Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-024-01815-3

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Pixel Reduction of High‑Resolution Image Using Principal Component

Analysis
Ramachandran Radhakrishnan1 · Manimegalai Thirunavukkarasu2 · R. Thandaiah Prabu3 · G. Ramkumar3 ·
S. Saravanakumar4 · Anitha Gopalan3 · V. Rama Lahari5 · B. Anusha5 · Shaik Hasane Ahammad5 ·
Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed6 · Md. Amzad Hossain7

Received: 3 November 2023 / Accepted: 4 January 2024

© Indian Society of Remote Sensing 2024

Abstract
A high-definition picture needs more storage space and occupies the memory. For a model to run efficiently, we need to pro-
vide a good-quality image, but as we know, we should load a lot of data to obtain accurate results. While it is often applied
for compressing or reducing the dimensionality of high-resolution images, it is not specifically designed for pixel reduction.
However, we can use principal component analysis (PCA) to achieve pixel reduction by treating the image as a matrix and
applying PCA on its pixel values. It is important to note that while PCA can reduce the dimensionality of an image, it does
not necessarily reduce the storage size unless the image has a high number of pixels compared to the number of components
retained. Experimental results indicate that principal component analysis (PCA) proves effective in addressing these chal-
lenges by efficiently reducing the dimensionality of image data while retaining the principal properties of the original image.
This reduction in dimensionality not only mitigates data transmission issues but also results in more efficient storage utiliza-
tion. Additionally, reducing the number of pixels through PCA may result in some loss of detail and image quality. For this
reason, we choose PCA, an efficient algorithm for reducing high-dimensional data. In machine learning, a picture with so
many pixels will be considered high-dimensional data. The principal component analysis is a decomposition algorithm. It is
a fundamental decomposition algorithm which reduces the dimensions in a dataset. Discovering the new variables, referred
to as principal components, serves to streamline the solution to the eigenvalue/eigenvectors problem. PCA can be character-
ized as an adaptive data analysis technology since these variables are crafted to adjust to diverse data types and structures.
Comparative analysis proves that the proposed method is more efficient. The study converts the image's pixel dimension
from the original data, attaining a pixel rate of 3,155,200-to-100-pixel rate. Therefore, converting a 9,465,600-byte image to
a 300-byte image, pixel is usually 3 bytes. Further research will be investigating an alternative dimension reduction approach
for solving nonlinear problem space with correlated variables.

Keywords Image compression · Principal component analysis · Dimensionality reduction · Open CV (Open-Source
Computer Vision Library) · Background masking

Introduction
With the modernized information efficient with the evolu-
tion of the transmission of the digital image processing to
the challenging technology digitalized within the shared
feature, moreover, the digital images are quantified through
sharing the information via the website, internet, and soft-
ware platforms (Belarbi et al., 2017; Tan et al., 2021). A
high-resolution image is considered a high-dimensional data
space, with each image organized into two-dimensional pixel
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
values, where each pixel comprises its respective red, green,
and blue (RGB) bits value. This representation of image data
poses challenges for sharing image files over the Internet due
to the extended uploading and downloading times, a persis-
tent issue for Internet users. Additionally, high-resolution
images demand substantial storage space. For the moment,
individual people subjected to the devices within the growth
developed for the rate decaying exponentially located for
the network. The necessary features to facilitate images at
higher pixels configured to transmit the signals meant for
the prolonged system design rendered to the communica-
tion scheme with the bandwidth reached for the multimedia

Vol.:(0123456789)

