Yuan Jingfang - Comprehensive Introduction To Chinese Traditional Music-Hollitzer Wissenschaftsverlag (2023)

Yuan Jingfang, editor
Translated by Boyu Zhang and Lam Ching-Wah

Comprehensive Introduction to Chinese
Traditional Music
National Key Teaching Materials for
General Higher Education
Chinese Arts Education Series · Music Volume
Comprehensive Introduction to Chinese

Traditional Music
Yuan Jingfang (Editor-in-Chief)
Zhou Qingqing, Yang Minkang,
Zhang Hongyi, and Qian Rong
Translated by Boyu Zhang and

Lam Ching-Wah
Central Conservatory of Music Press

Yuan Jingfang (ed.):
Comprehensive Introduction to Traditional Chinese Music
Wien: HOLLITZER Verlag, 2023
Cover Image
Wang Zhenpeng: Boya Playing Qin (detail), Yuan dynasty (1271-1368),
The Palace Museum, Beijing
All rights reserved

© Central Conservatory of Music Press, Beijing and Hollitzer Verlag, Wien
Printed and bound in the EU
ISBN 978-3-99094-097-6 (e-book)

NOTES FROM THE TRANSLATORS
This book is translated from the Chinese book entitled Introduction to Traditional
Chinese Music, one of the books of Chinese Art Education Series, published by
the Shanghai Music Press in 2000. The Chinese version is part of “National Key
Teaching Materials” of “Ninth Five-Year Projects” (1996–2000) for General Higher
Education—Chinese Arts Education Series·Music Volume. The authors include the
teachers from the Musicology Department of Central Conservatory of Music, Yuan
Jingfang, Zhou Qingqing, Yang Minkang, Zhang Hongyi, Qian Rong. The chief
editor is Prof. Yuan Jingfang. General Editorial Board of Chinese Arts Education
Series include: General Editor-in-Chief Zhao Feng; Honorary Director Pan Zhenzhou;
Director: Tao Chunxiao; Deputy Directors Du Changsheng, Lin Yongjun, Dai Jiafang,
Wang Jinsui; Executive Director Ying Feng; Executive Deputy Directors Zheng
Shuzhen, Zhu Qi, Niu Gengfu; together with 31 board members.
Members of the Editorial Board of Introduction to Traditional Chinese Music
include Editor-in-chief: Yuan Jingfang; Deputy Editor-in-chief: Zhou Qingqing;
Editorial Board: (in order of strokes of Chinese Characters): Xiao Xuejun, Yang
Minkang, Zhang Hongyi, Zhou Qingqing, Xiang Yang, Qian Rong, Yuan Jingfang.
During the translation, several changes have been made by the translators. The
first, the Chinese version of the book includes two parts: Traditional Chinese Music
and Chinese Religious Music. The English version contains only the first part.
The second, during the translation, the translators follow the text flow of the
Chinese version, but added explanation sentences and made slightly necessary
variations in order to be understandable by English readers.
The third, the Chinese terms appeared with the Pinyin romanizations and English
translations, either the Chinese Pinyin first, with the English translation in brackets, or
English translation first, with the Pinyin in brackets, depending on the text flow.
The fourth, Pinyin romanizations of names of books as well as their English
translations in brackets are italic; other terms, such as instrument names, song titles,
etc., only Pinyin romanizations using italic, if the Chinese Pinyin is first, and both
italic, if the English translation is first.
The fifth, a long list of Chinese glossary is added at the end of the book.
The sixth, a bibliography and recommended sound recordings that were listed at
end of each chapter in Chinese have been moved to the end of the book.
The seventh, as a theoretical book, it is impossible to show too many music
examples necessary to discuss music artistic features. Readers can find most of the
music pieces discussed in the book in the Music Scores Compiled for the Course of the
“Introduction to Chinese Traditional Music” (2 volumes), edited by Zhou Qingqing,
and published by the Central Conservatory of Music Press in 2007.
Beijing, 2022
LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
Note: The mark indicates that audio examples are available at the Central
Conservatory of Music Press.
Chapter I
Example 1-1. Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua)
Example 1-2. Tamping Song (Dawo’ge) from Macheng, Hubei Province
