
√ 0.
▶ Non-polynomials: x+1 , x − 9, x1 , etc.
2

For a rational function r(x) = p(x)
q(x)
, if deg(p) < deg(q), we say r(x)
is proper; otherwise, it is improper.
2
, x−7 , 2x+1 are proper;
x+1 5x2 +6 x10 +x9 +x
3
5x2 3
, x +8 , (x−2)
x2 +1 (x+3)2 x+5
are improper.
Partial Fraction: Express a rational function ( a ratio of polynomials)

as a sum of simpler fractions.
2(x+1) x
1
Previously, we can simplify x2 + x+1 = x(x+1)
+ x(x+1)
= ··· = 3x+2
x2 +x
.
Now, reversely, we try to decompose
3x + 2 2 1
2+x
= + .
x
| {z }
x
|
x
{z
+ 1
}
Single fraction Partial functions

Question: Why do we want “partial fractions”?
R 1
A motivating example: Find x2 −1
dx.
Solution: We can solve it by trig substitution (x = sec θ). However,
1 1
once we notice x21−1 = x−1
2
− x+12
, the computation is much simpler:
Z
1 1Z 1 1Z 1
dx = dx − dx
x −1
2 2 x−1 2 x+1
1 1
= ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1| + c.
2 2
Question: How to find the partial fractions of a rational function

r(x) = p(x)
q(x)
?

Partial fraction decomposition method:
1 If r(x) is improper, perform the long division to get
u(x)
r(x) = p(x)
q(x)
= s(x) + .
| {z } v(x)
polynomial | {z }
proper rational function
p(x)
2 With a proper r(x) = q(x)
, factor the bottom into
1 Linear factors: if (ax + b) divides q(x) and (ax + b)n is the
highest power that divides q(x). Then the decomposition of
p(x) A1 A2 An
q(x) contains the sum ax+b + (ax+b)2 + · · · + (ax+b)n .
2 (Irreducible) Quadratic
n
factors: if ax2 + bx + c divides q(x) and
2
ax + bx + c is the highest power that divides q(x). Then
the decomposition of p(x)
q(x) will contain the sum
B1 x + C1 B 2 x + C2 Bn x + Cn
+ + ··· + .
2
ax + bx + c (ax2 + bx + c) 2 (ax2 + bx + c)n

To find the coefficients Ai , Bi , Ci ,
1 Multiply the whole equation by the bottom q(x).
2 Solve for the coefficients by
1 either substituting zeros (roots) of the bottom.
2 or making a system of linear equations and solving.
5x − 4 5x − 4 5x − 4 A1 A2
= ⇒ = +
x2 −x−2 (x − 2)(x + 1) (x − 2)(x + 1) x−2 x+1
⇒ 5x − 4 = A1 (x + 1) + A2 (x − 2)
substituting zeros (roots) of the bottom:

(x − 2)(x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 2, −1. When x = 2,
5x − 4 = 6 = 3A1 ⇒ A1 = 2. When x = −1
5x − 4 = −9 = −3A2 ⇒ A2 = 3.
making a system of linear equations and solving:
A1 (x+1)+A2 (x−2) = (A1 +A2 )x+(A1 −2A2 ) ⇒A1 +A2 = 5,
A1 − 2A2 = −4, so A1 = 2, A2 = 3.
R x3 +x
Example: Find x−1
dx.
x3 +x 2
Solution: x−1
= x2 + x + 2 + x−1
and
x3 + x 2
Z Z
dx = x2 + x + 2 + dx
x−1 x−1
x3 x2
= + + 2x + 2 ln |x − 1| + C
3 2

R x2 +2x−1
Example: Evaluate 2x3 +3x2 −2x
dx.
Solution: 2x3 + 3x2 − 2x = x (2x + 3x − 2) = x(2x − 1)(x + 2)
2
There exists A, B, C such that
x2 + 2x − 1 A B C
= + +
x(2x − 1)(x + 2) x 2x − 1 x + 2
Multiplying both sides by x(2x − 1)(x + 2), we get
x2 + 2x − 1 = A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x − 1).

x2 + 2x − 1 = A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x − 1).
Method 1: Choose x = 0, we have
1
02 + 2 · 0 − 1 = A · (−1) · 2 + 0 + 0 ⇒ A =
2
choose x = 21 , we have
2
1 1 1 1 1

+2· −1=0+B· · +2 +0⇒B =
2 2 2 2 5
choose x = −2, we have
1
(−2)2 + 2 · (−2) − 1 = 0 + 0 + C · (−2) · (−4 − 1) ⇒ C = −
10

x2 + 2x − 1 = A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x − 1).
Method 2: Since A(2x − 1)(x + 2) + Bx(x + 2) + Cx(2x − 1)
= (2A + B + 2C)x2 + (3A + 2B − C)x − 2A.
We havex2 + 2x − 1 = (2A + B + 2C)x2 + (3A − 2B − C)x − 2A

 2A + B + 2C = 1

Hence: 3A − 2B − C = 2 Solve the system, we have
−2A = −1


1 1 1
A = 2 , B = 5 and C = − 10 .

x2 +2x−1 1 1
Therefore, 2x3 +3x2 −2x
= 2
· x
+ 51 · 1
2x−1
− 1 1
10 x+2
and
x2 + 2x − 1 11 1 1 1 1
Z Z
dx = + − dx
2x + 3x − 2x
3 2 2 x 5 2x − 1 10 x + 2
1 1 1
= ln |x| + ln |2x − 1| − ln |x + 2| + C
2 10 10

dx
where a ̸= 0.
R
Exercise: Find x2 −a2
,
Solution: x2 − a = (x − a)(x + a) There exists A, B such that
2
1 A B
= +
x2 −a 2 x−a x+a
Multiplying both sides by (x − a)(x + a), we have
1 = A(x + a) + B(x − a)
Let x = −a, we have