system generated to represent the image's critical aspect
(Gosavi & Khot, 2013). On the contrary, the compression
scheme has evaluated through the network transmitted to
discard the data redundant with the tolerable ratio set for the
files upon different scenarios. For reducing the image pixel
based on the data quantified within the image quality repre-
sentation (Neto et al., 2013). Data quantification has done
through bit size within the compression process needed for
the redundancy. Generally, the classification has required for
compression, lossy, and lossless images. The image dimen-
sion can be reduced and discarded to the method followed
with the content to the redundant feature processed with the
loss informed (Ng, 2017).
Decompressed to the perseverance for the original fea-
ture extracted to the resolution for digital storage distribu-
tion for the 3D data approach. The image associated with
high pixel with the data space with the value interpretation
to the matrix conversion represented to figuring RGB for
pixel coloring system design rendered to the communica-
tion scheme with the bandwidth reached for the multimedia
system generated to the critical aspect of representing the
image (Yang et al., 2004; Robinson, 2009). Consequently,
the image resulted to the degree tolerable with the com-
prehensive files associated to the degraded associated for
visualization noticed in which compressed quality signi-
fied. On the contrary, the transmitted network evaluates the
compression scheme to discard the redundant data with a
tolerable ratio.
Figure 1 shows the block representation of PCA. This
technique has been employed for the spatial distribu-
tion structured through the functioning of a mathematical
model (Santo, 2012). Indeed, the single value decomposition
method has been utilized for fundamental properties extrac-
tion within the system of a linear function. For removal of
noise distributed within the data associated with processing
to the signal associated to the approach PCA through image
recognition, signal processing, and classification problems,
for the technical aspect of dimensional reduction with seek-
ing original information content as possible (Guan et al.,
2023), furthermore, PCA, used in dimension reduction, ena-
bles data identification and expression of standards. PCA
has widespread application in pattern recognition, system
Fig. 1  PCA block representa-
tion
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
control theory, image processing, communication, sig-
nal processing, and other fields. Main contribution of the
research is reducing the pixel count of a high-resolution
image using PCA that is a common technique in image com-
pression and dimensionality reduction. PCA is a mathemati-
cal method that transforms the original pixel values of an
image into a new set of values called principal components.
These principal components capture the most significant pat-
terns and variations in the image.
Pixel reduction is a process in image processing that
involves decreasing the number of pixels in an image, often
to achieve a more manageable size or to improve compu-
tational efficiency. This reduction is usually accompanied
by a loss of detail, as fewer pixels mean less information is
retained. Various methods are employed for pixel reduction,
and one notable technique is PCA. PCA is a mathematical
procedure that transforms a set of correlated variables, in
this case, pixel values, into a new set of uncorrelated vari-
ables called principal components (Guan et al., 2023). When
applied to high-resolution images, PCA allows for the identi-
fication of the most significant features, enabling the reduc-
tion of pixel dimensions while retaining the essential visual
characteristics. Pixel reduction is widely used in applications
such as image compression, data storage optimization, and
real-time processing, where a balance between reduced data
size and preserved visual information is crucial. Efficient
pixel reduction methods contribute to faster image transmis-
sion, storage, and analysis across various domains, ranging
from computer vision and medical imaging to remote sens-
ing and multimedia applications. Pixel reduction of high-
resolution images is a crucial process in image processing
aimed at decreasing the number of pixels while balancing the
preservation of essential visual details. Various techniques
are employed to achieve this, ranging from simple meth-
ods such as downsampling or subsampling, which involves
removing pixels at regular intervals, to more sophisticated
approaches like PCA. PCA is a mathematical technique that
identifies and retains the most significant features in the form
of principal components, enabling a substantial reduction
in pixel dimensions without compromising critical visual
information. Other methods include averaging or pooling,
wavelet transforms, and quantization, each with its specific
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
advantages and trade-offs. The choice of the pixel reduction
method depends on the desired application, whether it be
data compression, storage optimization, or improved com-
putational efficiency (Seo et al., 2021). While pixel reduc-
tion is valuable for tasks like image compression in web
applications or real-time processing in computer vision, it
necessitates careful consideration of the trade-off between
reduced data size and the potential loss of image quality and
details. Pixel reduction of high-resolution images using PCA
is a sophisticated approach employed in the field of image
processing to efficiently compress and represent visual infor-
mation. High-resolution images often contain a vast amount
of redundant or correlated pixel data, making them com-
putationally intensive to store and transmit. PCA, a linear
dimensionality reduction technique, addresses this challenge
by identifying and retaining the most significant features,
known as principal components, while discarding less cru-
cial information. In this context, the principal components
capture the directions in which the data vary the most, allow-
ing for a compact representation of the image (Fan et al.,
2023). By strategically selecting a subset of these principal
components, one can achieve a substantial reduction in the
image's pixel dimensions without compromising its essential
visual content. This process holds significance across vari-
ous domains, including data compression, storage optimiza-
tion, and real-time image processing, where the preservation
of critical visual details is essential. The utilization of PCA
for pixel reduction not only contributes to resource efficiency
but also facilitates faster transmission and analysis of high-
resolution imagery in diverse applications.
The structure of the paper is as follows: Sect. "Litera-
ture Survey" illustrates the related works associated with
PCA and image compression. Section "Literature Survey"
describes PCA with the working principle. Section "Experi-
mental Setup" explains the experiment, results and discus-
sion and, finally, concluding the work in Sect. "Results and
Discussion."
Literature Survey
Generally, the schemes associated with the compression fea-
sibility applied to the standardized approach of Joint Photo-
graphic Experts Group (JPEG) format within the start-of-art
deployed through spectral analysis, artificial neural network,
discrete wavelet transform (DWT), discrete cosine transform
(DCT), and fast Fourier transform (FFT) (Seo et al., 2021;
Fan et al., 2023). With the images compressed through
the transformation of a two-dimensional (2D) matrix allo-
cated to the equivalent frequently associated to the values
distributed for platforms achieved for a more remarkable
case of the scenario set to the current methodology pro-
cessed in spectral based for hyper design compacted to the
conventional application. Large-scale high-dimensional or
high-resolution images are currently difficultly facilitated
within the image dimensioned at the higher resolution for
greater density. The number of features or dimensions of
an image refers to the number of pixels that comprise that
image. It is observed that larger images would necessitate
extensive divisions (Nisha & Monoth, 2020). Fundamen-
tally, images generally contain redundant data, implying
data duplication with pixels repeating to the patterned data
or image for reducing the dimensionality supports for the
storage facility. Consequently, a compressed image signi-
fies actual application to redundant features. Elimination
of the compressed image occurred for the representation of
the image compression. Pixel quantified the reduced visu-
alization for the altered image pixel classified application
division at specific design (Shereena & David, 2015). As a
result, image dimension reduction or compression is typi-
cally a data compression application that encodes the origi-
nal image with fewer bits, potentially, with the image pixel
removed based on a grouping to the uploaded image at the
sending at a greater extent.
Further, specified methodology appropriate to the vector
compressed to the lossy data featured to the transmitted for
data sequenced design. Compression with the lossless and
lossy categorized for the compressed image. Lossless and
lossy compression are the two types of image compression.
PCA is a lossy compression algorithm attributed to feature
vectors used in many applications, such as image compres-
sion and digital watermarking (Yang et al., 2002). PCA has
gained collected conscientious with image compression in
modern ages. The reduced image compression's primary
goal utilized PCA for image pixels redundancy to improve
image sharing, transmission, and storage.
Here are a few literatures works presented on pixel reduc-
tion of high-resolution images using PCA. (Bruni et al.,
2022) discuss the application of PCA for image compres-
sion and pixel reduction. It explores how PCA can be used to
reduce the number of pixels while maintaining image qual-
ity. The study shows that PCA can effectively reduce the
dimensionality of images and achieve compression ratios
without significant loss of visual information. Chen et al.
(2016) present a comprehensive analysis of PCA-based
image compression techniques. It focuses on pixel reduc-
tion and highlights the benefits of using PCA for preserving
essential information in high-resolution images. The study
compares the performance of different PCA-based compres-
sion algorithms and provides insights into their efficiency
and limitations. Wandelt et al. (2016) compare PCA with
the discrete cosine transform (DCT) for image compression
and pixel reduction. It evaluates the trade-offs between the
two techniques in terms of compression ratios, computa-
tional complexity, and image quality. The results indicate
that PCA can achieve comparable compression ratios while

