Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 13, pp. 135-148. Pergamon Press 1976.

Printed in Great Britain

Discontinuity Spacings in Rock*

S. D. PRIEST,
J. A. HUDSON§
The possible distributions of discontinuity spacings along a straight line
through a rock mass are considered. Unless there is a large predominance
of evenly spaced discontinuities, any combination of evenly spaced, clustered
and randomly positioned discontinuities leads to a negative exponential form
of frequency vs spacing value curve. The negative exponential form was con-
firmed by field discontinuity scanline surveys in three tunnels.
Utilizing the negative exponential distribution, a relation between the Rock
Quality Designation (RQD*) and mean discontinuity frequency per metre
(2) is established: R Q D * = 100e-°'tx(0.12 + 1). The agreement with actual
RQD was within 5% at 27 survey locations mainly in chalk and mudstone.
Recommendations are made concerning the method of presenting disconti-
nuity spacing data, the scanline length necessary for reasonable estimates
of discontinuity frequency and the number of sample values required in a
discontinuity survey.

INTRODUCTION It is also important, however, to obtain data on dis-

continuity intensity in addition to discontinuity orien-
Rock discontinuities in engineering tation. In the-case of tunnelling, for example, it is
Faults, joints, bedding planes, fractures, fissures and necessary to examine the ratio between discontinuity
microfissures are of widespread occurrence in rocks intensity and excavation dimensions [8, 9].
encountered in engineering practice. The purpose of
this paper is to discuss the spacings between these inter- Indices of discontinuity intensity
ruptions in the rock continuum. The general term 'dis- The form of the index adopted to describe disconti-
continuity' is used here, avoiding any genetic conno- nuity intensity is often influenced by the nature of the
tations, to describe any mechanical break or interrup- exposure and the survey technique. Skempton et
tion of the properties of a rock [1]. al. [10] described discontinuity intensity in the London
Discontinuity characteristics play a major role in Clay in terms of the number of discontinuities per unit
controlling the mechanical behaviour of a rock volume of material. The values were obtained by dis-
mass [2-4]. The following characteristics were listed by secting blocks of clay. Using a similar technique on
Piteau [5"] as having particular engineering significance: Cretaceous sediments in south-east England, Fo0kes
(a) Nature of their occurrence--i.e, whether members and Denness [1] expressed intensity as discontinuity
of sets or isolated; (b) Orientation and position in area per unit volume.
space; (c) Continuity; (d) Intensity; (e) Surface geo- Piteau [5] used a scanline survey technique (measur-
metry; (f) Genetic type; (g) Nature and thickness of ing tape) on rock faces and expressed discontinuity in-
the joint fill. tensity as the number of discontinuities per unit dis-
There are many engineering situations in which a tance normal to the strike of a set of sub-parallel dis-
knowledge of the discontinuity characteristics of a rock continuities.
mass is of importance and a variety of approaches can The results of a scanline survey or the quality of
be adopted to analyse the stability and behaviour of rock cores recovered during a site investigation pro-
a given rock mass utilizing discontinuity characteristics. gramme can be described using the method proposed
A commonly used technique is that applied to slope by Deere [11]. The Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
stability, based on considerations of discontinuity is the proportion of scanline or borehole core that con-
orientation viewed in terms of factors of safety against sists of intact lengths that are 0.1 m (4 in) or longer.
failure along critical discontinuity surfaces [6,7]. To calculate the RQD value, these intact lengths are
summed and expressed as a percentage of the total
t Crown copyright 1975. Any views expressed in this paper are length:
not necessarily those of the Department of the Environment. Extracts
from the text may be reproduced, except for Commercial purposes,
provided the source is acknowledged. RQD = 100 ~ x,/L, (1)
Higher Scientific Officer, Transport and Road Research Labora- i=1
tory, Dept. of the Environment, Crowthorne, Berks, U.K.
§ Principal Scientific Officer, Transport and Road Research Labor- where 3q is the length of the ith length 1>0.1 m, n is
atory, Dept. of the Environment, Crowthorne, Berks, U.K. the number of intact lengths >/0.1 m, L is the length
a.r~.M.s. 13 5 A 135
136 S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson
of scanline or boreh01e along which the RQD value
is required. Thus, the RQD can be calculated for
various sections or the complete length of the scanline
or borehole.
Deere et al. [12] suggested that a scanline, which can
be used to measure discontinuity intensity at a face,
may be regarded as directly analogous to a borehole
core since the RQD can be found in both cases. This
is important because the site investigation results can
be compared with conditions actually experienced dur-
ing excavation.
Purpose and content of this paper
The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical
approach to discontinuity spacings and RQD based on
the statistical distributions of spacing values that could
occur along scanlines and to compare these results with
experimental data obtained in field discontinuity sur-
veys.
In the theoretical section, the influence of spacing
distributions on the RQD value is explained, and the
sensitivity of the RQD value to mean discontinuity
spacing is illustrated. In the experimental section, the
scanline measurement technique for assessment of dis-
continuity spacing distributions in rock is explained.
Experimental results are then presented for three differ-
ent tunnels in the U.K. and compared with theoretical
values.
Finally, the usefulness of this interpretation of dis-
continuity spacings and the geotechnicai implications
are discussed.
THEORY
Possible spacing distributions
The discontinuity spacings will be considered with
reference to the distances between points where discon-
tinuities intersect a straight line through the rock
mass--as shown in Fig. l(a). This is equivalent to the
scanline or measuring tape that is used for field deter-
minations of discontinuity spacing or to a thin borehole
core. The spacing values, .xl for i = 1 to n, are shown
in Fig. l(b). The discontinuity intersection points can
be evenly spaced, clustered, random or some combina-
tion of these.
If the discontinuities are fairly evenly spaced with
a normal distribution of spacing values, the frequency
distribution shown in Fig. l(c) will be appropriate. This
type of distribution will tend to occur in, say, a uniform
columnar jointed basalt or evenly bedded sandstone
with the standard deviation reflecting the uniformity
of jointing and bedding respectively.
In the case of clustered discontinuities, a high fre-
quency of low spacing values occurs within clusters and
a low frequency of high spacing values occurs between
clusters. This frequency distribution is shown in Fig.
l(d). Clustering can develop as a result of spalling near
a free face or around joints due to stress or weathering
effects. In addition, cyclic variation in lithology such
Otstonce from A to the ith
discontinuity :d~
Spocing values (x) given
as x i :d i-dill for i = I ~ n
(o) Discontinuity intersection points along a (b)Sconiine(rr~sorinq tape)on exposed
straight line (A8)through the rock mOSS rock face
Af I I I.
-',, ,l'} If-B A IJJll
till( ~ }/Ill
Ill((
Discontinuity spacing values, x Discontinuity spacing values,
(c}Fairly evenly sP~:ed distribution (d)Clustered distribuhon
: \ / -.\ V B
, A_ I lIMIt \1 /I.', I ~1( I B_
I I~ I~/ I " \ I CIl~,(/ I
Clustered and random
. f ~ - ' ~ distributions mutually---- 1
Li \ f(x)=ke_X,
notiva e, -iol
I ~ e i n f o ~ ~t~w spocms I
II Evenly spaced ond
I| rondom distritxJtions
~.~ I \ mutually interfere at
Discontinuity spacing values, Discontinuity s0oeing values, x
(e) Random distribution (f}Combirmtion of distributions
Fig. 1. Theoretical discontinuity spacing distributions.
as alternating layers of sandstone and highly fractured
siltstone could produce this distribution.
For randomly positioned discontinuities, the discon-
tinuity-scanline intersection points are here defined as
random if the presence of one intersection point does
not affect the chance of another occurring in its neigh-
bourhood. In other words, there is no interaction
between discontinuities. This could occur in a homo-
geneous rock mass where the formation of discontinui-
ties has not been dominated by lithological or struc-
tural variability. In Appendix A, from standard statisti-
cal theory it is explained that if each small segment
of scanline has an equal but small chance of containing
a discontinuity intersection point, the points are a Pois-
son process and the associated spacings follow a nega-
tive exponential distribution as shown in Fig. l(e).
The negative exponential distribution is mathemati-
cally expressed as
f(x) = 2e -a~, (2)
where f(x) is the frequency of a discontinuity spacing
x, and ). is the average number of discontinuities per
metre. This is a one parameter (2) distribution with
the mean and S.D. both equal to 1/2.
In a geologically complex rock mass with a varied
mechanical history, it is likely that a combination of
the evenly spaced, clustered and random distributions
will be present. This will result in the type of distribu-
tion shown in Fig. l(f) which will be similar to the
negative exponential distribution. If, however, the mean
spacing of the superimposed random distribution is
 Discontinuity Spacings in Rock 137.