1
1 = B(−a − a) and B = −
2a
Let x = a, we have
1
1 = 2aA and A =
2a

1 1 1 1
Solution Continued: Therefore, x2 −a2
= 2a x−a
− x+a
, and
1 1 Z 1 1
Z
dx = − dx
x −a
2 2 2a x−a x+a
1
= (ln |x − a| − ln |x + a|)
2a
1 x−a
= ln .
2a x+a

Summary: General steps to do partial fractions.
Step 1: If f (x) is improper, perform the long division and get

P (x) R(x)
f (x) = Q(x) = s(x) + Q(x) .
Step 2: Factor the denominator as far as possible.
R(x)
Step 3: Express the proper rational function Q(x)
as a sum of partial
fractions of the form
A Ax + B
or .
(ax + b)i
(ax + bx + c)j
2

CASE I: The denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factor:
Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 ) (a2 x + b2 ) · · · (ak x + bk )
Then there exists A1 , A2 , · · · , Ak such that
R(x) A1 A2 Ak
= + + ··· +
Q(x) a1 x + b 1 a2 x + b 2 ak x + b k

Example: Evaluate the integral
Z 1
x−4
dx
0 x (x2 − 5x + 6)
Solution: x (x2 − 5x + 6) = x(x − 2)(x − 3). Then there exists

A, B, C such that
x−4 A B C
= + +
x (x2 − 5x + 6) x x−2 x−3

Solution continued: Multiplying both sides by x(x − 2)(x − 3), we get
x − 4 = A(x − 2)(x − 3) + Bx(x − 3) + Cx(x − 2)
Let x = 2, we have
2 − 4 = 0 + 2B · (−1) + C · 2 · (2 − 2) ⇒ B = 1.
Let x = 0, we get
2
0 − 4 = A(0 − 2)(0 − 3) + 0 + 0 ⇒ A = −
3
Let x = 3, we get
1
3 − 4 = 0 + 0 + C · 3 · (3 − 2) ⇒ C = −
3
x−4
Hence, x(x2 −5x+6)
= − 23 · 1
x
+ 1
x−2
− 31 · 1
x−3
and
Z
x−4 2Z 1 Z
1 1Z 1
dx = − dx + dx − dx
x (x2 − 5x + 6) 3 x x−2 3 x−3
2 1
= − ln |x| + ln |x − 2| − ln |x − 3| + C
3 3
CASE II: Q(x) is a product of linear factors, some of which are
repeated.
Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )r1 (a2 x + b2 )r2 · · · (ak x + bk )rk
then there exists A11 , · · · , A1r1 , · · · Ak1 , · · · , Akrk such that
R(x) A11 A12 A1r1

= + 2 + ··· +
Q(x) a1 x + b1 (a1 x + b1 ) (a1 x + b1 )r1
+···
Ak1 Akrk
+ + ··· + .
ak x + b k (ak x + bk )rk

4 2
Example: Find xx−2x +4x+1
R
3 −x2 −x+1 dx
4 2 +4x+1
Solution: We have xx−2x 4x
3 −x2 −x+1 = x + 1 + x3 −x2 −x+1 Since
13 − 12 − 1 + 1 = 0, x − 1 is a factor of x3 − x2 − x + 1.
x3 − x2 − x + 1 = x2 (x − 1) − (x − 1)

= x2 − 1 (x − 1) = (x + 1)(x − 1)2
4x A B C
= + +
(x + 1)(x − 1) 2 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x+1
Multiplying by (x + 1)(x − 1)2 on both sides, we have
4x = A(x − 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x − 1)2

= (A + C)x2 + (B − 2C)x + (−A + B + C)


 A+C =0
B − 2C = 4
−A + B + C = 0



Solution continued:
Solving it, we obtain A = 1, B = 2 and C = −1. Hence

Z
x4 − 2x2 + 4x + 1
3 − x2 − x + 1
dx
x
Z " #
1 2 1
= x+1+ + − dx
x − 1 (x − 1)2 x + 1
x2 2
= + x + ln |x − 1| − − ln |x + 1| + C
2 x−1
x2 2 x−1
= +x− + ln +C
2 x−1 x+1

x +1
R 2
Exercise: Evaluate the integral (x−3)(x−2) 2 dx.
Solution: There exists A, B, C such that
x2 + 1 A B C
= + +
(x − 3)(x − 2)2 x − 3 x − 2 (x − 2)2
Multiplying both sides by (x − 3)(x − 2)2 , we have
x2 + 1 = A(x − 2)2 + B(x − 3)(x − 2) + C(x − 3)

= A x2 − 4x + 4 + B x2 − 5x + 6 + C(x − 3)
= (A + B)x2 + (−4A − 5B + C)x + 4A + 6B − 3C
 

 A+B =1  A = 10

−4A − 5B + C = 0 ⇒ B = −9
4A + 6B − 3C = 1 C = −5

 


Solution continued:
Hence
" #
Z
x2 + 1 Z
10 9 5
dx = − − dx
(x − 3)(x − 2)2 x − 3 x − 2 (x − 2)2
5
= 10 ln |x − 3| − 9 ln |x − 2| + + C.
x−2

CASE III: Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which
is repeated.
If Q(x) has a term ax2 + bx + c, where b2 − 4ac < 0, then the

R(x)
expression for Q(x) will have a term axAx+B
2 +bx+c .
Example:
x A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + 2
(x − 2) (x2 2
+ 1) (x + 4) x−2 x +1 x +4
2
x − 2x − 1 A B Cx + D
= + +
(x − 1)2 (x2 + 1) x − 1 (x − 1)2 x2 + 1