providing different visual quality characteristics compared to
DCT. Vallathan & Jayanthi, (2015) presented a survey paper
which provides an extensive overview of various PCA-based
image compression techniques, including pixel reduction. It
discusses the theoretical foundations, algorithms, and per-
formance evaluation metrics associated with PCA-based
compression. The authors highlight the advantages and
challenges of using PCA and present a comprehensive com-
parison of different approaches proposed in the literature.
Wang et al. (2022) presented a review article that explores
the application of PCA for image compression, including
pixel reduction. It provides an overview of the different
stages involved in PCA-based compression and discusses
the impact of parameter selection on the compression per-
formance. The study also discusses the trade-offs between
compression ratios, computational complexity, and image
quality.
While PCA has been widely studied and applied for vari-
ous image processing tasks, including image compression
and dimensionality reduction, there are still some research
gaps in the context of pixel reduction of high-resolution
images using PCA. Here are a few potential research gaps
in this area: optimal selection of principal components:
Determining the optimal number of principal components
to retain for pixel reduction is still an open research question.
While the selection of components depends on factors like
compression ratio and image quality, developing automated
or adaptive methods to determine the optimal number of
components remains a challenge. Trade-off between pixel
reduction and image quality: Finding an optimal balance
between pixel reduction and preserving image quality is cru-
cial. Existing studies focus on achieving higher compres-
sion ratios but often at the cost of noticeable image degrada-
tion. Exploring advanced techniques or algorithms that can
enhance image quality while reducing pixels is an area for
further investigation. Handling large-scale high-resolution
images: Dealing with large-scale high-resolution images
poses computational challenges in applying PCA for pixel
reduction. Developing scalable algorithms or parallel pro-
cessing techniques that can efficiently handle large images
while maintaining accuracy is an important research direc-
tion (Kurek et al., 2022). Robustness to different image types
and content: The performance of PCA for pixel reduction
may vary across different types of images and content. Inves-
tigating the robustness of PCA-based approaches to different
image characteristics (e.g., texture, color, spatial distribu-
tion) and exploring techniques to improve their adaptabil-
ity to diverse image content is an area that requires further
exploration. Evaluating the impact on downstream applica-
tions: While pixel reduction using PCA can reduce the stor-
age requirements of high-resolution images, it is important
to evaluate its impact on downstream applications such as
image analysis, computer vision tasks, or machine learning
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
models (Ahmadi et al., 2023; Carvalho Michalski & Souza,
2022). Assessing the trade-offs between pixel reduction and
the performance of these applications is an area that needs
attention.
In recent research trends regarding the pixel reduction of
high-resolution images using principal component analysis
(PCA), there has been a notable integration of deep learning
methodologies, particularly the incorporation of neural net-
works like autoencoders alongside PCA for improved image
compression (Moore, 1981). Adaptive compression methods
have gained prominence, aiming to dynamically adjust com-
pression levels based on image content, offering optimized
outcomes for different regions of an image. Researchers
are increasingly focused on achieving high compression
ratios while ensuring perceptual image quality, leading to
the development of lossy compression techniques that intel-
ligently reduce pixel information while preserving crucial
visual features. Hybrid compression approaches, combin-
ing PCA with other techniques such as wavelet transforms
or neural network-based methods, have seen growing inter-
est due to their potential to enhance compression efficiency
(Abdi & Williams, 2010; Santo, 2012). Furthermore, recent
efforts involve optimizing PCA-based pixel reduction tech-
niques for efficient hardware implementation, catering to
real-time image processing needs on specialized architec-
tures like Graphics Processing Unit (GPUs), Tensor Pro-
cessing Unit (TPUs), or Field-Programmable Gate Array
(FPGAs). Researchers are also tailoring these techniques
to domain-specific applications such as medical imaging
and surveillance, considering the unique characteristics
of different image types. In response to privacy concerns,
there is a focus on developing compression methods that
allow pixel reduction while preserving sensitive informa-
tion, and ongoing work aims to improve the robustness of
PCA-based approaches against various types of noise and
distortions commonly encountered in real-world image data.
To stay current with the latest advancements, researchers are
encouraged to explore recent publications in conferences and
journals dedicated to image processing, computer vision,
and related fields, while also monitoring preprint archives
and engaging with relevant online communities. Analyti-
cal methods for pixel reduction of high-resolution images
using PCA involve several key steps. The process begins
with converting the high-resolution image into a matrix and
normalizing pixel values. The matrix is then flattened into
a one-dimensional (1D) vector. Subsequently, the covari-
ance matrix of the flattened data is computed, and eigen-
value decomposition is performed to obtain eigenvectors
and eigenvalues. Sorting and selecting the top eigenvectors