large compared with that of the evenly spaced distribu- The total number of discontinuities in a scanline =
tion, the latter will be largely unaffected and conse- 2L, where 2 = mean number of discontinuities/metre,
quently dominate. In all other combinations, the clus- L = scanline length.
ters are largely unaffected whilst the even spacings are Thus, neglecting end effects, there are (2L - 1) spac-
broken up by superimposed random discontinuity pat- ing values just below 0.1 m and the rejected length of
terns. It is important to note that the orientation of scanline is approximately 0.1 ( 2 L - 1) giving, from
discontinuities, relative to that of the scanline, in gen- equation (1)
eral controls the number of discontinuities intersected RQD,,In ~- 100[L - 0.1(2L - 1)]/L
per unit length and not the overall pattern of the dis-
continuity spacing distribution. "" 10011 - 0.12 + 0. l/L].
For a scanline which is long compared with the 0.I m
Influence of spacin9 distributions on the RQD threshold value, the term O.1/L can be ignored and
The Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is the percent-
RQDm;. " 10011 0.1'2) for 2 <~ 10/m. (3)
age of scanline or borehole core that consists of intact
- -

lengths over 0.1 m. Theoretical RQDs can therefore be
determined directly from distribution curves of the type
shown in Fig. 1 by considering the frequency of spacing
values above the 0.1 m threshold value. This leads to
the concept of maximum and minimum values of RQD
for the clustered and evenly spaced distributions and
a relation between discontinuity frequency and RQD
for the random distribution.
The maximum possible value of the RQD for any
mean discontinuity spacing value is always close to
100% because:
(a) if the mean discontinuity spacing is less than
0.1 m, an RQD value close to 100% is obtained when
the discontinuities are very clustered with large intact
lengths between the clusters;
(b) if the mean discontinuity spacing is greater than
0.1 m, an RQD value close to 100% can be obtained
either by clustering or even spacing.
The minimum possible value for the RQD is 0 for
an average spacing less than 0.1 m if the discontinuities
are evenly spaced. When the average spacing is greater
than 0.1 m, the minimum RQD occurs when all but
one of the spacing values are just below 0.1 m with
one high remaining spacing value. This leads to the
linear relation derived below between the minimum
possible RQD value (RQD.,i.) and the discontinuity fie-
quency.
This relation is plotted in Fig. 2 in terms of RQDmi,
vs mean discontinuity spacing (1/2).
To calculate the RQD value for a rock having ran-
dom discontinuity positions, the percentage of scanline
length containing intact lengths greater than 0.1 m is
found by integrating the spacing values from 0.1m to
L for the negative exponential distribution as shown
in Fig. 2. The relation between RQD and discontinuity
frequency for this case is derived below:
The probability of discontinuity spacings occurring
between x and x + dx is given by f(x)dx, where x is
a spacing value, dx is an increment of spacing, f(x)
is the probability density distribution of x.
For a long total length of scanline, L, the total
number of discontinuities is 2L. Thus, the number of
intact lengths between x and x + dx is 2Lf(x)dx and
the length of these is 2Lxf(x)dx. From the definition
of RQD, equation (1), and in the continuous case, the
theoretical RQD (RQD*) with an arbitrary threshold
value, t, is given by:
RQD,* = 100
I: , Lxf(x) rt' /L
and with a negative exponential distribution of spacing
values, equation (2),
RQD? = 10022 f: x e -~x dx:

MaximumpossibleRQDvalue(all discontinuitiesclusteredin smallregionsalongscanline)

I001
I
90 ~ I ~.~"~'~'~'~r~om discordir~uty
positions
~CP =lOOe'°~(O'l
k+i)7
8o
. 70

60
, , 7
5o I RQI3P"I~ I-xflxldx/L
~ 40 / ~ l 0.1 -x,

/ n / t . ) I"" I
/ I / \mmolnin(jWtQhspocing~,,OlUe/ I i ^ ~ ~
! / I _u,Im . . . . .
IO
0 i ?' , , • ;
0 0.1 0.2 0.:5 0.4 0.,.5
I Meondiscontinuityspocin~ I/Mrn)
RQD
Threshold volue

Fig. 2. Maximum and minimum possible RQD values and RQD vs mean discontinuity spacing for randomly positioned
discontinuities.
 138 S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

95 % of the scanline consists of intact lengths I>0. I m

~oo "%

90 " o~

7O

N 6O
5O

3O
20 1 6 0 of the sconlineconsists
of intact lengths >~l.Om
tO

0 I I I I I | l i I I i i

0 0,1 0.2 03 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I 1,2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1,6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2D
Mean discontinuity spacing, m

Fig. 3. Variation of RQD with mean discontinuity spacing for a range of RQD threshold values t.