2
Example: Evaluate 2xx3−x+4
R
+4x
dx
3 2
Solution: x + 4x = x (x + 4)
2x2 − x + 4 A Bx + C
3
= + 2
x + 4x x x +4
Multiplying both sides by x (x2 + 4), we have

2x2 − x + 4 = A x2 + 4 + (Bx + C)x
= (A + B)x2 + Cx + 4A

A + B =2

 A=1
 

So C = −1 ⇒ B = 1 .
C = −1

 


4A = 4

Solution continued: R h
R 2x2 −x+4 i
x−1
Hence x3 +4x
dx = x1 + x2 +4
dx
Z
1 Z
x Z
1
= dx + 2
dx − 2
dx
x x +4 x +4
1 1 x
= ln |x| + ln x2 + 4 − arctan + C.
2 2 2
Remark:
1) x2dx = a1 arctan xa + C.
R
+a2
B
2) For general term ax2 +bx+c , b2 − 4ac < 0, ax2 + bx + c can be
integrated by completing the square (if necessary) and use the
formula in 1).

2 −3x+2
Example: Evaluate 4x
R
4x2 −4x+3
dx.
Solution: Notice
4x2 − 3x + 2 x−1
=1+ 2 , 4x2 − 4x + 3 = (2x − 1)2 + 2.
4x − 4x + 3
2 4x − 4x + 3
Let u = 2x − 1. Then du = 2dx and dx = 21 du, x = 12 (u + 1).
Z
x−1
1+ 2 dx
4x − 4x + 3
1 Z 12 (u + 1) − 1
=x+ du
2 u2 + 2
1Z u−1
=x+ du
4 u2 + 2
1Z u 1Z 1
=x+ 2
du − 2
du
4 u +2 4 u +2
1 1 1 u
= x + ln u2 + 2 − · √ arctan √ + C
8 4 2 2
1 2 1 2x − 1
= x + ln 4x − 4x + 3 − √ arctan √ + C.
8 4 2 2
CASE IV: Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor.
r
If Q(x) has the factor (ax2 + bx + c) , where b2 − 4ac < 0, then the
sum
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 Ar x + Br
+ 2 + ··· +
2
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c)
2 (ax2 + bx + c)r
R(x)
occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of Q(x)
.

Example: Write out the form of the partial fraction decomposition of
the function
x3 + x2 + 1
x(x − 1) (x2 + x + 1) (x2 + 1)3
Solution:
x3 +x2 +1
x(x−1)(x2 +x+1)(x2 +1)3
A B Cx + D Ex + F Gx + H Ix + J
= + + 2 + 2 + 2 2 + .
x x−1 x +x+1 x +1 (x + 1) (x2 + 1)3

R 1−x+2x2 −x3
Example: Evaluate x(x2 +1)2
dx
1−x+2x2 −x3
Solution: x(x2 +1)2
= Ax + Bx+C
x2 +1
+ Dx+E
(x2 +1)2
.
2 2
Multiplying by x (x + 1) , we have
− x3 + 2x2 − x + 1
2
= A x2 + 1 + (Bx + C)x x2 + 1 + (Dx + E)x

= A x4 + 2x2 + 1 + B x4 + x2 + C x3 + x + Dx2 + Ex
= (A + B)x4 + Cx3 + (2A + B + D)x2 + (C + E)x + A
If we equate coefficients, we get the system
 



A+B =0 


A=1
C = −1  B = −1

 


 
2A + B + D = 2 ⇒ C = −1
C + E = −1
 







 D=1
A=1 E=0

 


Solution continued: Hence,
Z
1 − x + 2x2 − x3
dx
x (x2 + 1)2
!
Z
1 x+1 x
= − + dx
x x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
Z
1 Z
x Z
1 Z
x
= dx − dx − dx + dx
x 2
x +1 2
x +1 (x + 1)2
2
1 1
= ln |x| − ln x2 + 1 − arctan x − 2
+ C.
2 2 (x + 1)

R x2 +1
Example: Evaluate x(x2 +3)
dx.
Solution: Let u = x (x2 + 3) = x3 + 3x. Then

du = (3x2 + 3) dx = 3 (x2 + 1) dx. Hence
Z
x2 + 1
dx
x (x2 + 3)
1Z 1
= du
3 u
1
= ln |u| + C
3
1
= ln x3 + 3x + C.
3

Rationalizing Substitutions: Some non-rational functions can be
changed into rational functions by means of appropriate substitution.
R √
x+4
Example: Evaluate x
dx.
√
Solution: Let u = x + 4. Then u2 = x + 4 and x = u2 − 4.
1 1 1
du = √ dx = dx, dx = 2udu.
2 x+4 2u
Z √
x+4 Z
u
dx = · 2udu
x u −4
2
Z
u2
=2 du
u2 − 4
Z Z
1
=2 1du + 8 du
u −4
2
Z
1 1

=2u + 2 − du
u−2 u+2
√ u−2
=2 x + 4 + 2 ln +C
u+2
√
R1
Exercise: Evaluate √ dx
0 2 x+3+x .
√
Solution: Let u = x + 3. Then x = u2 − 3
dx = 2udu
√ √ √
when x = 0, u = 0 + 3 = 3 when x = 1, u = 1 + 3 = 2
Z 1
dx Z 2
1
√ = √ · 2udu
0 2 x+3+x 3 2u + u2 − 3
Z 2
2u
= √ 2 du
3 u + 2u − 3
u2 + 2u − 3 = (u + 3)(u − 1)
2u A B
= +
(u + 3)(u − 1) u+3 u−1
2u = A(u − 1) + B(u + 3)