based on eigenvalues determine the principal components
for dimensionality reduction. Projection onto these compo-
nents reduces the image to a lower-dimensional space. The
reconstructed data are then reshaped to the original image
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
dimensions, and the process allows for experimentation with
the number of principal components to balance compression
and image quality. Quantitative evaluation metrics such as
Mean Squared Error or Structural Similarity Index aid in
assessing the fidelity of the reduced-resolution image com-
pared to the original. These analytical steps provide a sys-
tematic approach for applying PCA to achieve pixel reduc-
tion in high-resolution images.
Addressing these research gaps can lead to the development
of more efficient, accurate, and adaptable techniques for pixel
reduction of high-resolution images using PCA. It is worth
noting that these research gaps are not exhaustive, and there
may be other specific aspects or challenges that researchers can
explore in this field. The objectives of pixel reduction of high-
resolution images using PCA can be summarized as follows:
Achieve efficient image compression: The primary objective is
to reduce the number of pixels in high-resolution images while
maintaining an acceptable level of image quality. PCA can
help identify the most important components that contribute
to the image's variability, allowing for efficient compression
and storage of the image data. Preserve essential image infor-
mation: While reducing the number of pixels, it is crucial to
preserve the essential information and characteristics of the
original image. The objective is to ensure that the reduced
image retains key visual features, structures, and important
details necessary for subsequent analysis or interpretation
(Du & Fowler, 2008). Optimize compression ratio: Another
objective is to achieve a high compression ratio, which refers
to the ratio of the size of the original image to the size of the
compressed image. By leveraging the dimensionality reduc-
tion capabilities of PCA, the goal is to significantly reduce
the image size while still maintaining an acceptable level of
image quality. Minimize information loss: Although pixel
reduction involves discarding some pixel values, the objec-
tive is to minimize the information loss during this process.
By selecting an appropriate number of principal components,
the aim is to retain the most significant information while dis-
carding less important details that contribute less to the overall
image appearance. Enhance computational efficiency: PCA
can provide computational advantages in terms of reducing
the dimensionality of the image data. The objective is to lev-
erage PCA's efficiency to reduce the computational complex-
ity for subsequent image processing tasks, such as analysis,
feature extraction, or pattern recognition, that may benefit
from a lower-dimensional representation of the image. Evalu-
ate the trade-off between compression and image quality: It
is essential to find an optimal trade-off between the degree of
pixel reduction (compression) and the resulting image qual-
ity (Qian et al., 2023). The objective is to quantitatively and
qualitatively assess the trade-off and identify the optimal bal-
ance that meets the specific requirements of the application
or user preferences. Investigate the applicability to different
image types and domains: Another objective is to explore the
applicability and effectiveness of PCA-based pixel reduction
across various image types, domains, and applications. This
involves studying the performance of PCA on different types
of images, such as natural images, medical images, satellite
images, and investigating its adaptability to different content
characteristics and variability.
By addressing these objectives, researchers can advance
the understanding, techniques, and applications of pixel reduc-
tion of high-resolution images using PCA, leading to improved
image compression, storage efficiency, and subsequent image
analysis tasks.
Proposed Methodology
Overview of PCA
It signifies the superior analytics of data and its recognition
of patterns, as well as a statistical technique for image pro-
cessing such as compression, dimension reduction, and so
on. For data matrix dimensionality reduction, generally, PCA
is applicable. PCA reduces dimensionality by separating the
multi-dimensional data preserved to the P.C. In practical to
the compression for the methodology in content to the exact
precision with the compression informed for the image repre-
sentative through processing with high-pixel rate (Windisch
et al., 2023). According to PCA, the image compression from
the actual data holds high-pixel quantified under lower-rate
dimensioned for representing the individual pixel subjected to
RGB estimate. Indeed, a multi-variable probability grouping is
distributed within the data by the coordinates of the X and Y
plane. Fining with the variations to the maximum extent of the
datasets for components mainly directed to the axis of U and V.
Figure 2 depicts the dimension reduction in the X and Y
correlated with U and X planes. PCA operates on the prin-
ciple of placing the axis on the maximum variance, which
has been accomplished through regression. The advantage of
using PCA functions under information that attains lossless
transform with the data, including patterns in the findings of
data compressed with the dimension quantity. PCA achieves
compression by removing principal components with low
eigenvalues. In general, the following steps have been taken
through PCA for image resolution reach:
• Altering image through mean-vector
• Computing covariance matrix
• Calculating eigenvalues and eigenvectors
• Reconstructing original image
 Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing

Fig. 2  PCA for dimension reduction (Santo, 2012)

The Process Involved in Digital Image Pixel det(A − 𝜆I) = 0 (6)

Reduction
AV = 𝜆V (7)
Representation of digital image associated to pixel catego-
rized through 2D matrix within the following formulated V is the principal component. The imaging data trans-
arrangement, formed to the newly biased transformation by stepping the
image at the actual axis to the reduced case of the image
⎡ f (0, 0) ⋯ f (0, m − 1) ⎤ pixel.
F(x, y) = ⎢ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎥ (1)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ f (n − 1, 0) ⋯ f (n − 1, m − 1) ⎦ Ftransformed (x, y) = U T Ftransformed (x, y) (8)

Image normalization is performed based on the data-

set of the image applied, and the separation facilitates the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) enhancement.
⎡ f (0, 0) ⋯ f (0, m − 1) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Fnormalized (x, y) =⎢ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ f (n − 1, 0) ⋯ f (n − 1, m − 1) ⎦
− [ f (0, 0) … f (0, m − 1) ]
Covariance can be determined with tremendous uncer-
Algorithm
Step 1: Data fetching; Input data = x1 , x2 , … .., xM are N × 1 vector
∑M
Step 2: Compute mean-vector (𝜇);= M1 i=1 xi
Step 3:{Deduction of
{ mean}with the acquired
}
data; ∅i (N×1) = xi − x (N×1)
(2)
Step [4: Computation of] matrix subjected to the covariance;
A= ∅1 ∅2 … … .∅M (N×M)�
Step 5: Determining the covariance
� matrices eigenvectors� and values
1 ∑M
T 1
{C}(N×N) = M j=1 ∅j ∅j = M A(N×M) A (M×N) T

tainty for locating the dataset quantity.

(N×N)