For a long scanline, terms containing e -zL can be Precision of the discontinuity frequency and RQD esti-
ignored and .mates
RQD* = 100 e-~'(2t + 1). Assuming a negative exponential distribution of
(4)
spacing values, it is possible to study the effect of scan-
For the conventional RQD, with a threshold value of
line length on the precision of the discontinuity fre-
t = 0.1 m, the theoretical value is
quency (2) estimate. A short scanline, say 10 times the
RQD* = 100e-°1~(0.12 + 1). (5) mean discontinuity spacing, might give a bad estimate
The relation given in equation (5) is also plotted in of 2 and hence the RQD value will not be a good repre-
Fig. 2. Note that equations (4) and (5) only apply if sentation of the rock mass. In fact, widely different
the discontinuity spacing values follow a negative RQD values measured over metre or two metre lengths
exponential distribution. of a borehole can simply be a reflection of the random
positioning of the discontinuities.
Variation of RQD with the threshold value The method for studying the precision of the 2 esti-
In the conventional RQD, the percentage of scanline mate is explained in Appendix B. Examination of Table
consisting of intact lengths above 0.1 m gives the RQD BI reveals that if, say, 50 discontinuities are measured
value. However, it is possible to examine the magnitude along a scanline length of 5 m, the true 2 (i.e. 2L/5)
of the RQD value for a variety of threshold values, t. is within 7.79/m and 12.66/m at the 90% confidence
By the same arguments presented earlier, the maxi- level. The estimated 2 of 10/m (i.e. 50/5) gives the
mum RQD value remains close to 100% and the mini- RQD* as 74% from equation (5) but, from the 2 vari-
mum is found by substituting t for 0.1 in equation (3). ationS" at the 90% confidence level, the true RQD*
The intermediate case is the suite of curves generated varies between 82% and 64%. An alternative approach
by equation (4) for various values of t. These are shown is to determine the probability of estimating the dis-
in Fig. 3 with RQD* plotted against the mean discon- continuity frequency (2) to within +20% or + 10% for
tinuity spacing, 1/2. different sample lengths; graphs of the resulting proba-
The curves in Fig. 3 show that, with the negative bilities are shown in Fig. B1. For example if the sample
exponential assumption, the conventional RQD is sensi- length is 50 times the mean discontinuity spacing, the
tive for mean discontinuity spacings between zero and estimated 2. will lie within + 20% of the true 2 86 times
approximately 0.3 m; above 0.3 m, the RQD is always out of 100.
above 95%. The RQD value can be made more sensitive In Fig. 4, the effect of the sample length on the RQD*
for high mean discontinuity spacing values by increas- error band is shown. For the specific case of 5 dis-
ing the threshold value. continuities per metre encountered in sample lengths
From scanline measurements made in a rock mass ranging from 1 m to 10 m, the RQD* error band varies
with a mean discontinuity spacing of 0.3 m, the conven- from 98%-72% to 94%-87% respectively.
tional RQD is 95%--i.e. 95% of the scanline contains
intact lengths greater than 0.1 m. From equation (4),
FIELD DISCONTINUITY SURVEYS
however, the percentage of scanline containing intact
lengths above any required theshold can be found. For Measurement technique
example, from the vertical line in Fig. 3, 16% of the
In the field surveys, discontinuity characteristics were
scanline contains lengths greater than 1 m when the
measured along scanlines (measuring tapes) set up on
conventional RQD = 95~.
exposed faces. Wherever possible, equal lengths of scan-
f 2 is the true population parameter; ;. is the estimate obtained line were established in orthogonal directions to obtain
by sampling. a true three-dimensional characterisation of the rock
 Discontinuity Spacings in Rock 139
I m sample length 5m sample length
I00 I00

80 80
,~ 90% Confidence band
~ 60
4o
T', \ × 60
ROD*=91%
Error bond
95%-84%
20 .Error band ~' ~ ~ '~" ,~ 2O
900/.-720 - "~ . . . . . ~ . . . . . . ~ .
0 I I , -- ~ ~ i ~ 0 I I I I
0 I0 20 30 40 50 0 I0 20 30 40 50
Obser~<l number of discontinuities Observed number of discontinuities

2m sample length IOta sample length

I00

o 60
80 I
40
;,° t
=o ,o r
20

0 I I I I I I I I I
0 I0 20 30 40 50 0 I0 20 :30. 40 50
Observed number of discontinuities Observed number of discontinuities

Fig. 4. Effect of sample length on the RQD* error band (90% confidence band).

mass [5,13]. In addition to other measurements (such continuous because the spacing is measured to the
as orientation and trace length) at points where discon- nearest 0.01 m on the measuring tape; parallax and
tinuities intersected the scanline, the distance along the angle of discontinuity to the tape do not allow greater
scanline was recorded (Fig. i). Discontinuity spacing measurement precision. For this reason the histograms
values were subsequently calculated by subtraction of have been plotted as single line columns. Figures 5 and
consecutive intersection distances along the measuring 6 include tabulated values of mean spacing and stan-
tape. dard deviation together with total scanline length and
number of observed values. In addition, the negative
Experimental results exponential probability density distribution is drawn
(a) Chinnor tunnel. Detailed assessment of chalk dis- on each histogram, using the parameter ~. equal to the
continuity characteristics formed an intrinsic part of reciprocal of the mean discontinuity spacing.
the rock cutting experiments in the Lower Chalk car- The probability density distributions corresponding
ried out during the full scale tunnelling trials at Chin- to Figs. 5 and 6 are replotted on a logarithmic scale
nor, Oxfordshire. A total of seven thousand disconti- in Figs. 7 and 8. The fitted negative exponential prob-
nuity spacing values was processed for a total scanline ability density distribution is a straight line (cf. equa-
length of approximately 750 m taken in the 23 m deep, tion 2):
3 m dia shaft and in the 5 m dia tunnel. lnf(x) = In ~. - 2x.
Figure 5 shows a discontinuity spacing histogram for
all measurements taken in the shaft, and Fig. 6 a spac- Examination of Figs. 5-8 shows that there is close
ing histogram of measurements taken at selected faces agreement between the theoretical and measured form
during the first 85 m of tunnelling. The distribution of of the distribution curve. In addition, for each distribu-
measured discontinuity spficing values is not strictly tion, the value of the mean spacing is approximately
Ol3

.c_ II
~,o Total sconline length 253.81m
Mean discontinuity spacing(~) O . I I 4 m
Y9 Standard deviation O.107m
8
Number of values 2221

Fitted negative exponential

/ probability density distribution, ~,=8.749/rn
"-- 4
"6
g3

~o
i
. . . ]TITrFrrl-TT ,, >o5o .
0.01 0.C~ 0.10 0.15 020 0.25 0.30 • 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Discontinuity spacing, m
Fig. 5. Discontinuity spacing histogram. Sum of all scanlines in the 3m dia shaft (Lower Chalk, Chinnor, Oxfordshire).
140 S. D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

ll-
Total scanline length 514.57m
tO
Mean discontinuityspacing(~) O,105m
Standard deviation 0,I I 3m
Number of values 4 8 8 4
_=

.,3 6 -
~5-
>.