Solution continued:
Let u = 1, 2 = 4B ⇒ B = 21
Let u = −3, −6 = −4A ⇒ A = 32 . Hence
Z 1
dx Z 2
2u
√ = √ 2 du
0 2 x+3+x 3 u + 2u − 3
Z 2
3 1 1 1

= √ + du
3 2u+3 2u−1
2
3 1

= ln |u + 3| + ln |u − 1| √
2 2 3
3 1

3 √ 1 √
= ln 5 + ln − ln | 3 + 3| + ln | 3 − 1|
2 2 2 2
3 3 √ √
= ln 5 − ln | 3 + 3| − ln | 3 − 1|.
2 2

7.5: Strategy for Integration

Four-Step strategy to evaluate a given integral.
Simplify the
R√
Integrand
√ if Possible
R √
Example: x(1 + x)dx = ( x + x)dx
Z
tan θ Z
sin θ 2
Z
dθ = · cos θdθ = sin θ cos θdθ
sec2 θ cos θ
1 Z
= sin 2θdθ
Z Z2
(sin x + cos x)2 dx = sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x dx
Z
= (1 + sin 2x)dx
Look for an Obvious Substitution

Example: Z
x
dx
x −1
2
u = x2 − 1

Continued:
Classify the Integrand According to Its form
1 Trigonometric functions
n
m
tanm x secn xdx R
R R
cos x sin xdx,
sin Ax sin Bxdx, cos Ax sin Bxdx, cos Ax cos Bxdx, · · · .
R R
2 Rational functions: Partial fractions.

3 Integration by parts:
R x R x
⋆
R
e sin xdx, e cos xdx
⋆ f (x)g(x)dx where f (x) is polynomial, and g(x) is
trigonometric/exponential/logarithmic.
4 Radicals.
√ √ √
⋆ If a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 , x2 − a2 occurs, use
trigonometric
√ substitution.
n
⋆ If ax + b occurs, √ we use the rationalizing
n
substitution u = ax + b.

Continued:
Try again (if the first 3 steps have not produced the answer).
1 Try substitution and Try Integration by parts (keep in mind:
essentially we only have these two methods for integration).
2 Manipulate the integrand (with some algebraic tricks).
Z
dx Z
1 1 + cos x
Example: = · dx
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
Z
1 + cos x
= dx
1 − cos2 x
Z
1 + cos x
= 2 dx
Z sin x
cos x

= csc2 x + dx
sin2 x
3 Relate theRproblem to previous problems. R
2
Example: tan x sec xdx = sec3 xdx − sec xdx (page
R
36,38).
4 Use several methods.
R tan3 x
Example: dx.
cos3 x
Solution: In Step 1 we rewrite the integral:

tan3 x
Z Z
3
dx = tan3 x sec3 xdx
cos x
The integral is now of the form tanm x secn xdx with m odd, so we
R
can use the advice in page 35. Alternatively, if in Step 1 we had

written
Z
tan3 x Z
sin3 x 1 Z
sin3 x
dx = dx = dx
cos3 x cos3 x cos3 x cos6 x
then we could have continued as follows with the substitution
u = cos x :
Z
sin3 x Z
1 − cos2 x Z
1 − u2
dx = sin xdx = (−du)
cos6 x cos6 x u6
Z 2
u −1 Z
−4 −6

= du = u − u du
u6
R √x
Example: e dx
√
Solution: Let u = x. Then x = u2 and dx = 2udu. Hence
Z √ Z
x
e dx = eu · 2udu
Z
=2 ueu du
Then we use integration by parts to evaluate the integral.

R x5 +1
Example: x3 −3x2 −10x
dx.
Solution: rational function, use partial fractions.
√dx .
R
Example: 4 x ln x
Solution: Here Step 2 is all that is needed. We substitute u = ln x
because its differential is du = dx/x, which occurs in the integral.

R q 1−x
Example: dx.
1+x
Solution: We do some algebraic manipulation

Z s s s
1−x Z
1−x 1−x
dx = · dx
1+x 1+x 1−x
Z
1−x
= √ dx
1 − x2
Z
1 Z
x
= √ dx − √ dx
1−x 2 1 − x2
√
= arcsin x + 1 − x2 + C

Question: Can We Integrate All Continuous Functions?
Answer: No
The following integrals can not be Integrated in terms of elementary
functions.
Z
x2 ex
Z Z Z
e dx, dx, sin x dx, cos (ex ) dx
2
Z √
x
3
Z
1 Z
sin x
x + 1dx, dx, dx
ln x x
In fact, the majority of elementary functions don’t have elementary
antiderivatives.

7.7: Approximate Integration
When should we use Approximate Integration?

It is difficult or even impossible to find an antiderivative.
R x2
Example: e dx.
The function is determined from a scientific experiment through
instrument readings or collected data. No formula for the
function.