Step 6: Selecting mechanisms with vectors featuring the formed

Fnormalized (x, y) ∗ Fnormalized (x, y)T structure; 𝜆1 > 𝜆2 > … . > 𝜆N and u1 , u2 , … .uN
cov(X, Y) = (3) Step 7: Originating recent data
m−1
Eigenvectors can represent features for the principal
aspect. Through the singular value decomposition (SVR),
Block Diagram
the eigenvectors and values for the uncertainty matrix are
obtained.
Here is a block diagram outlining the steps involved in a
T
AA = cov(X, Y) = UD U 2 T
(4) proposed hybrid PCA approach for pixel reduction of high-
resolution images: Image Loading: The high-resolution
image is loaded into the system. This can be done using an
1 ∑( )
n
xi − x (yi − y) (5) image processing library or tool. Preprocessing: The image
n − 1 i=1 may undergo preprocessing steps, such as resizing or nor-
malization, to ensure consistency and enhance the effective-
ness of the subsequent processing steps. Block Partitioning:
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
The image is divided into smaller blocks or patches. The
size and shape of the blocks can be predefined or adaptive
based on the specific algorithm or application requirements
(Dhasarathan et al., 2019; Singh & Malhotra, 2020; Usman
et al., 2023). PCA on Blocks: principal component analy-
sis (PCA) is applied individually to each block. For each
block, the steps of PCA are performed, including comput-
ing the covariance matrix, calculating the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors, and sorting them. Component Selection: The
most significant principal components are selected for each
block based on some criteria. This selection can be based
on the eigenvalues or a threshold for the amount of variance
explained. Reconstruction: The selected principal compo-
nents for each block are used to reconstruct the reduced
pixel block. The reconstruction process involves multiply-
ing the selected components by their respective weights and
summing them up. Block Combination: The reconstructed
pixel blocks are combined or stitched together to form the
reduced image. The combination process depends on the
block partitioning strategy used in step 3. Postprocessing:
The reduced image may undergo postprocessing steps, such
as resizing to the desired dimensions or applying additional
image enhancement techniques to improve the visual quality
or specific characteristics of the image. Display or Save: The
reduced image can be displayed for visualization or saved
for further analysis or storage purposes. The system con-
figuration for principal component analysis (PCA) depends
on the specific implementation and the size of the dataset
being processed.
Here are some considerations for the system configuration
when performing PCA:
Processing Power: PCA can be computationally inten-
sive, especially for large datasets. Consider using a system
with sufficient processing power, such as a multi-core CPU
or a high-performance computing cluster, to expedite the
PCA computations.
Memory: PCA involves working with the covariance
matrix, which can be memory-intensive, especially for high-
dimensional datasets. Ensure that the system has enough
memory to accommodate the dataset and the intermediate
computations involved in PCA. If the dataset is too large to
fit in memory, distributed or online PCA algorithms can be
considered.
Storage: Depending on the size of the dataset, storage
capacity may be required to store the dataset and intermedi-
ate results during the PCA process. Ensure that the system
has enough storage space to accommodate the data and any
additional output or logging generated during the PCA.
Software and Libraries: PCA can be implemented using
various programming languages (e.g., Python, MAT-
LAB) and libraries (e.g., NumPy, scikit-learn). Install the
required software and libraries on the system to enable PCA
implementation. Additionally, consider using optimized
libraries or GPU-accelerated implementations for faster
computations.
Parallelization: To improve the efficiency of PCA,
especially for large datasets, consider parallelizing the
computations. This can be achieved by utilizing parallel
programming frameworks (e.g., OpenMP, MPI) or dis-
tributed computing frameworks (e.g., Apache Spark) to
distribute the computation across multiple processors or
machines.
Data Preprocessing: Depending on the characteris-
tics of the dataset, preprocessing steps such as data nor-
malization or standardization may be necessary before
applying PCA. Ensure that the system has the necessary
tools or libraries to perform data preprocessing tasks
efficiently.
Visualization Tools: PCA often involves visualizing the
results, such as plotting the principal components or exam-
ining the explained variance. Use appropriate visualization
tools or libraries to facilitate the analysis and interpreta-
tion of the PCA results.
Scalability: If working with large-scale datasets or
aiming for real-time or near real-time analysis, consider
the scalability of the system. This may involve designing
distributed or streaming PCA algorithms that can handle
the data volume and velocity requirements.
The specific system configuration requirements will
depend on the dataset size, the available resources, and
the goals of the PCA. It is important to assess the com-
putational and memory requirements and optimize the
system configuration accordingly to ensure efficient and
accurate PCA computations. The proposed hybrid PCA
approach combines the advantages of block-based process-
ing and PCA to achieve pixel reduction of high-resolution
images. By applying PCA individually to smaller blocks,
the method can capture local variations more effectively,
potentially leading to improved image quality and bet-
ter preservation of important image details compared to
applying PCA directly on the entire image. It is impor-
tant to note that the specific details and variations of the
hybrid PCA approach may vary depending on the proposed
method or algorithm. The above block diagram provides
a general overview of the key steps involved in such a
hybrid approach.
Figure 3 describes PCA is a technique that can be used
to automatically perform dimensionality reduction. This
algorithm aims to find the directions of maximum vari-
ance in high-dimensional data into a new sub space with
equal or fewer dimensions than the original. It involves
reducing the number of input variables or pixels in mod-
elling data. PCA helps us identify data patterns based on
the correlation between features. In this, we have taken