"~. 4 -
c 3- ~ d F i t t e d negative exponential ^
o
istribution, X: 9.488/m>0,50 ......b~
"6 I-
o 'i''l-: . . . . . . I
o;o, 0.05 0.10 0.15 O.aO 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Discont"inui'fy spacing, rn

Fig. 6. Discontinuity spacing histogram. Sum of all scanlines in the first 85 m of tunnel (Lower Chalk, Chinnor. Oxfordshire).

equal to the standard deviation; this is a theoretical Discontinuity spacing histograms for the sandstone
characteristic of the negative exponential distribution and mudstone horizons are presented in Figs. 9 and
and serves to confirm the conclusion based on visual 10 together with the corresponding negative exponen-
comparison. tial probability density distributions plotted for the
(b) Kielder experimental tunnel. The Kielder exper- appropriate value of mean discontinuity spacing. Figs.
imental tunnel, Rogerley Quarry, Co. Durham, was 9 and 10 show that there is good agreement between
excavated in rocks belonging to the Carboniferous the theoretical and measured distributions. In addition,
Limestone sequence. The tunnel was driven at three for each distribution there is close agreement between
levels: in sandstone, limestone and mudstone horizons. the mean spacing and standard deviation. This serves
During tunnel excavation, a detailed assessment of rock to verify the applicability of the negative exponential
quality at selected faces in the sandstone and mudstone distribution in describing the real discontinuity spacing
horizons was undertaken by the authors. A part of this distribution for these Carboniferous rocks. It is impor-
rock quality assessment included an examination of tant to note that Figs. 9 and 10 illustrate that the nega-
rock discontinuity characteristics using measurement tive exponential distribution is equally applicable to the
techniques described earlier. highly fractured mudstone as the less fractured sand-
10 stone.
9
8 )o
7 ~oo Fitted negative exponential ~o Fitted negative exponential
6 ~°..^r~oabil~ density dimibution,
~Al~obobiiity densify distribution,
5 ~ i / m

.c
21 o
o> o
.E o

~ 0.9 0 0
§ 0.8
~ 0.7 ._ 0.7
0.6
~ 0.5 ~ 0.5 o

i °.°
0.5 e o
0.3 o ooo

0.2
02

o o o
O. I _..~....,....,....,....~....,....,....,....,...o.,o.._
0.1 ..i..,.i.,,, I.,.,h.,,I,...I..,,I.,,,I..,,I.,..I.,, 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
0 O.lO 0.20 0.30 040 0.50 Discontinuityspacing, m
Discontinuity spacing, m
Fig. 8.Sample probability density distribution of discontinuity spac-
Fig. 7.Sample probability density distribution of discontinuity spac- ing values, plotted on a logarithmic scale. Sum of all scanlines in
ing values, plotted on a logarithmic scale. Sum of all scanlines in lirst 85m of tunnel. 4884 Values (Lower Chalk, Chinnor,
the 3 m dia shaft. 2221 Values (Lower Chalk, Chinnor, Oxfordshire). Oxfordshire).
 Discontinuity Spacings in Rock 141

~ tO .
Total sconlinelength 37.22m
Meandiscontinuityspacing(~) O. 129m
•~ 9 - Standarddeviation O. 116m
Numberof values 249
.~ 7
=g6-
Fitted negative exponential ^
4 ~robability density distribution, X=7.-F;'8/rn
3
2
>0.50--.-~I
.... ,,..I i
OOI 0.05 O.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
ne Discontinuity spocincj, rn

Fig. 9. Discontinuity spacing histogram. Rogerley Quarry tunnel. Sum of all scanlines in the sandstone.

In the section dealing with the theoretical approach construction programme provided an additional oppor-
it was stated that a feature of the negative exponential tunity for examining in situ Lower Chalk. Assessment
distribution is that the mean spacing is equal to the of discontinuity characteristics was carried out using
standard deviation. Fig. 11 is a graph plotting the mean the scanline techniques described earlier. Figure 12
discontinuity spacing against the standard deviation of shows a histogram of discontinuity spacing values, for
the spacing for separate survey locations at Chinnor a 0.5 m class interval. The fitted negative exponential
and Rogerley Quarry. The data have been divided into probability density distribution indicates a reasonably
two groups based on the sample size: <200 values and good agreement between actual and theoretical distri-
> 200 values. The straight line in Fig. 11 indicates the butions considering the small sample size.
idealised relation for which the mean discontinuity
spacing is equal to the standard deviation. It is clear General considerations
from this figure that the experimental results conform In searches of published data only two papers, Mah-
well to the theoretical line, particularly for the larger tab et al. [14] and McGown et al. [15], were found
samples where sampling error is lower. Agreement is giving the results of measurements of discontinuity
within 20~o for samples containing more than 200 spacing in histogram form. Although the class interval
values. It is worth noting that in other distributions, was rather wide the indications are that the distribu-
for example the normal distribution, the mean and tions tended to follow the negative exponential form.
standard deviation are totally independent. In view of the tunnel data presented in this section,
(c) Channel tunnelt. Excavation of the machine erec- it is felt that the negative exponential probability den-
tion chamber during Phase II of the Channel tunnel sity distribution provides a good approximation to the
Totalscanline length 60.75m
Mean discontinuity spacing (~) O.O=,L3rn 0.22
Standard deviation O.O~.rn Number of values o o
Number of values 1828rn 0.20 in sample
50 <200 >200
values values
~28 0. 18 Lower chalk Chionor O
Sandstone Rooerley •uorry --
•
• O
-G 26 ML~stone Rogerley cluarry a • /
24 O. 16 /
2-00
E 0.14 o

.~ 18
16
;o
'- 12 O
o° O
e4'
oO
./.:
•

~ 1.4
E
\ o,0
0 0 •
0.08
IO
~ Fitted negativeexponential A
r ~ obability der
~E te: if the

p!!" 0.04

0.02 /
=//
• ~di~:onti~i~ ~ing
distribution follows the
neojative eq)onentiol distribution
the means0ac~,g =
the standard deviation
0.01 0.0,$ 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15
Discontinuity spacing, m
0
r, I I I I I I I
Fig. 10. Discontinuityspacing histogram. RogerleyQuarry tunnel. 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 ODe 0.I0 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
Sum of all scanlinesin the mudstone. Standard deviation, rn
Fig. l l. Mean discontinuity spacing and standard deviation
measuredin the shaftand tunnelat Chinnor,and in the experimental
t The Channel tunnel project was cancelled in January, 1975. tunnel, RogerleyQuarry.
142 S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson
Total scanlinelength 50.65m
2O Mean discontinuityspacing(i) 0.378m of rock types. It is hoped that, in the future, further
t9
Standard deviation 0.585m work will shed light on the validity of wider application
Number of values 134
18 of the negative exponential distribution.

DISCUSSION

Validity of the negative exponential discontinuity spacing

._~ distribution assumption
The validity of the negative exponential distribution,
verified for the available experimental data, indicates
.-~ I0
that equation (5) can be used to calculate the RQD
for a rock given the mean discontinuity spacing (1/2).
:= ] Table I summarises values of RQD, calculated from
¢
8
7
(Spacing >1.5 m) measurements using equation (l), and RQD* calculated
~ 6
from theory using equation (5) for the measurement
5 ~ Fitted negative exponential locations discussed earlier. This table, presented graphi-
4 / ~ o b a b i l i t y densitydistribution, Jl
cally in Fig. 13, demonstrates the close agreement
between RQD and RQD*.
The good agreement between the measured and
, . . . .
theoretical RQD values is not a confirmation of equa-
o
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
tion (5) but a measure of how closely the discontinuity
Discontinuity spocinq, rn spacing values follow the negative exponential distribu-
Fig. 12. Discontinuity spacing histogram. Channel tunnel. Sum of tion in each location. The implication is that a value
vertical and horizontal scanlines (Lower Chalk). of RQD, accurate to within 5~, could have been
distribution of discontinuity spacings measured in the obtained at each of the twenty-seven locations by
field. The applicability of the negative exponential has simply counting the discontinuities and calculating the
only been verified at a few locations for a limited range discontinuity frequency, 2.
TABLE 1. COMPARISON BETWEEN MEASURED AND THEORETICAL RQD

Average
Measured Theoretical number of
RQD ",, RQD* % discontinuities
Rock formation, Scanline (from (from per m,
location Lithology configuration equation 1) equation 5) /.