Definite integral can be approximated by Riemann sum.
Recall the definition of definite integral:
Z b n
f (x∗i ) ∆xi ,
X
f (x)dx = lim
a n→∞
i=1
where we divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length

∆x = b−a
n
and x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ]. Therefore,
Z b n
f (x∗i ) ∆xi .
X
f (x)dx ≈
a i=1

Rb
Approximation rules for a f (x)dx:
Left end approximation:
Choose x∗i = xi−1 (Left end point of [xi−1 , xi ]),

Z b n
X
f (x)dx ≈ Ln = f (xi−1 ) ∆x.
a i=1
Right end approximation:
Choose x∗i = xi (Right end point of [xi−1 , xi ]),

Z b n
X
f (x)dx ≈ Rn = f (xi ) ∆x.
a i=1

Rb
Approximation rules for a f (x)dx (continued):
Midpoint rule:
Choose x∗i = x̄i = 1

2
(xi−1 + xi ) (Midpoint of
[xi−1 , xi ] ).
Z b n
X
f (x)dx ≈ Mn = f (x̄i ) ∆x.
a i=1
Trapezoidal rule:
Z b
f (x)dx ≈ Tn
a
1 h
= ∆x f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 )
2 i
+ · · · + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn ) ,
b−a
where ∆x = n
and xi = a + i · ∆x.
Proof for Trapezoidal rule: The isth trapezoid has area
1
2
∆x (f (xi−1 ) + f (xi ). So Sum of n trapezoid is
n n
Z b " #
1 X X
f (x)dx ≈ f (xi−1 ) ∆x + f (xi ) ∆x
a 2 i=1 i=1
n
" #
∆x X
= (f (xi−1 ) + f (xi ))
2 i=1
∆x h
= (f (x0 ) + f (x1 )) + (f (x1 ) + f (x2 )).
2 i
+ · · · + (f (xn−1 ) + f (xn ))
∆x h
= f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 )
2 i
+ · · · + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
Fact: Tn = 12 (Ln + Rn ).

Example: Use (a) the Trapezoidal Rule Rand (b) the Midpoint Rule
with n = 5 to approximate the integral 12 x1 dx.
Solution: (a) n = 5, a = 1, b = 2 ∆x = b−a
n
= 2−1
5
= 0.2,
x0 = 1, x1 = x0 + ∆x = 1.2, x2 = 1.4, x3 = 1.6, x4 = 1.8.
Z 2
1
dx ≈ T5
1 x
0.2
= [f (1) + 2f (1.2) + 2f (1.4) + 2f (1.6) + 2f (1.8) + f (2)]
2
1 2 2 2 2 1

= 0.1 + + + + +
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
≈ 0.695635.

Solution Continued: (b)
1 + 1.2 1.2 + 1.4
x̄1 = = 1.1, x̄2 = = 1.3
2 2
1.4 + 1.6 1.6 + 1.8
x̄3 = = 1.5, x̄4 = = 1.7
2 2
1.8 + 2.0
x5 = = 1.9
2
Z 2
1
dx ≈ ∆x[f (1.1) + f (1.3) + f (1.5) + f (1.7) + f (1.9)]
1 x
1 1 1 1 1 1

= + + + +
5 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
≈ 0.691908.

Remark:
= ln x|21 = ln 2 = 0.693147.
R2 1
1 x dx
: Error in Trapezoidal Rule approximation for n = 5 is
ET ≈ 0.693147 − 0.695635 ≈ −0.002488
Error in Midpoint Rule approximation for n = 5 is
EM ≈ 0.693147 − 0.691908 = 0.001239.
Rb
In general, we denote ETn = a f (x)dx − Tn and
EMn = ab f (x)dx − Mn .
R

R2 1
Figure: Approximations to 1 x dx.
Figure: Corresponding errors.

Remark:
n increase, more accurate approximations
Midpoint Rule and trapezoidal Rule are more accurate than left
hand approximation and right hand approximation.
The size of the error in the Midpoint Rule is about half the size
of the error in the Trapezoidal Rule.
EL5 EL10
EL10
≈ 2, EL20
≈2
ER5 ER10
ER10
≈2 ER20
≈2
ET 5 ET10
ET10
≈4 ET20
≈4
EM5 EM10
EM10
≈4 EM20
≈4
Summary of Approximate Integration:
Ln = ni=1 f (xi−1 ) ∆x
P
Left end approximation:
Rn = ni=1 f (xi ) ∆x
P
Right end approximation:
Midpoint Rule:
Rb
af (x)dx ≈ Mn = ∆x [f (x̄1 ) + f (x̄2 ) + · · · + f (x̄n )]
where x̄i = 12 (xi−1 + xi ) and ∆x = b−a n
.
Trapezoidal Rule:
Z b "
∆x
f (x)dx ≈ Tn = f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + · · ·
a 2
#
+ 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )

Facts: Midpoint Rule and Trapezoidal Rule performs better than left
hand approximation and right hand approximation
Error Bounds
Suppose |f ′′ (x)| ⩽ k for a ⩽ x ⩽ b. Then
Z b
k(b − a)3
|ETn | = f (x)dx − Tn ⩽
a 12n2
Z b
k(b − a)3
|EMn | = f (x)dx − Mn ⩽
a 24n2
Remark: The actual error could be substantially less than the upper
bound for the error.

Example: How large should we take n in order to guarantee
R2 1
that the
Trapezoidal and Midpoint Rule approximations for 1 x dx are
accurate to within 0.0001 ?
Solution: f (x) = x1 , f ′ (x) = − x12 , f ′′ (x) = x23 .

Hence, when x ∈ [1, 2], |f ′′ (x)| ⩽ 123 = 2
(a) For Trapezoidal Rule, we choose n such that
2 · (2 − 1)3
≤ 0.0001
12n2
2
n2 >
12 × 0.0001
1
n> √ ≈ 40.8
0.0006
Thus n = 41 will ensure the desired accuracy.

(b) For Midpoint Rule, we choose n such that
2 · (2 − 1)3
⩽ 0.0001
24n2
1
n> √ ≈ 28.868
0.0012
Thus n = 29 will ensure the desired accuracy.