Fig. 3  Block diagram of the
steps that forms the proposed
hybrid PCA
an H.D. image which consists of 315,521(for 2176*1450
image) pixels, and by applying different principle com-
ponents, we could reduce the size to 100 pixels.
Experimental Setup
An experimental setup for pixel reduction of high-reso-
lution images using PCA typically involves the following
components and steps:
Dataset Selection: Choose a dataset of high-resolution
images that will be used for experimentation. The dataset
should include a variety of images representing different
types, contents, and characteristics to ensure a compre-
hensive evaluation.
Preprocessing: Preprocess the images if necessary,
including resizing, normalization, or conversion to gray-
scale, based on the specific requirements of the experiment
and the PCA algorithm being employed.
PCA Implementation: Implement the PCA algorithm
for pixel reduction. This involves coding or utilizing
existing PCA libraries or tools to perform the necessary
calculations, including covariance matrix computation,
eigenvalue/eigenvector analysis, and selection of princi-
pal components.
Experimental Parameters: Define the parameters for the
experiment. This includes specifying the number of princi-
pal components to retain for pixel reduction, compression
ratio targets, or any other specific requirements of the study.
Experimental Procedure:
A. Iterate through the images in the dataset.
b. Apply the PCA algorithm to each image, performing
pixel reduction based on the chosen parameters. c. Record
the computation time required for PCA and pixel reduction
for each image.
Evaluation Metrics:
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
A. Compression Ratio: Calculate the compression ratio
achieved for each image, which is the ratio of the original
image size to the reduced image size.
b. Image Quality: Assess the quality of the reduced
images using objective metrics such as Peak Signal-to-Noise
Ratio (PSNR) or Structural Similarity Index (SSIM). Alter-
natively, subjective evaluation by human observers can be
conducted through user studies or preference tests.
Comparative Analysis: Compare the results of the PCA-
based pixel reduction with other baseline methods or state-
of-the-art techniques, such as other dimensionality reduction
algorithms or image compression algorithms. This analysis
helps evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of the pro-
posed PCA approach.
Statistical Analysis: Perform statistical analysis on the
experimental results, such as calculating means, standard
deviations, or conducting hypothesis tests, to assess the sig-
nificance of the observed differences and validate the experi-
mental findings.
Discussion and Conclusion: Analyze the experimental
results, discuss the advantages and limitations of the pro-
posed PCA-based pixel reduction approach, and draw con-
clusions regarding its performance, applicability, and poten-
tial improvements.
Documentation and Reporting: Document the experi-
mental setup, procedures, and results thoroughly. Prepare a
report or paper summarizing the experimental setup, find-
ings, and conclusions. Include visualizations, tables, and
figures as necessary to support the results and analysis.
By following this experimental setup, researchers can sys-
tematically evaluate the performance and efficacy of the pro-
posed PCA-based pixel reduction method for high-resolution
images, contributing to the understanding and advancement
of image processing and compression techniques.
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing

Fig. 4  Original image (31.4 KB file size)

Fig. 5  High-pixel image (3,155,200 pixels) for applying to PCA for

Results and Discussion dimension reduction

The experimental outcome proves that the proposed tech-

nique based on PCA attains the maximum reach of dimen-
sion reduction and emphasizes storage reserves and duration
in the transmission process can be attained for the files of
images fed upon integration into the image preservice, and
moreover, observed that the process of PCA accomplishes
minimal significant characteristics that are discarded within
the image, retaining the original image, and holding the pixel
rate of high quality. Indeed, the image with a high pixel is
used for the investigation, and then the PCA approach is
applied to reduce the dimension. The term "physical aug-
mentation" typically pertains to tangible modifications in
the physical realm, whereas PCA operates in the virtual Fig. 6  Blurry image obtained with computation with five principal
components
space of data analysis. However, the results of PCA, such
as reduced-resolution images, can be seamlessly integrated
into physical systems or devices. For instance, these images
might find application in embedded systems, IoT devices, or
physical displays where lower resolution is acceptable. The
implementation of reduced-resolution images can cater to
specific needs, adapting computational outcomes for practi-
cal use in the physical world.
Figure 4 depicts the original image with a file size allo-
cated 31.4 KB, with the image as the input given to the
technique of PCA for the analysis of the compression
dimensionality.
Figure 5 depicts the high-pixel image with a 3,155,200-
pixel rate in the application of PCA for reducing dimension
by vectoring the system to be fed for the initiative output. Fig. 7  Blurry image obtained with computation with ten principal
Figure 6 shows the first application computed with only five components
principal components and achieved a blurry output image.
Here five dimensions have been considered. i.e., only five
eigenvectors will be considered, ultimately giving fewer and achieved a blurry output image. Here ten dimensions
dimensions but not a clear image. Figure 7 shows the first have been considered. i.e., only ten eigenvectors will be
application computed with only ten principal components