Lower Chalk Chalk Horizontal

Chinnor shaft scanlines 79 81 7.9
Vertical scanline I 67 70 11.0
Vertical scanline II 7(/ 75 9.5
Chainage = 9.9m 91 89 5.6
ll.5m 87 87 6.3
12.1m 80 81 7.9
14.0m 83 87 6.4
18.1m 82 81 7.9
20.4m 78 81 8.0
Horizontal 35.9m 78 81 8.0
Lower Chalk plus 55.4m 72 74 9.9
Chinnor tunnel Chalk vertical 57.5m 60 64 12.5
scanlines 60.5m 66 69 11.3
for 65.2m 79 79 8.5
each face 70.2m 64 65 12.3
72.7m 71 73 10.1
73.9m 64 68 11.7
79.3m 65 69 11.3
85.0m 63 63 12.8

Sandstone Vertical plus

horizontal scanlines 83 82 7.8

Carboniferous Limestone Vertical plus

Limestone horizontal scanlines 100 98 2.0
Rogerley
tunnel Mudstone Vertical plus 12 12 37.0
horizontal 32 31 23.8
scanlines at 14 17 32.5
selected faces 22 26 26.3
Lower Chalk Chalk Vertical plus 99 99 1.2
Channel tunnel horizontal scanlines 88 90 5.3
 Discontinuity Spacings in Rock 143
• Chinnor,Lowef Chalk
• Ro~ey, sondstom | discontinuities already present in the rock mass and
# R o ~ I w , limestone} Corboniferous Limes~ae to results obtained from scanlines set up on rock faces.
• Rol~ey, mudstone J
o Channel tunneI,LowefCholk If, however, the discontinuity spacings are obtained
LO0 from a borehole core, there is a possibility that ad-
ditional discontinuities may have been introduced by
9O
the sampling process---i.e, drilling the borehole [3].
80 Figure 15 summarises data presented by Deere et
al. [12] from cores and scanlines in a variety of rock
70
types. Figures 15(a--d) show the comparison between
6O RQD* and the measured values of Deereet al., broken
down into the four rock types. These figures indicate
50 that for a given ~., equation (5) predicts an RQD* higher
than the measured value. The effect causing RQD to
be <RQD* (in particular for 2 >i 10/m) is a tendency
3O for the discontinuities to be more evenly spaced than
predicted by the negative exponential distribution (cf.
20 J RQD°=TheoreticolRQOlfrom equotion 51
Fig. 14). Most of the data in Fig. 15 relate to NX
I0 / core; it is possible, therefore, that the process of rotary
0 /~ ~ I I I I I I I
drilling added a more evenly spaced component of dis-
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 I00 continuities to the recovered core, though this could
RQD, %
only be confirmed by detailed surveys on freshly
Fig. 13. Comparison between measured and theoretical RQD.
exposed rock faces.
Figure 14 shows a graph of equation (5) relating Experience at Chinnor has shown that lengths of in-
RQD* to 2 together with the experimental data points tact core can snap near the centre during drilling; this,
presented earlier. Between values of 2 = 6/m and together with the phenomenon of discing due to high
2 = 16/m the relation between ;t and RQD* is approxi- field stresses could lead not only to an artificially low-
mately linear. The curve in Fig. 14 has an inflection ered RQD but also to an artificially imposed disconti-
point P at 2 = 10/m; at this point the curve has a slope nuity spacing distribution. These effects must be borne
equal to dRQD*/d2[~=lo = - 1 0 e -1 = -3.68 m. The in mind and allowed for when interpreting results con-
straight line drawn through P, tangential to the curve cerning rock quality obtained from boreholes referring,
defined by equation (5) is therefore described by ideally, to the results of scanline surveys taken on
RQD* = -3.682 + 110.4. freshly exposed faces.
This line, shown in Fig. 14, gives a good approximation
Geotechnical implications
of RQD between values of 2 = 6/m and 2 = 16/m.
Bieniawski [16], by reference to Deereet al. [12] sug- The RQD, commonly adopted as a rock quality index
gested that the relation between 'fracture frequency' (i.e. is here regarded as having two major drawbacks when
2) and RQD is linear; this statement is generally in viewed in the light of the present approach:
agreement with Fig. 14 within the stated range of 2. (a) Calculating RQD is a time consuming process
which, when applied to borehole cores, can give results
Discontinuities imposed by sampling unrepresentative of the rock mass.
In both the theoretical and experimental sections of (b) The conventional RQD is insensitive to variations
this paper, the discussion has been with reference to in rock quality when the average discontinuity spacing
Linear approximation RODe=- 3.68), + I 10.4
I00 - # .~for6<X<16

90 Experimental doto points

U'l"e,~ Inflection point P • ChinnortLowerChalk
80 I'lk. / -
~"-~ . . . . . . #RoQerley,limestone] CarboniferousUmestone
70 L~ I.)eVlOTIOn aue to a RogerlElYtmu~mne---J-L--I
9w ~ clustered discontinuities J
" ~ .~ 0 Chores, tunneltLower Chalk
~g 6o
• ~ / Theoreficol curve .-~1
c$5o / ' ~ / RQ~-IOO. x (O. I X + I )

~ 40
:50

20

I0

0 I I I I I I I I I I I I ~1 I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Averoge number of discontinuities per m, X

Fig. 14. R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n RQD a n d mean discontinuity frequency.