Example 1-3. Rice-husking Song (Chongmi Haozi)
Example 1-4. Introduction and Sanyao’tai part of Lishui River Boatmen Song (Lishui
Chuangong Haozi)
Example 1-5. Jiaofu Diao (Tune of the Deliverer)
Example 1-6. The Mountain Keeps Us Apart (Liaobujian Meimei Shan Dangzhule)
from Hequ, Shanxi
Example 1-7. Typical use of Zhi mode of mountain songs of Jiangsu and Zhejiang
Example 1-8. Picking Grapes. Eastern Sichuan mountain song, arranged by Zheng
Chenglu
Example 1-9. All the Way Following the Sun. Sichuan Shange (Mountain Song of
Sichuan)
Example 1-10. Ganma’diao (Horse Riding Song), from Binchuan, Yunnan
Example 1-11. Midu Shange (Midu Mountain Song), from Midu, Yunnan
Example 1-12. Shuiniuer (Water Snail), from Beijing
Example 1-13. Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), from Cangshan, Shandong
Example 1-14. Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), from Yibin, Sichuan
Example 1-15. Peng’hama (Weighing Crabs), from Qianjiang, Hubei
Example 1-16. Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang), from Jiangsu
Example 1-17. Farewell My Love (Song’qinglang), from Liaoning
Example 1-18. Dropping Watermelon (Shuai’xigua), from Shenxian, Hebei
Example 1-19. Flower Drum Tune (Huagu Diao), from Kaifeng, Henan
Example 1-20. Visiting In-Law’s Family (Tan’qingjia), from Central Hebei
Example 1-21. Meeting Mother-in-Law (Hui Qingjia), from Linxi, Hebei
Example 1-22. The tone row used in the song Laili Gul
Example 1-23. Arirang, from Luda, Liaoning
Example 1-24. The third phrase of Gesangla
Example 1-25. The fourth phrase of Gesangla
VIII LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
Chapter II
Example 2-1. Caicha’yao (Tea-picking Ballad) of Yudu, Jiangxi
Example 2-2. Tea-picking in Twelve Months from Yulin, Guangxi
Example 2-3. Kaihuang (Cultivation from Bare Land) in Yulin Tea-picking Genre
Example 2-4. Song of Wang Sanjie Ganji (Sister Wang Goes to Market)
Example 2-5. The dance song Shidui Hua (Ten Passages of Flower Song)
Example 2-6. Badou Kaihua (Croton is Blossoming, also called “Laoninglang”).
Female chorus, Cangyuan County, Yunnan
Example 2-7. Melodic variation of Liu Qingniang (Slender Lady)
Example 2-8. The main section of the dance music for Lusheng
Example 2-9. Melody development of the dance music for Lusheng
Example 2-10. Jiaoban Dian (Starting Rhythmic Pattern) of Shandong Guzi Yangge
(Drum Field Dance of Shandong)
Example 2-11. Proceeding drumbeat of Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field Dance of
Shandong)
Example 2-12. Ending rhythmic pattern of Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field Dance
of Shandong)
Example 2-13. Rhythmic patterns of percussion music of Elephant-Foot Drum Suite
of Peacock Dance in Dehong Prefecture
Example 2-14. Gengu’diao (Hanban’guang), sung by Jing E
Example 2-15. The structure of single-section piece in Sänäm of Naghma of Čäbbiyat
Muqam
Example 2-16. The most common scales used in the Twelve Muqam
Example 2-17. The Rhythms of Dap Hand Drum
Chapter III
Example 3-1. Wukongzai “Antong’nao”
Example 3-2. Sikongzai “Ma Sange” (Scolding Third Brother)
Example 3-3. “Haidi’fan” (Rebellion under the Sea), a piece belongs to Wukong
Zanianzai (Varied Recitals in the Wukong Mode)
Example 3-4. Fengyangge (Fengyang Song) “Shuangganche” (On the Cart)
Example 3-5. Duozi’ban used in Liangzhu Xiashan (Liang and Zhu Departing the
Mountain)
Example 3-6. A comparison of two versions of Xianhua’diao (Flower Tune)
Example 3-7. Early version of Changcheng’diao (Excerpt from Duanqiao)
Example 3-8. Changcheng’diao (Tune of the Great Wall) (Excerpt from Duanqiao,
Broken Bridge).
Example 3-9. Chaqu song Wanxia (The Sunset Glow) sung by Ma Tanhui
Example 3-10. Yaeryo from Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-11. Daxin’chun (The New Year Begins) (Excerpt from Dangpi’xiang-
Pawning the Leather Trunk)
Example 3-12. Qutou (Opening Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu
LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES IX
Example 3-13. Shuchang (Rapping Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu

Example 3-14. Taiping’nian (Peaceful Year) used in Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-15. Nancheng Diao (Southern City Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-16. Qie’kuaishu (Rural Copper Clapper Reciting) used in Danxian
Paiziqu
Example 3-17. Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beat) used in Danxian Paiziqu
Example 3-18. Hongna’ao (Red Padded Jacket) used in Sichuan Jinqianban
Example 3-19. Sichuan Jinqian’ban: Xiucai Guogou (A Scholar Crossing the Ditch)
Example 3-20. Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong) from Jingyun Dagu
Example 3-21. First phrase of Zhaoyun Jiejiang (Zhao Yun Recovering Liu Shan in
the River)
Example 3-22.The Long Melody in Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong)
Example 3-23. Linchong Taxue (Lin Chong Walking in the Snow). Chen Style, sung
by Liu Tianyun
Example 3-24. Gongyuan (Complaints from the Palace). Yu Style, sung by Zhu
Huizhen
Example 3-25. Yingying Baiyue (Cui Yingying Worshipping the Moon). Xiao
Yangdiao, sung by Yang Renlin
Example 3-26. Sidiao from Shuang Zhufeng (Huo Dingjin Mourning for Her
Husband). Qi Style, sung by Qi Lianfang
Example 3-27. Fangqing Xie’jiaxin (Fang Qing Writing a Family Letter). Ma Style,
sung by Wei Hanying.
Example 3-28. Kuta of Zhenzhu Ta (Crying before the Pagoda in The Pearl Pagoda),
Suzhou Tanci
Example 3-29. Youhui Jidi (Swimming Back to the Base) in Jiang Style, Suzhou
Tanci
Example 3-30. Du Shiniang (Lady Du Shiniang), Suzhou Tanci
Example 3-31. Danyu Fengao (Daiyu Burning Manuscripts), Suzhou Tanci
Chapter IV
Example 4-1. Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor), version 1. Unison chorus
in Act Hunting of the Play Huanshaji
Example 4-2. Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor) , version 2. Unison chorus
in Act Hunting of the Play Huanshaji
Example 4-3. Shanpo’yang (The Sheep on Hill), version 1. Vocal melody sung by
Wu Feixia (female role) in Act Cangzhou (Hiding the Boat) of the Play
Yujia’le (Happiness of A Fishing Family)
Example 4-4. Shanpo’yang (The Sheep on Hill), version 2. Song sung by Du Liniang
(female role) in Act Jingmeng (Waking Dream) of the Play Mudan’ting
(Love Story of the Peony Pavilion)
Example 4-5. Possible melodic flow for the Chinese character “Yin” in level tone used
in Kunqu opera
X LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES
Example 4-6. Possible melodic flow for the Chinese character “Yang” in rising tone
used in Kunqu opera
Example 4-7. The relationship between melody and text in Mandarin and Suzhou
dialects
Example 4-8. Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows), a Labelled Piece of
Chuanju Gaoqiang
Example 4-9. The padding character using the rhyme of the preceding character
Example 4-10. Dragging tunes must use the “an” rhyme
Example 4-11. The application of padding words displaying the most distinctive
geographical characteristics
Example 4-12. Colorful tune used in Qinqiang Opera
Example 4-13. Song of Cui Jinding in Sanshang’jiao (The Chaste Female Who Takes
Revenge) sung by Chen Suzhen
Example 4-14. Song of Bai Suzhen in Baishe’zhuan (Legend of the White Snake)
sung by Chang Xiangyu
Example 4-15. A long first of the Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing
Opera
Example 4-16. The Condensed Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing
Opera
Example 4-17. A long second of the Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in
Beijing Opera
Example 4-18. “Ending Phrases” of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing Opera
Exmaple 4-19. Comparison of the melodic, metric and modal structures between
Original Metre used by male and female roles
Example 4-20. The character “er” is clearly pronounced in Pingju Opera
Example 4-21. Gadayin of Pingju
Example 4-22. Madam Xianglin (Xianglin’sao)
Example 4-23. Fanyue’diao Tune Pattern used in Pingju Opera
Example 4-24. Two paired phrases of five-character phrase used in Pingju Opera
Example 4-25. Nanqiang’diao (Southern Melodies) used Yuejuin Opera
Example 4-26. Sigong’qiang used in Yueju Opera
Chapter V
Example 5-1. Comparison of the melodies of the first four phrases in four variations
of Wu’bangzi to appreciate the performing style of Feng Zicun and folk
wind music in general
Example 5-2. The introduction of Qudi flute piece Zhegu’fei (Flying Partridges,
arranged by Lu Chunling)
Example 5-3. Prelude of South Liaoning Wind-and-Drum Piece Jianghe’shui (Water
in River)
Example 5-4. Bainiao Chaofeng (Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix), from First
Section
LIST OF MUSIC EXAMPLES XI
Example 5-5. The Introduction and Theme of Erquan Yinyue played by Abing in
1950. Transcribed by Yang Yinliu, with fingering by Chu Shizhu and Li
Songshou
Example 5-6. Excerpt from Erquan Yingyue
Example 5-7. Prelude of Tingsong. Performed by Hua Yanjun, 1950
Example 5-8. Theme A of Erhu Piece Guangming’xing
Example 5-9. Theme B of Erhu Piece Guangming’xing
Example 5-10. Excerpt from second section of Qin Piece Meihua Sannong
Example 5-11. Excerpt from the second section of Liushui
Example 5-12. Excerpt from the fourth section of Liushui
Example 5-13. Comparison of melodies of each section of Chaozhou Zheng piece
Hanya Xishui: Erban, Kaopai, Sanban, Sanban Cui
Example 5-14. Excerpt from Yuzhou Changwan
Example 5-15. Excerpt from Lieying of Shimian Maifu
Example 5-16. “Wujiang Ziwen” from Shimian Maifu
Example 5-17. Excerpt from Yinggu of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
Example 5-18. Excerpt from Shengzhang of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
Example 5-19. Bieji of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
Example 5-20. The prelude and the theme of Xiyang Xiaogu (Sounds of Vertical Flute
and Drum at Moonlit Night)
Example 5-21. Theme of Jiangnan Sizhu piece Sanliu (Three-six)
Example 5-22. “Yunyang Ban” of Jiangnan Sizhu piece Xingjie
Example 5-23. Excerpt from Cantonese music Yuda Bajiao
Example 5-24. Excerpt from first section of Cantonese music Shuangsheng’hen
Example 5-25. Excerpt from Sailong Duojin
Example 5-26. Prelude and theme of Chaozhou Xianshi music Shizi Xiqiu
Example 5-27. “Hewei” (Common Tail) of each section of Fujian Nanyin piece
Bajun’ma
Example 5-28. First section of Fanglyu of “Association of Southern Style”
Example 5-29. Excerpt from the third section of Fanglyu
Example 5-30. Excerpt from the piece “Caicha” of Badatao in north Shanxi province
Example 5-31. “Sanban” of Luxinan Guchui’yue Yizhi Hua (A Flower) performed by
Ren Tongxiang, with score transcribed by Chen Jiaqi
Example 5-32. Excerpt from “Suizi” of Luxinan Guchui’yue: Dahe’tao
Example 5-33. Luogu Paizi piece Shiba Liusi’er
Example 5-34. Luogu Paizi piece Yuhe’ba
Example 5-35. “Hetou”(Common Head) of “Dasi’duan”
Example 5-36. Ending of first part of Hou Manting’fang
Example 5-37. Excerpt from Jiangjun Desheng’ling
Example 5-38. First “Xia” of Xi’an Guyue “Full Set of Eight-Beat Sitting Music in
Chediao Mode and Using Double Yunluo Set of Gongs”: Chi-Gong-
Chi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 1-1. The structure of A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors

Illustration 2-1. The structure of Yulin (Guangxi) Tea-picking Songs and Dances
Illustration 2-2. The structure of Gengu’diao
Illustration 2-3. Second Mashrap of the Rak Muqam and its binary structure
Illustration 2-4. The structure of the melody in Sänäm of Naghma of Čäbbiyat Muqam
Illustration 3-1. Phrasal relationship of Chaqu between melody and lyrics
Illustration 3-2. Thirteen Rhymes of Chinese Putonghua
Illustration 3-3. Part of the verses of Ezuo Mizuo (Sky and Earth) from Hani ethnic
group
Illustration 4-1. Outlines of the characteristics of Banqiang form
Illustration 4-2. Outlines of the characteristics of Qupai form
Illustration 4-3. The “Four-tone Melodic Pattern” of South Kunqu
Illustration 4-4. Relationship of Bang (Vocal ensemble accompaniment), Da
(percussion) and Chang (singing) in Sichuan Opera
Illustration 4-5. Chuanju uses unique symbols, pronunciations and beating methods of
its notation forpercussion music
Illustration 4-6. A list of Xiqu Genres based on Bangzi Melodic Type
Illustration 4-7. Characteristics of Banhu fiddle in different operatic genres
Illustration 4-8. Classification and explanations of the metircal patterns of Qinqiang
Illustration 4-9. Yudong melodic style
Illustration 4-10. Metrical patterns of Yuju Opera
Illustration 4-11. Schools and transmission relationship of Beijing Opera
Illustration 4-12. The classification of roles of Beijing Opera
Illustration 4-13. Metrical patterns of Erhuang
Illustration 4-14. Metrical patterns of Xipi
Illustration 4-15. Rhythmic patterns of Zhengdiao in Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-16. Rhythmic patterns of Fandiao in Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-17. The voice ranges of Yuediao of Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-18. Metrical patterns used in Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-19. Metrical patterns used in Zhengdiao Pile Metre (Duoban) of Pingju
Opera
Illustration 4-20. Metrical patterns of Manban and Mizi of Pingju Opera
Illustration 4-21. Metrical patterns of Pingju
Illustration 4-22. 28 Initials notated in Yue dialect
Illustration 4-23. 41 Vowels, including “r,” but not appeared in the table, notated in
Yue dialect
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XIII
Illustration 4-24. The relationship between the Chinese characters with entering tone
and melody treatments
Illustration 5-1. The tuning and range of each type of Banhu
Illustration 5-2. The range of Zheng of different designs
Illustration 5-3. There are different ways of tuning the Pipa, three most common ones
being
Illustration 5-4. The modes of each piece of “Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble”
and the relationship of key and tuning system for each instrument
Illustration 5-5. Illustration of the names of the modes, fingerings and the relationship
between keys and tunings of strings of Erren’tai Paizi’qu
Illustration 5-6. The relationship of mode names, fingerings, tunings, pitch names and
pitches of leading instruments Dizi and Erhu in Jiangnan Sizhu music
Illustration 5-7. The names of the modes, the relationship between keys and tunings of
strings of Yuehu fiddle used in Guangdong Yinyue
Illustration 5-8. The relationship of keys, fingering sequences and pitches of Guanzi
Pipe as principal instrument in ensemble of “Association of Southern
Style”
Illustration 5-9. The relationship of mode names, fingering techniques and tone pitch
of Guanzi pipe as principal instrument of Badatao
Illustration 5-10. Key relationships of the four modes used in Badatao of Shanxi
Illustration 5-11. The relationship of modal names, fingering sequences and keys of
Suona in the Luxinan Guchui’yue
Illustration 5-12. The relationship of modes, fingering techniques and pitches of the
Suona used in Wind-and-Drum Music in Shanxi Province
Illustration 5-13. The relationship of modes, fingering techniques and pitches of
Suona used in Wind-and-Drum Music in Liaoning
Illustration 5-14. The relationship between modal names, fingering techniques,
degrees and pitches of Di flute used in Shifan Luogu
Illustration 5-15. Characteristics of rhythmic changes of each variation of “Dasi’duan”
(Great Four Variations) of Xiaxi’feng of Shifan Luogu
Illustration 5-16. Arrangement of Ten Sets Gongs in Zhedong Luogu
Illustration 5-17. Key names, fingerings, tablature pitches and key relations of the
Suona
Illustration 6-18. The plan of sitting music shawm in Zhedong Luogu
Illustration 5-19. Pitches (in Gongche notation) of the double Yunluo
Contents
Notes from the translator and proofreader V