Fig. 8  Blurry image obtained with computation with 25 principal
components
considered, giving ultimately fewer dimensions but not a
clear image.
Figure 8 shows the first application computed with only
25 principal components and achieved a blurry output
image. Here five dimensions have been considered. i.e., only
25 eigenvectors will be considered, ultimately giving fewer
dimensions but not a clear image. Figure 9 shows the first
application computed with only 50 principal components
and achieved a blurry output image. Here five dimensions
have been considered. i.e., only 50 eigenvectors will be con-
sidered, ultimately giving fewer dimensions but not a clear
image.
Figure 10 demonstrates the PCA with 100 dimensions.
Comparatively, a clear image has been obtained with the
lower-dimensional space focusing on the maximum phase
of the particular image as input fed.
Table 1 summarizes the comparison between the pro-
posed and previous methodologies. The proposed model
for the sample image is given a high pixel image and
compressed into a smaller file without losing the impor-
tant features. It is the comparison table of previous mod-
els and our working model. Thus, this comparison table
shows that our model works better to compress images
in higher dimensions.
Fig. 9  Slightly blurry image obtained with computation with 50 prin-
cipal components
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
Fig. 10  Dimension reduced or compressed image reduced to 100-
pixel (26.8 kB) using PCA
Conclusion
In this work, PCA is associated with the transformational
division of orthogonal vector in grouping with the quan-
tity that correlates with the concentration ratio of images
set at maximum pace. The mean, uncertainty, or covari-
ance has been distributed with a particular P.C. arrange-
ment to equal analysis, deviating from the eigenvectors
and quantities. Further, the interpretation would be set
for each P.C. to be maintained at certain variables in
correlation to the data through standard deviation that
finds greater magnitude within the direction. Comput-
ing with the eigenvectors and values depending on the
image dimension varied to size and matrix configura-
tion, nevertheless, the computational technique com-
plexity can be reached to the specific dataset enhanced
for the component-based images. Experimental results
indicate that principal component analysis (PCA) proves
effective in addressing these challenges by efficiently
reducing the dimensionality of image data while retain-
ing the principal properties of the original image. This
reduction in dimensionality not only mitigates data
transmission issues but also results in more efficient
storage utilization. The study converts the image's pixel
dimension from the original data, attaining a pixel rate
of 3,155,200-to-100-pixel rate. Therefore, converting
a 9,465,600-byte image to a 300-byte image (pixel is
usually 3 bytes). Further research will be investigating
an alternative dimension reduction approach for solving
nonlinear problem space with correlated variables.
Further research will be investigating an alterna-
tive dimension reduction approach for solving nonlin-
ear problem space with correlated variables. Also, on
developing novel algorithms or modifications to PCA
that can better capture the underlying structure and vari-
ations in high-dimensional data with extensions of PCA
to nonlinear dimensionality reduction techniques, such
as kernel PCA or manifold learning methods, to better
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
Table 1  Comparison between the proposed and previous methodologies
Reference No. Methodology C.R. (Comparison Ratio) for 10 Principal
Components
Tan et al. (2021) PCA 24.4000:1
Neto et al. (2013) PCA 25.3256:1
Yang et al. (2004) PCA 20:1569:1
Bruni et al. (2022) PCA 21:1895:1
Moore (1981) PCA 23:3563:1
Proposed Method PCA 31.552:1 (For 2176 × 1450 image)
handle nonlinear data structures on developing adaptive
and online PCA algorithms that can handle streaming or
large-scale data, where the data are continuously arriving
or the memory capacity is limited.
Authors Contributions RR, MT, RTP, GR helped in resources, soft-
ware, conceptualization and visualization, writing—original draft;
SS, AG, VRL, BA were involved in data curation, formal analysis,
investigation, supervision, validation; SHA, ANZR, Md. AH performed
methodology and writing—review editing.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declared that they have no conflict of
interest.
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Authors and Affiliations

Ramachandran Radhakrishnan1 · Manimegalai Thirunavukkarasu2 · R. Thandaiah Prabu3 · G. Ramkumar3 ·

S. Saravanakumar4 · Anitha Gopalan3 · V. Rama Lahari5 · B. Anusha5 · Shaik Hasane Ahammad5 ·
Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed6 · Md. Amzad Hossain7

* R. Thandaiah Prabu B. Anusha

thandaiah@gmail.com 190049001@kluniversity.in
* Shaik Hasane Ahammad 1
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rajalakshmi
ahammadklu@gmail.com
Engineering College, Chennai, India
* Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed 2
School of Computer Science and Engineering, Vellore
ahmed_733@yahoo.com
Institute of Technology, Chennai Campus, Chennai, India
* Md. Amzad Hossain 3
Department of ECE, Saveetha School of Engineering,
mahossain.eee@gmail.com
Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences,
Ramachandran Radhakrishnan SIMATS, Saveetha University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
rramachandranece@gmail.com 4
Department of Civil Engineering, S.A. Engineering College,
Manimegalai Thirunavukkarasu Chennai, India
manimegalai.t@vit.ac.in 5
Department of ECE, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education
G. Ramkumar Foundation, Vaddeswaram 522302, India
pgrvlsi@gmail.com 6
Electronics and Electrical Communications Engineering
S. Saravanakumar Department, Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia
marg.saravana@gmail.com University, Menouf 32951, Egypt
7
Anitha Gopalan Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
anipsg09@gmail.com Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore 7408,
Bangladesh
V. Rama Lahari
190040548@kluniversity.in