R.MM.S 13 5 a
 144 S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

100
I O0
r~~l ROD.
Theorei'icol curve - ~ Theoreticol curve

O
50
• II B
:....-;,< or~
75

50
• ~ RQD*

e¢.
25 • 25
J)NX core, Hockensock Siltstone b) NX core, John Day Basalt
0 = I I = I I I I I I t I = I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 17' 14 16 18 20

AverSe number of discontinuities per m, Avero, ~ number of discontinuities per m, ~,

I00 I00 ~ o
ff--u,,,~,~ T t ~ o r e t i c a l curve Theoretical curve
- "~ ROD~
.-
75

d 50 50
o 0 O Tunnel woll, scanli ne
e~ w" o across discontinuities
25 D D O Tunnel wall,sconline
25 ,:) NXcore, Dworshok Darn, n parallel to discontinuities
D
granite gneiss t) Climax Stock Granite o a NX core
I I I I I I i I I 0 I I I I I I I i 1~3.4~
0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20
Average number of discontinuities per m, ~, /&verage number of discontinuities per m,
Fig. 15. C o m p a r i s o n between measured and theoretical RQD (RQD values from Deere et al., 1967).

exceeds 0.3 m. For example, for a large excavation, blocks for a given rockbolt length can be calculated
transition from 'favourable' to 'unfavourable' condi- directly from the statistical theory.
tions may be represented by a variation in RQD of The distribution of discontinuity spacings in a bore-
only 3%, from 98% to 95%. hole is of critical importance when measuring mass per-
RQD has, however, an advantage over simple indices meability using packer test methods. In order to obtain
which express, say, an average discontinuity frequency a precise picture of mass permeability, minimising vari-
per metre (2) in that it makes statements about the ations caused by sampling error, it is necessary to
distribution of block sizes. If the negative exponential design the packer test length with regard to mean dis-
distribution is accepted as valid, from a simple know- continuity spacing. Thus, a similar approach to that
ledge of ~. additional data concerning RQD can be cal- used when considering the effect of sample length on
culated if required. Moreover a two-tier RQD index the precision of the ). estimate can be used to determine
can be produced by adopting a pair of threshold values effective packer permeability test lengths.
at, say, 0.1 m and 1.0 m. The selection of the second Snow[17,18] described a method for determining
threshold value, 1.0 m, ensures sensitivity of the two-tier discontinuity frequency from the proportion of zero
RQD for mean spacing values up to 2.5 m for use when discharge packer permeability tests that occur. He
considering particularly large excavations. The sug- made the basic assumption that the occurrence of open
gested rock quality index would therefore be, for discontinuities in a given length of borehole obeys the
example: ).= 3.3/m, RQD&I=95%, RQD*.o= 16%, Poisson distribution. A corollary of the Poisson process
which gives information on discontinuity frequency, is that the discontinuities follow a negative exponential
percentage of rock containing spacing values greater distribution. The assumptions in Snow's work, though
than 0.1 m and percentage of rock containing spacing dealing with the particular case of open, water bearing
values greater than 1.0 m. discontinuities, may therefore be valid for the rocks
Acceptance of the negative exponential distribution examined here.
allows calculations to be made concerning the precision
of the discontinuity frequency estimates made from any
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
given scanline. In this way, it is possible to determine
the minimum scanline length, expressed as a multiple The possible distributions of discontinuity spacings
of the mean discontinuity spacing, required to produce along a straight line through a rock mass were con-
a rock quality index at a specified precision. For sidered. The effects of evenly spaced, clustered and ran-
example, if the sample length is 50 times the mean dis- domly positioned discontimJities were examined from
continuity spacing, the estimated 2 will lie within a theoretical standpoint. It was found that, unless there
-t-20% of the true 2, 86 times out of 100. is a large predominance of evenly spaced discontinui-
A knowledge that the distribution of discontinuity ties, any combination of evenly spaced, clustered and
spacings follows a negative exponential form can be randomly positioned discontinuities will lead to a nega-
of use in rockbolt design. Rockbolt design criteria may tive exponential form of frequency vs spacing value
embody requirements that the bolt should be of suffi- curve.
cient length to penetrate, say, at least the third joint Analysis of field results obtained from scanline
block back. The probability of intersecting three joint measurements carried out by the authors indicated that
 Discontinuity Spacings in Rock
a negative exponential distribution of discontinuity
spacing values is a good approximation to the true dis-
tribution patterns. Deviations from negative exponen-
tial form in other rocks, though possibly a reflection
of the true discontinuity characteristics of the rock
mass, could in some cases result from data compiled
from a small number of measurements (sampling error),
or data obtained from borehole core (discontinuities
superimposed by drilling).
Using the negative exponential distribution of dis-
continuity spacing values, a relation was established
between the theoretical Rock Quality Designation
(RQD*) and the average number of discontinuities per
metre:
RQD*= 100e-°'l;(0.12 + l).
With this formula it was possible to compare the theor-
etical RQD, obtained from the discontinuity frequency
alone, with the actual RQD calculated from the spacing
values. This was done for all measurement locations.
The maximum error was 5%, indicating that the RQD
could have been found to within 5% simply by counting
the number of discontinuities along the scanline and
using the formula. In addition, the formula shows that
the conventional RQD with a threshold value of 0.1 m
is insensitive when the mean discontinuity spacing is
above 0.3 m.
The authors recommend presenting discontinuity
spacing data obtained from scanlines in the following
form:
(a))., the mean number of discontinuities.per metre,
or ~ the mean discontinuity spacing (~ = 1/2).
Since RQD is a commonly used method of expressing
discontinuity spacing data in site investigation, a two-
tier RQD may be used:
(b) RQDo.I, the conventional RQD.
(c) RQDLo, the RQD with a threshold value of
1.0 m.t
If the theory outlined earlier is applicable, (b) and (c)
can be calculated directly from (a).
It was also found that to estimate the number of
discontinuities per metre to within a reasonable preci-
sion requires a scanline length at least fifty times the
mean discontinuity spacing. Thus, if there are about
five discontinuities every metre, the scanline must be
at least ten metres long. Moreover, at least two
hundred measurement values were generally required
before the negative exponential distribution form
became clear on a histogram. One of the features of
this distribution is that theoretically the mean and stan-
dard deviation are equal: this was found to be the case
to within 20% for the nineteen measurement locations
in Lower Chalk and Carboniferous Limestone where
greater than two hundred readings were taken.
These sampling factors are relevant to packer per-
meability tests where water flow occurs essentially
through the discontinuities. Very large variations of
t" A threshold value of 1.0 m is recommended for general use; how-
ever any value can be used to suit particular conditions.
145
water flow should be expected if the test lengths are
only of the order of ten times the mean discontinuity
spacing, implying that correlation of permeability
values from borehole to borehole should not then be
attempted.
It is suggested that discontinuity surveys should be
carried out in a variety of rock types to assess the wider
applicability of the concepts presented in this paper.
These surveys should be carried out on freshly exposed
faces, with sample sizes consistent with the recommen-
dations detailed above.
Acknowledgements--The work described in this paper forms part of
the programme of the Transport and Road Research Laboratory
and is published by permission of the Director. The authors wish
to thank the following organisations for their help: Rugby Portland
Cement Co; Mort Hay and Anderson; Sir Robert McAlpine and
Sons Ltd; Soil Mechanics Ltd; Rio Tinto Zinc; Cross Channel Con-
tractors and the Steering Committee for the Kidder Water Scheme
Experimental Tunnel.
The research was carried out under the general direction of Mr.
M. P. O'Reilly, Head of Tunnels Division, Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, Dr. P. B. Attewell and Dr. I. W. Farmer, both
of the Engineering Geology Laboratories, University of Durham. The
authors would like to thank Dr~ F. Garwood for helpful statistical
advice and Dr. E. T. Brown, Imperial College of Science and Tech-
nology, Mr. J. B. Boden, Mr. C. McCaul and Mr. G. H. Alderman
of TRRL for help in obtaining and recording discontinuity spacing
data.
Received 29 September 1975.
REFERENCES
1. Fookes P. G. & Denness B. Observational studies on fissure
patterns in Cretaceous sediments of south-east England. Geotech.
19. 493-497 (1969).
2. Trollope D. H. The mechanics of discontinua or elastic
mechanics in rock problems. In Rock Mechanics in Engineering
Practice. (Edited by Stagg K. G. & Zienkiewicz O. C.), Chap.
9. pp. 275-320 (1968).
3. Jaeger J. C. & Cook N. G. W. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics.
p. 513. Methuen, London (1969).
4. Hock E. & Bray J. W. Rock Slope En~lineeriml. p. 309. Inst. Min.
Mctall. (1974).
5. Piteau D. R. Geological factors significant to the stability of
slopes cut in rock. S. Af Inst. Min. Met., Syrup. Planning Open
Pit Mines, Johannesburg. 33-53 (1970).
6. AtteweU P. B. & Woodman J. P. Stability of discontinuous rock
masses under polyaxial stress systems. In Stability of Rock Slopes.
13th Syrup. Rock Mech. (Edited by Cording E. J.) pp. 665-683.
ASCE, NY. (1971).
7. Hock E., Bray J. W. & Boyd J. M. The stability of a rock slope
containing a wedge resting on two intersecting discontinuities.
Q. J. Engng Geol. 6, 1-55 (1973).
8. Watkins M. D. Terminology for describing the spacing of discon-
tinuities of rock masses. Q. J. Engng Geol. 3, 193-195 (1971).
9. Barton N., Lien R. & Lunde J. Analysis of rock mass quality
and support practice in tunneling, and a guide for estimating
support requirements. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Inter-
nal report, 19 June (1974).
10. Skempton A. W., Schuster R. L. & Petley D. J. Joints and fissures
in the London Clay at Wraysbury and Edgware. Geotech. 19,
205-217 (1969).
11. Dcere D. U. Technical description of rock cores for engineering
purposes. Rock Mech. Eng. Geol. 1, 17-22 (1964).
12. Dcere D. U., Hendron A. J., Patton F. D. & Cording E. J. Design
of surface and near surface construction in rock. In Failure and
Breakage of Rock (Edited by Fairhurst C.), pp. 237-302. AIME,
NY. (1967).
13. Terzaghi R. D. Sources of error in joint surveys. Geotech. 15,
287-304 (1965).
14. Mahtab M. A., Boistad D. D. & Kendorski F. S. Analysis of
the Geometry of Fractures in San Manuel Copper Mine, Ari-
zona. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. No.
RI 7715, 24 (1973).
146 S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