List of music examples VII
List of illustrations XII
INTRODUCTION
I. Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 1

II. Rich Connotation of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 8
III. Main Features of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 11
CHAPTER I FOLK SONGS
● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 17
I. Definition of Folk Songs 17

II. Historical Evolution of Folk Songs 17
III. Status of Folk Songs in Lives of the Chinese 18
● SECTION 2 TYPES OF FOLK SONGS AND THEIR

ARTISTIC FEATURES 29
I. Folk Songs of Han People 29

II. Genres of Folk Songs of Ethnic Groups 69
CHAPTER II DANCE MUSIC
I. Definition of Dance Music 85

XVI Contents
II. Historical Evolution of Chinese Dance Music 85

III. Artistic Features of Folk Dance 94
● SECTION 2 DANCE MUSIC AND ITS ARTISTIC FEATURES 98
I. Vocal Dance Music 98

II. Instrumental Dance Music 121
III. Composite Dance Music 137
CHAPTER III NARRATIVE SINGING
I. Definition of Narrative Singing 151

II. Historical Evolution of Narrative Singing 153
III. The Position of Narrative Singing in Traditional Chinese Culture 165
● SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND ARTISTIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF NARRATIVE SINGING 170
I. Labeled Piece-based Narrative Singing 170

II. Narrative Singing: Gushu (Drum Songs) 203
III. The Art of Narrative Singing of Ethnic Minorities 256
CHAPTER IV MUSIC OF CHINESE OPERA (XIQU )
I. Definition of Music of Chinese Opera (Xiqu) 269

II. Historical Evolution of Xiqu Music 274
III. Position of Xiqu Art in Traditional Chinese Culture 279
● SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

XIQU MUSIC 282
I. Classification of Xiqu Music 282

Contents XVII
II. Four Major Xiqu Melodic Types and Their Characteristics 287
III. Introduction to Selected Emerging Regional Xiqu Genres 353
CHAPTER V INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC
I. Definition of Instrumental Music and the Concept of Yuezhong

(Music Genre) 377
II. Historical Evolution of Instrumental Music 379
III. The Roles of Chinese Instrumental Ensembles in Chinese
Traditional Music Culture 393
● SECTION 2 SOLO AND ENSEMBLE GENRES AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS 395
I. Types of Solo Music and Their Music Characteristics 395

II. Major Types of Ensemble Music and Their Artistic Characteristics 454
REFERENCES
● CONTINUING READING MATERIALS 527
● SOUND RECORDINGS FOR LISTENING AND ANALYSES