Example:R (a) Use the Midpoint Rule with n = 10 to approximate the
2
integral 01 ex dx.
(b) Give an upper bound for the error involved in this approximation.
b−a 1−0
Solution: (a) a = 0, b = 1, ∆x = n
= 10
= 0.1
x̄1 = 0.05, x̄2 = 0.15, x̄3 = 0.25, x̄4 = 0.35

x̄5 = 0.45, x̄6 = 0.55, x̄7 = 0.65, x̄8 = 0.75
x̄9 = 0.85, x̄10 = 0.95
Z 1
2
ex dx ≈ ∆x [f (x̄1 ) + f (x̄2 ) + · · · + f (x̄10 )]
0
h 2 2 2
i
= 0.1 e0.05 + e0.15 + · · · + e0.95
≈ 1.460393.

(b)
2 2
f (x) = ex · f ′ (x) = 2xex
2 2 2 2
f ′′ (x) = 2ex + 2xex · 2x = 2ex + 4x2 ex
when 0 ⩽ x ⩽ 1
2
0 ⩽ f ′′ (x) ⩽ 2e1 + 4 · 12 e1 = 2e + 4e = 6e
k(b − a)3 6e · (1 − 0)2 e
|EM10 | ⩽ = = ≈ 0.007
24n 2 24 · 102 400

Simpson’s Rule (n is even)
Idea: Approximate integration using parabolas.
b−a
Let h = ∆x = n
.
Z x2 Z x2
Q1 (x)dx = A1 (x − x1 )2 + B1 (x − x1 ) + C1 dx
x0 x0
Z h
= A1 t2 + B1 t + C1 dt
−h
Z h 2h
= A1 t2 + C1 dt = A1 h2 + 3C1
−h 3
Note that
h2 + B1 h + C1 = y2


 A 1 h i
2h 2h y2 +y0
C1 = y 1 ⇒ 3
(A1 h2 + 3C1 ) = 3 2
+ 2y1
2
A1 h − B1 h + C1 = y0


Hence: xx02 Q1 (x)dx = h2 [y0 + 4y1 + y2 ].

R
R xi +1 h
Similarly, xi−1 Qi (x)dx = 3 [yi−1 + 4yi + yi+1 ]. Therefore,
Z b
f (x)dx ≈ Sn
a
h
= [y0 + 4y1 + y2 + y2 + 4y3 + y4 + · · · + yn−2 + 4yn−2 + yn ]
3
h
= [y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + 2y4 + · · · + 2yn−2 + 4yn−2 + yn ]
3 "
∆x
= f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + · · ·
3
#
+ 2f (xn−2 ) + 4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )
b−a
Simpson’s Rule ( n is even ∆x = n )
Z b
f (x)dx ≈ Sn
a
"
∆x
= f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + · · ·
3
#
+ 2f (xn−2 ) + 4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )

R2 1
Example: Use Simpson’s Rule with n = 10 to approximate dx.
1 x
Solution: f (x) = x1 , ∆x = b−a
n
= 2−1
10
= 0.1.
1
Z 2
dx ≈ S10
1 x
∆x
= [f (1) + 4f (1.1) + 2f (1.2) + 4f (1.3) + · · ·
3
+ 2f (1.8) + 4f (1.9) + f (2)]
"
0.1 1 4 2 4 2 4
= + + + + +
3 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
#
2 4 2 4 1
+ + + + +
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
≈ 0.693150.
Remark:M10 ≈ 0.692835, T10 ≈ 0.693771, ln 2 ≈ 0.693147.

Simpson’s Rule gives better approximation than Midpoint Rule and
Trapezoidal Rule.
Error Bounds for Simpson’s Rule
Suppose that f (4) (x) ⩽ k for a ≤ x ≤ b. If ES is the error involved
in using Simpson’s Rule, then
k(b − a)5
|ES | ⩽ .
180n4

Example: How large should we take x in order to guarantee that the
R2 1
Simpson’s Rule approximation for 1 x dx is accurate to with in
0.0001 ?
Solution:
1
f (x) = , f ′ (x) = −x−2 , f ′′ (x) = 2x−3 ,
x
f ′′′ (x) = −6x−4 , f (4) (x) = 24x−5 .
Since 1 ⩽ x ⩽ 2, f (4) (x) ⩽ 24. Hence k = 24. Thus, for an error
less than 0.0001 , we should choose n so that
24 · 15
< 0.0001
180n4
24
n4 >
180 · 0.0001
1
n> √ 4
≈ 6.04.
0.00075
Therefore x = 8 ( x must be even) gives the desired accuracy.
Example:
(a)Use Simpson’s Rule with x = 10 to approximate the integral
R 1 x2
0 e dx
(b) Estimate the error involved in this approximation.
Solution:
b−a 1−0
(a) n = 10, ∆x = n
= 10
= 0.1.
"
Z 1
x2 ∆x
e dx ≈ f (0) + 4f (0.1) + 2f (0.2) + · · ·
0 3
#
+ 2f (0.8) + 4f (0.9) + f (1)
0.1 h 0
= e + 4e0.01 + 2e0.04 + 4e0.09 + 2e0.16 + 4e0.25
3 i
+2e0.36 + 4e0.49 + 2e0.64 + 4e0.81 + e1
≈1.462681

(b)
2 2
f (x) = ex , f ′ (x) = 2xex
2 2
f ′′ (x) = 2ex + 4x2 ex
2 2 2 2 2
f ′′′ (x) = 4xex + 8xex + 8x3 ex = 12xex + 8x3 ex
2 2 2 2
f (4) (x) = 12ex + 24x2 ex + 24x2 ex + 16x4 ex
2
= 12 + 48x2 + 16x4 ex
When 0 < x < 1, f (4) (x) ⩽ (12 + 48 + 16)e = 76e. So

k = 76e, a = 0, b = 1 and n = 10.
k(b − a)5 76e · (1 − 0)5

|Es10 | ⩽ = ≈ 1.463
18n4 18 · 104

7.8: Improper Integrals
For the integral ab f (x)dx:

R
Proper integral: if both [a, b] is a finite interval and f (x) is

bounded on [a, b].
Rb
a f (x)dx is a finite number.
Improper integral: either [a, b] is an infinite interval (called Type
I) or f (x) is discontinuous on [a, b] (called Type II).
Rb
a f (x)dx could be finite (convergent) or infinite (divergent).