15. McGown A., Saldivar-Sali A. & Radwan M. Fissure patterns In practice, the probability of a small unit length
and slope failures in till at Hurlford, Ayrshire. Q. d. Engng Geol.
7, 1-26 (1974).
of scanline being intersected by a discontinuity need
16. Bieniawski Z. T. 13ngineering classification of jointed rock masses. not be one half as for the unbiased coin. Thus, the
The Civil Engineer in South Africa 15, 335-343 (1973). analogy becomes direct for a biased coin1" with a differ-
17. Snow D. T. Rock fracture spacings, openings, and porosities. J.
ent probability value for tails producing a random
Soil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, 94, SMI Proc. Paper 5736, 73-91
(1968). sequence such as
18. Snow D. T. The frequency and apertures oi' fractures in rock.
lnt J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 7, 23-40 (1970). HHHTHHHHTHTH HHH HTTH HT.
19. Lindley D. V. Introduction to Probability and Statistics--l. Prob-
ability, p. 259. Cambridge University Press, London (1965). The probability of k tails occurring in n tosses, or
20. Garwood F. Fiducial limits for the Poisson distribution. Biome- k discontinuities in a length n units, is given.by the
trika, 28. Parts 3 and 4, 437-442 (1936). binomial distribution as:
21. Pearson E. S. & Hartley H. O. Biometrika Tables for Statisticians.
Vol. I. Cambridge University Press, London (1954). p~k tails io~ = (n!/(n -- k)!k!)qkp"-k, (A1)
x n losses /

where P(x)= probability of x occurring, p = probabi-

APPENDIX A
lity of a head (or an intact unit), q = 1 - p = probabi-
The Poisson and negative exponential distributions lity of a tail (or a unit containing a discontinuity).
The probabilities associated with encountering a cer-
Using the scanline technique, discontinuity spacings
tain number of discontinuities in a given length of scan-
are measured by setting up a measuring tape across
line can be calculated from equation A I given q the
the rock face and noting the tape positions where dis-
probability of a discontinuity intersecting a unit length
continuities are present. If it is assumed that each small
of scanline. The mean and standard deviation of the
section of scanline has an equal chance of containing
binomial distribution are np and x/npq respectively.
a discontinuity, the discontinuity positions are random
However, we are also interested in the distribution
and the spacing distribution can be studied in two
of spacings between successive tails and, by analogy,
ways:
the distribution of spacings between discontinuities. In
(a) the discrete case--a unit length of rock (say
this case, the probability of each sequence is considered.
10 mm) is considered intact if no discontinuity is pres-
Assuming that a tail has just occurred, the sequences
ent, and fractured if a discontinuity is present; the total
in Table A1 can follow:
scanline length must then be an integral multiple of
the unit length; TABLE A 1 . SPACING SEQUENCES BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE TAILS

(b) the continuous case--the unit lengths become in- No. of heads Probability for
finitely small and the total scanline length can have (spacing between unbiased coin
any value. Sequence tails) Probability (p = I/2)
In the discrete case, the binomial and geometric dis- T-T 0 q 1/2
tributions provide the probabilities associated with fre- T-HT 1 pq 1/4
quency of occurrence and spacing values respectively. T-HHT 2 ppq 1/8
pppq
In the continuous case, the equivalent distributions are T-HHHT T-HHHHT
3
4 ppppq
1/16
1/32
the Poisson and negative exponential functions. The
discrete case is explained via a coin tossing analogy
This probability density distribution is called the
and the continuous case as a limit to the discrete case
geometric distribution because the probability is
when the number of units becomes infinite. The coin
reduced by the constant factor p for each unit increase
tossing analogy is useful because it provides an intuitive
o f spacing.
understanding of why the most likely spacing value is
Thus
zero when the discontinuities are randomly positioned. p / k heads between'~ ~
~su¢¢essive tails ) = pkq pk(l p). (A2)
(a) Discrete case. Consider, in analogy, an unbiased
coin tossing sequence of heads and tails where a head This distribution is plotted in Fig. A1 for a specific
represents a unit length of intact rock and a tail rep- value of p (19 = 0.91): for p = ½, the coin is unbiased;
resents a unit length containing a discontinuity. For for other p values, the coin is biased but the coin toss-
example: ing sequence is still random. Note that for all p values,
Coin sequence: THHTHHTHTTTHHTHT THT
the most frequently occurring spacing value is zero. The
Scanline:
I(I I Ill I h i I/IIKI I I/I I / l l l I/1
I ~ ~. ¢ ', ~, / t ~ /
mean of the geometric distribution is equal to p/(1 - p).
(b) Continuous case. In the coin tossing analogy, the
There is an analogy between the number of tails that coin can only be thrown an integral number of times
will occur in n tosses and the number of discontinuities and hence the scanline length can only be an integral
that will occur along a scanline of length n units. In multiple of the unit length. The equivalent distribution
addition, the spacings between successive tails and the that characterises the number of events occurring in
spacings between successive discontinuities are analo- a continuous interval x is the Poisson distribution. The
gous. probability of k events occurring in the interval x is
t Although biased, the result is still random--similar to selecting given by
a ball from a bag containing different numbers of black and red pek .... ts xi,~] ~ e - xx(2x)k/k!, (A3)
balls, ~interval
 Discontinuity Spacings in Rock 147
Geometric distribution Nc~jofi~ e~oon~t~l distribution
0.IO~ heads between~_^k q ~',
O. lO -