RELATED TO EACH CHAPTER 529
APPENDIX
● GLOSSARY OF CHINESE TERMS 533
● ABOUT AUTHORS AND TRANSLATORS 646

INTRODUCTION
I. Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture

The musical culture in China has a long history. This is not surprising, as the country
has a written history over 5000 years, and its history of music culture can be traced
even further, a piece of solid evidence being the some 20 bone flutes excavated at the
tomb of Neolithic Age Site in Jiahu Village, Wuyang County, Henan Province during
1986 to 1987. The flutes are sophisticated, made to a high standard, with unified
shape and structure. The hollow pipe body measures about 20 cm in length, carved
with 7 holes (with an additional small hole at the back). After a trial performance and
acoustic test, the most intact bone flute (M282: 20) can emit accurate pitches of the
heptatonic scale; five of these instruments can produce a complete pentatonic scale.
These flutes dated back to 7000 to 8000 years based on Carbon-14 dating tests, that
is, the same age as Neolithic culture. Hence, the discovery of the bone flutes is the
earliest tangible proof of the origin of music culture in China. The precious legacy
from early history also includes over 160 bone flutes unearthed at Hemudu Site,
Yuyao County, Hangzhou Bay, Zhejiang Province. These instruments are of different
shapes and designs, and of different sizes. It is possible to conclude that they bear
rudimentary features of three structures, namely open, close and retractable pipes,
after thorough study of the positions of sound holes, blow holes, and the principle
of sound production. This indicates that, in China, as early as seven millennia ago,
there was a good understanding of various principles of making and performing wind
instruments.
Fig. 1. The bone flutes excavated at the tomb of Neolithic Age site in Jiahu Village, Wuyang County,
Henan Province (used with licence)
2 INTRODUCTION
Dating back three millennia to the Shang Dynasty, the character “ (yue, music)”
was found inscribed on oracle. The diagrammatic features can be interpreted as a
stringed instrument resting on a wooden stand. In the ensuing Zhou Dynasty some
2500 years ago, Confucius was believed to have compiled the classic of poetry
Shijing (Book of Songs), which contains 305 sung poetry, and can be considered as the
oldest extant Chinese songs. These were believed to be sung to an accompaniment.
From the verse structure, it is possible to distinguish over ten music forms, and these
provide the basis for study of Chinese music. The advent of Book of Songs marks
the early effort of folk song collection and collation in China. The social and cultural
life inherent in the texts is the beginning of realism in literature and art in China, and
they have a significant impact on the development of music and literature of later
generations.
The long history of bell-chimes dating back to pre-Qin period in the third century
B.C. is a unique feature of music culture in China, showing on the one hand the
great advancement of bronze casting technology, and on the other hand the pinnacle
of the theory of temperament and acoustic science in general. In the late Western
Zhou Dynasty (1045–771 B.C.), the number of bells included in a set had developed
from three or five to eight pieces. The famous set of bell-chimes unearthed at tomb
of Marquis Yi of Zeng of the Warring States Period in Sui County (present Suizhou
City), Hubei Province in 1978 comprises 64 regular bells and a Bo (large bell of
distinct shape). The finding has generated much interest in archaeological research
in organology, since the bells are the largest and most complete set of Chinese
Fig. 2. The set of bell-chimes unearthed at tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng of the Warring States Period
in Sui County (present Suizhou City), Hubei Province
Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 3
tuned percussion instruments so far. The bell chimes cover a range of three octaves
chromatically. In addition, the bells are cast with temperament inscriptions and other
texts of over 2,800 ancient Chinese characters. There is a feeling amongst Chinese
scholars that the music treasure buried over 2400 years has become the testimony of
one aspect of advanced development of Chinese music culture in ancient times.
The Chinese believe that music is a composite art, meaning that a performance
usually comprises singing, instrumental playing, dance or acrobatics. In other
words, it is often difficult to single out one aspect of performance. Hence in the Han
Dynasty, when a new art form known as Xianghe1 appeared, it encompasses songs,
dance, acrobatics and instrumental performance, and the genre later developed to
folk songs in Eastern and Western Han, Wei and Jin Dynasties. Songs in the Han can
be divided into two kinds, namely Xianghe’ge and Xianghe Daqu according to style
and context of performance. Xianghe’ge refers to the songs and ballads “sung in
streets”, that is, folk songs. These were first performed in style of Tuge (bare songs),
sung unaccompanied, and they were also known as Dange; these songs were later
performed with instrumental accompaniment. The singer usually holds a clapper to
mark the tempo, while the accompaniment may include Di bamboo flute, Sheng mouth
organ, Qin zither, Pipa lute and Zheng zither. Xianghe Daqu is a kind of large-scale