Type I: Infinite intervals
R∞ 1
Example: Evaluate 1 x2
dx. → think of this as ”area” problem.
Z t t
1 1 1

At = 2
dx = − =− +1
1 x x 1 t
Now we take the limit of At ,
1

A = lim At = lim − + 1 = 1.
t→∞ t→∞ t

Basic steps for Type I improper integral:
Z ∞
1 Z t
1 1

2
dx = lim 2
dx = lim − + 1 = 1.
1 x t→∞ 1 x
| {z }
t→∞ t
t→∞

Definition of an Improper Integral of Type I
Rt
(a) If a f (x)dx exists for any t ⩾ a, then
Z ∞ Z t
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
a t→∞ a
provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

(b) If tb f (x)dx exists for any t ⩽ b, then
R
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
−∞ t→−∞ t
provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

The improper integrals a∞ f (x)dx and −∞ b
R R
f (x)dx are called
convergent if the corresponding limit exists and divergent if the limit
does not exist.
Definition of an Improper Integral of Type I: Continued
(c) If both a∞ f (x)dx and
R Ra
−∞ f (x)dx are convergent, then we
define Z ∞ Z a Z ∞
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx,
−∞ −∞ a
where a is any real number.

R∞ 1
Example: Determine whether 1 dxx
is convergent or divergent.
Solution:
Z ∞
1 Z t
1 t
dx = lim dx = lim ln |x|
1 x t→∞ 1 x t→∞ 1
= lim (ln t − ln 1) = lim ln t = ∞
t→∞ t→∞
1
When x → 0, x2
goes to 0 faster enough compared with x1 .
R0
Example: Evaluate −∞ xex dx.
Solution: Z 0 Z 0
xex dx = lim xex dx
−∞ t→−∞ t
Z 0 Z 0 Z 0
xex dx = x
xde = xex |0t − ex dx
t t t
= 0 − tet − ex |0t
= −tet − 1 + et
t 1
Since limt→−∞ tet = limt→−∞ e−t
= limt→−∞ −e−t
= 0. Hence
Z 0 Z 0
x
xe dx = lim xex dx
−∞ t→∞ t

= lim −te − 1 + et = −1.
t
t→−∞

R +∞ 1
Example: Evaluate −∞ 1+x2 dx.
Solution:
Z +∞
1 Z 0
1 Z +∞
1
2
dx = 2
dx + dx
−∞ 1+x −∞ 1 + x 0 1 + x2
Z +∞
1 Z t
1 t
dx = lim dx = lim arctan x
0 1 + x2 t→+∞ 0 1 + x2 t→+∞ 0
π
= lim arctan t − arctan 0 =
t→+∞ 2
Z 0
1 Z 0
1
dx = lim dx
−∞ 1 + x2 t→−∞ t 1 + x2
0
= lim arctan x
t→−∞ t
π π

= lim arctan 0 − arctan t = 0 − − =
t→−∞ 2 2
R +∞ 1 R0 1 R +∞ 1 π π
Hence, −∞ 1+x2 dx = −∞ 1+x2 dx + 0 1+x2
dx = 2
+ 2
= π.
R∞ 1
Example: For what values of p is the integral 1 xp
dx convergent?
when p = 1, 1∞ x1 dx divergent.
R
Assume p ̸= 1,
Z ∞
1 Z t
1
dx = lim dx
1 xp t→∞ 1 xp
1 t
= lim x−p+1
t→∞ −p + 1 1
1 1−p
= lim t −1
t→∞ 1 − p
1
▶ If p > 1, p − 1 > 0 and limt→∞ t1−p = limt→∞ tp−1
R∞ 1
= 0 and
1 xp dx converge.
If p < 1, 1 − p > 0 and limt→∞ t1−p = +∞ and 1∞ x1p dx
R
▶
diverges.
R∞ 1
Summary: 1 xp
dx converges if p > 1, and diverges if p ≤ 1.
Type II: Discontinuous Integrands
f (x) is not continuous at b:

limx→b− f (x) =R ∞. Then we de-
fine area At = at f (x)dx
Rb
and take
a limit limt→b− At = a f (x)dx.

Definition of an improper integral of Type II
(a) If f is continuous on [a, b) and is discontinuous at b, then
Z b Z t
f (x)dx = lim− f (x)dx,
a t→b a
if this limit exists (as a finite number).

(b) If f is continuous on (a, b] and is discontinuous at a, then
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = lim+ f (x)dx,
a t→a t
if this limit exists (as a finite number).

(c) If f has a discontinuity
Rc Rb
at c, where a < c < b, and both
a f (x)dx and c f (x)dx are convergent, then we define
Z b Z c Z b
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a c
R5
Example: Find √ 1 dx.
2 x−2
R5
Solution: Since limx→2+ √1 = +∞, we have √ 1 dx is
x−2 2 x−2
improper.
Z 5
1 Z 5
1
√ dx = lim+ √ dx
2 x−2 t→2 t x−2
Z 5
1
= lim+ (x − 2)− 2 d(x − 2)
t→2 t
5
1 1− 21
= lim+ 1 (x − 2)
t→2 1 −
√ 2 √ t
√
= lim+ (2 3 − 2 t − 2) = 2 3.
t→2

R π
Example: Determine whether 0
2
sec xdx converges or diverges.
π
sec xdx is improper since limx→( π ) sec x = ∞.
R
Solution: 0
2
2
Z π Z t
2
sec xdx = lim − sec xdx
0 t→( π2 ) 0
= lim − ln | sec x + tan x|

t→( π2 )
0
= lim − [ln | sec t + tan t| − ln 1] = ∞
t→( π2 )
R π
Thus 2
0 sec xdx diverges.