pL~ __~'
~/s_ive toils
K )"" ~ -v, f(x)=Xe-x=
Where P(Head) : p \ whereh =nunt~ of events/unitlength
P(Tail) = l-p=q 0.08 X Mean spacing=l/X units
0.08 I
Mean spacing = p/(l - p] Heads

~ 0.06 p= 0.91 ~0.06 X = O . I/unit length

i, Mean spacing ~ I Meonspecing
value= I 0 heads ~ 1 value= IOunits
:~ 004

"~
0. 0.02 I-
t • o.o~ I-
r I
',
0 1
o 10
I I
15 20 25
O/
0 5 tO
t
15
i
20 25
Spacing value, K heads Spacing value,x, arbitrary units

Fig. A1. Geometric and negative exponential distributions.

where 2 is the mean number of events occurring in
a unit interval. In the Poisson distribution, the values
of the mean and variance are both 2.
Since we are interested in the discontinuity spacing
probability density distribution, consider the distance
/ from one discontinuity to the next:
P(d <<,x ) = t - P(d > x)
accidents follow a Poisson distribution. In the disconti-
nuity context, an apparent clustering of discontinuities
will occur as a natural consequence of the random pos-
itions.
APPENDIX B
Precision of the mean discontinuity frequency estimate

= 1- P(no discontinuities in distance x) The parameter 2 in the negative exponential distribu-

and from equation (A3), with k = 0
P(t' ~ x) = 1 - e-xx.
This is a negative exponential cumulative probability
distribution. The probability density distribution (f(x))
is the derivative of equation (A4) with respect to x:
tion (cf. equation 2) is estimated by counting the
number of discontinuities intersecting a scanline and
(A4) then dividing by the scanline length: The estimated
number of discontinuities per metre (2) is given by
=
where n is the number of discontinuities encountered;
n/L, (B1)

f(x) = 2e -xx. (A5) and L is the scanline length. We wish to know the
This spacing distribution (equation A5) is plotted in probability of estimating 2 within a certain error band
Fig. A1 for a specific value of 2 (2 = 0.l/m). The mean as a function of the scanline length.
and standard deviation are both equal to 1/2. For example, if the true 2 = 10/m and a scanline
In both the geometric and negative exponential dis- length of one metre is taken, then 10 discontinuities
tributions, the most likely spacing value is zero. Lind- must occur for 2 to be within 59/o of the value 10/m;
ley [19] suggests that this is the reason for the phrase if 9 or 11 discontinuities occurred, 2 would be 10%
"it never rains but it pours" since rare events such as in error.
Curves ore upper envelopes of probability
The actual curve has a saw tooth shape becausethe error bonds ore artificial (c.£ Appendix B)
It is only passible to measure an integral number of discontinuities.Thus,if XL =3.4,it is not
,ossibleto estimate within IO%-i.e. measureo numberof discontinuitiesbetween 3.06-3.74
1.0

E'~ 0.8
=g """'"""""*20°/°~°r~--"~-- "1
/ ""'~ ~:to%etror bond -- -- --
•~ OA
• -- -- Ex~ple:To estimate X to within :1:10%, either 18,19,20,21 or 22 discontinuities
must occur in the samplelength20 times the mean dsoontindty spaci~
Fromequation AS,the pmpabili~ is given as
x ~20~/Kt =0.42
K=I8
0 I I I l I I I -I I
0 5 I0 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
XL-Numl~r of times the sample length is91mtetfhanthe mean dsco~inuity spacing
(for either sconline,borehole or packer permeability test length)

Fig. B1. Graph for determining the probability of estimating the discontinuity frequency (2) to within +20% or + 10%
for different sample lengths.
148 S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

Equation (A3) gives the probability of k events occur- 20, 21, n2 = 22. The probability of this occurring is
ring in an interval x as 0.423---calculated from equation (B5).
p t k ¢,¢nts in~ e- ;x(~.x)k/k! (B2) However, because of the arbitrary error band, it is
I,inlcr',al x }
preferable to use the upper and lower limits of 2L from
Thus, for the example above the observed number of discontinuities at, say, the 98~o
pOO di. . . . tinuitics] = e-1o 101o/10! = 0.125. or 90~o confidence limit [20] as in Table B I below. A
~in one metre larger table is available in Pearson and Hartley [21].
In this case, for a true ). of 10/m and taking a scanline TABLE B I . VARIATION OF 2 L AT 98% AND
length of 1 m, the probability of estimating ). within 900o CONFIDENCE LEVELS GIVEN THE OBSERVED
5 ~ is only 0.125. Note that the use of 5 ~ is arbitrary NUMBER OF DISCONTINUITIES, FROM
GARWOOD [20]
here because the same probability applies to estimating
2 to within any percentage less than 10~--i.e. when Possible variation of 2L
ten discontinuities are measured, ). will be exactly equal
n 98% confidence 90% confidence
to 2.
In general for ~¢ to lie within a certain error 0 0-4.61 0-3
band, + ~, 1 0.01-6.64 0.05-4.74
5 1.28-13.11 1.97-10.51
2(1 - E) ~< 2 ~< 2(1 + E) (B3) 10 4.13-20.14 5.43-16.96
15 7.48-26.74 9.25-23.10
and, from equation (B1) 20 11.08-33.10 13.25-29.06
25 14.85-39.31 17.38-34.92
2L(1 - ~) ~< n ~< 2L(1 + e). (B4) 30 18.74-45.40 21.59-40.69
40 26.77-57.35 30.20-52.07
From equation (B2), the probability of this occurring 50 35.03-69.07 38.96--63.29

is
k= a2
e-aL(2L)k/k!,
k=nt
for integral values of nt to n2, satisfying inequality (B4).
If, for example, the scanline length is 20 times the mean
discontinuity spacing (2L = 20) and a 10~o error band
is allowed (e = 0.1), n can take the values nt = 18, 19,
If 50 discontinuities are observed in a scanline length
(B5) of 5 m, 2L varies from 38.96 to 63.29 at the 90~o confi-
dence level (Table BI); i.e. 2 varies between 7.79/m and
12.66/m. From equation (5), the theoretical RQD* value
then varies from 82~o to 64?/0. This illustrates the high
sampling error in using short scanlines or borehole
lengths for RQD determinations.