combined art form featuring songs, dance and music, developed from Xianghe’ge; the
former is performed as a kind of suite, and sections are organized according to certain
type of structure. When the instrumental part is played independently, the music is
called Danqu. After the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Xianghe Daqu was incorporated
into Qingyue Daqu with a new outlook. There was a general recognition of the value
of wind and drum music of Xianghe, and it had an important role to play in the
development of ceremonial music.
Music of western regions had a profound influence during the Sui and Tang
Dynasties, and various genres, including those developed amongst ethnic minorities,
began to have a more marked influence on Han music of central regions. The music
records in Suishu (Annals of Sui) and Jiu Tangshu (Old Annals of Tang) include
detailed descriptions of ensembles from western regions performed at court, which
included seven categories. For example, the description of Tianzhu music (from
India) refers to costumes of the musicians as monk’s gowns, inferring to ceremonial
Buddhist music; Qiuci music describes music of ancient Kucha (Qiuci), or present
Kuche County, Xinjiang, and it was considered the most influential type of foreign
music (Hubu’yue) at the Tang court; Xiliang music, originally known as Qinhan
music, developed from Han music in central regions by absorbing local Qiuci music
and folk music of northwest regions, and Xiliang music assumed a prominent position
at the Chinese court for many generations; Gaochang music originated from the
present Turpan of Xinjiang, and the music ensemble was established after Emperor
Taizong of Tang ascended to the throne; Kangguo music is originated near Samarkand
in Central Asia, the most outstanding feature being Whirling Dance (Huxuan’wu);
1 相和
4 INTRODUCTION
Anguo music has links with music of the present Bukhara of Central Asia; Shule music
was music performed in present Shule and Yengisar areas of Xinjiang. While the
music of these genres is lost, the detailed description of the instrumental ensembles
throws some light on the acculturation that has been taking place.
In addition to influence of music from ethnic minorities of west regions,
important music genres of the Sui and Tang Dynasties included Yanyue (Ancient
Court Entertaining Music), Faqu (Buddhist Music), Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum
Music) and Guqin zither music. Yanyue refers to a kind of composed songs under the
influence of Qingyue (Han Chinese Music), while Huyue (Music of Ethnic Minorities)
was one of the six types of Zuobu’ji (Seated Performing Section) of the Tang court;
Faqu originated in the Sui Dynasty, and it was further developed in the Tang Dynasty.
It was a kind of song and dance Daqu (Composite Music) built on Chinese folk music
while absorbing foreign music; Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum Music) of Tang court
had many opportunities to develop. According to the instruments used in different
performing contexts, the genre could be divided into Wind-and-Drum Music Section
(Guchui’bu), Ritual Music Section (Yubao’bu), Cymbals-and-Wind Music Section
(Naochui’bu), Big Horizontal Flute Music Section (Da Hengchui’bu) and Small
Horizontal Flute Section (Xiao Hengchui’bu).
Gewu Daqu (Song-and-Dance Composite Music) assumed an important position
in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The genre is based on large-scale musical form, and
huge varieties of instrumentation facilitated by rapid development of the art of making
instruments, resulting in music of grand scale. Gewu Daqu has much influence on
music of East and Southeast Asia.
Music for Pipa (four-stringed pear-shaped lute) became very fashionable in the
Sui and Tang Dynasties. In spite of its ethnic origin from western regions, Pipa music
developed much, as it was performed at court as well as used as a folk instrument,
undergoing Sinicization, and being enriched by improved techniques of instrumental
making and performing skills. The art of Guqin zither (or simply Qin) also developed,
with the emergence of famous Guqin musicians such as He Ruobi, Zhao Yeli, Dong
Tinglan, Xue Yijian and Chen Kangshi, who had made extraordinary contributions
and had far-reaching influence; many songs and Qin compositions are still extant,
thanks to the discovery of Guqin notation, which had further helped the preservation
and dissemination of its music. The earliest extant Guqin notation is a rather lengthly
text notation in the Tang Dynasty recorded by Liang Qiuming of the Southern Dynasty
(494~590 AD), entitled Jieshi’diao Youlan (Secluded Orchid in Jieshi Mode). During
the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Zhao Yeli, Chen Zhuo, Cao Rou and other Qin musicians
reformed Guqin text notation, and finally discovered the Jianzi notation (abbreviated
characters notation). This special notation of Guqin is still in use today. The Qin
making technology reached unprecedented height in the Tang Dynasty. The Lei family
in Sichuan was famous for Qin making, Lei Wei being the most famous. Shen Liao
and Zhang Yue from south of the Yangtze River were “master players of Qin” in the
period.
Narrative singing took its shape in the Tang Dynasty and was marked by Bianwen
(Changing Scriptures) and Jiangchang (Storytelling and Singing) in the temples.