R 3 dx
Example: Evaluate 0 x−1 if possible.
1 1 R 3 dx
Solution: Since limx→1+ x−1
= ∞, limx→1− x−1
= −∞, 0 x−1 is
improper.
Z 3
dx Z 1
1 Z 3
1
= dx + dx
0 x−1 0 x−1 1 x−1
Z 1
1 Z t
1 t
dx = lim− dx = lim− ln |x − 1|
0 x−1 t→1 0 x−1 t→1 0
= lim− [ln |t − 1| − ln |0 − 1|]
t→1
= lim− ln(1 − t) = −∞
t→1
R1 1 R 3 dx
Thus 0 x−1 dx diverges and 0 x−1 diverges.
Remark: If the integral is improper, it must be calculated in terms of
limits. For example, it is wrong to get
Z 3
dx
dx = ln |x − 1||30 = ln 2 − ln 1 = ln 2.
0 x−1
R1
Example: 0 ln xdx.
R1
Solution: limx→0+ ln x = −∞, so 0 ln xdx is improper.
Z 1 Z 1
ln xdx = lim+ ln xdx
0 t→0 t
Z 1 Z 1
ln xdx = x ln x|1t − dx
t t
= 1 · ln 1 − t ln t − (1 − t)
= −t ln t − 1 + t
1
ln t t
lim+ t ln t = lim+ 1 = lim+ = lim+ (−t) = 0
t→0 t→0
t
t→0 − t12 t→0
Z 1
Hence ln xdx = lim+ (−t ln t − 1 + t) = −0 − 1 + 0 = −1
0 t→0

A comparison Test for Improper Integrals
Question: How to know whether an improper integral is convergent
or divergent without finding the exact value of an improper integral.
Comparison Theorem
Suppose that f and g are continuous functions with f (x) ⩾ g(x) ⩾ 0
for x ⩾ a,
If a∞ f (x)dx is convergent, then a+∞ g(x)dx is convergent.
R R
If a∞ g(x)dx is divergent, then a+∞ f (x)dx is divergent.

R R
Remark: A similar Theorem is

True for Type II integrals.

R ∞ −x2
Example: Show that 0 e dx is convergent.
R ∞ −x2 R 1 −x2 2 2
e dx + +∞ e−x dx. 1 e−x dx
R R
Solution: 0 e dx = 0 1 0 is proper
2
and 1+∞ e−x dx is improper. Note that for x ⩾ 1, x2 ⩾ x and
R
2
e−x ⩽ e−x .

Solution Continued:
Z +∞ Z t
e−x dx = lim e−x dx
1 t→+∞ 1
−x t
= lim − e
t→+∞ 1

= lim −e−t + e−1
t→+∞
−1
=e .
R +∞ −x2 R +∞ −x2
By comparison test, 1 e dx converges. Hence, 0 e dx
converges.

R +∞ 1+e−x
Example: Show that 1 x
dx is divergent.
1+e−x R +∞ 1 R +∞ 1+e−x
Solution: x > x1 . Since 1 dxx
diverges, 1 x
dx diverges
by comparison test.

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Techniques of Integration

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 1 / 185

Two major integration rules:

Their corresponding differentiation rules:

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 2 / 185

The Product Rule states that if f and g are differentiable functions,

We can rearrange this equation as

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 3 / 185

or simply, udv = uv − vdu,

Remark: IBP allows us to turn a complicated integral into more

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 4 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 5 / 185

Try to choose u = f (x) to be a function that becomes simpler when

Remark: Integration by parts is effective in this example because the

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 8 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 9 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 10 / 185

Dividing by 2 and adding the constant of integration, we get

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 12 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 13 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 14 / 185

Remark: Substitution + Integration by parts.

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 15 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 16 / 185

Solution: Let u = tan−1 x, dv = dx. Then

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 17 / 185

substitution t = 1 + x . Then dt = 2xdx, so xdx = 12 dt. When

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 18 / 185

Since cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x, we have

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 20 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 21 / 185

x sec2 xdx. (Solution: x tan x + ln | cos x| + c ).

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 22 / 185

We will focus on integrals of the form:

→ sinm x · cosn xdx. (Integrating a product of powers of sin and

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 23 / 185

Case 1. One power odd. We use cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 and (usually

Case 2. Both powers even. We use

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 24 / 185

cos3 xdx = cos2 x cos xdx

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 25 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 27 / 185

Solution: Using the half-angle formula for sin2 x. We have

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 29 / 185

(a) If n = 2k + 1, k ∈ N, then save one cosine factor and use

(b) If m = 2k + 1, k ∈ N, save one sine factor and use

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 31 / 185

Solution: Let u = πx, du = πdx. Then dx = π1 du

Solution: Note that 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x and d tan x = sec2 xdx. We

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 33 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 34 / 185

(a) If n = 2k, k ∈ N, save a factor of sec2 x and use

Then substitute u = tan x.

(b) If m = 2k + 1 and n ⩾ 1, save sec x tan x and use

Then substitute u = sec x.

(II) sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| + c

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 36 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 37 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 39 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 40 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 41 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 42 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 43 / 185

MATH 1014 Techniques of Integration 45 / 185