In the Song Dynasty, Ci poem music (Ciyue) and Guqin music were most
important. Ci poem music is a vocal genre sung to Ci poem, and the core music
materials dated back to the Sui and Tang Dynasties. During the later part of the
Tang dynasty, the literati were more involved in writing song texts, therefore greatly
improving the artistic value of Ci. By the way, Ci was a popular literary genre during
the Five Dynasties, and it reached its heyday in the Song Dynasty. Structurally
Ci has a structure comprising long and short verses, and such flexibility allows
juxtapositioning between texts according to the length, and the twists and turns of the
tune. Cipai (poetic labels set musically) has a framework, its feature being “structure
with sentence pattern; a sentence with word pattern, and a word with sound pattern.”
Cipai includes Ling, Jin and Man categories based on its length. In Ciyuan (Origin
of Ci ) written by Zhang Yan, there is a reference to Yang Zuan’s Zuoci Wu’yaosu
(Five Elements for Ci Creation), which states that the first step is to choose a tune,
second is to set a tempo, third is to juxtapose words with music, fourth is to rhyme,
and the last is to introduce new ideas. Yang’s idea of Ci is therefore not limited to
the literary aspect, but rather encompassing creativity in music. Ci music therefore
refers to art songs in ancient China, and it has absorbed ethnic and foreign music, in
addition to folk music. Folk musicians and literati also created new form of this music
genre, known as Ziduo’qu (self-composed song). The famous Baishi Daoren Gequ (A
Song Collection by Baishi Daoren) by Jiang Kui (whose pen name is Baishi Daoren)
includes music notations along Ci music, which had enabled scholars of many
generations to investigate an authentic style of performance.
In addition to Ci poem music, Guqin zither music developed much in the Southern
Song Dynasty, which also led to everlasting influence in the history of Chinese
music. Famous masters of the Guqin of the period included Guo Mian (literary name
Chuwang, c.1190–1260 AD), and he was recognized for his interpretation of famous
pieces such as Xiaoxiang Shuiyu (Mist and Clouds over Xiaoxiang Lake), Fan
Canglang (Waves Coming Over) and Qiuhong (Autumn Geese); Liu Zhifang was
remembered for his famous pieces Wangji (Empty Mind) and Wujiang’yin (The Song
of Wujiang River); Mao Minzhong was highly regarded for his famous pieces Yuge
(Fisherman Song), Qiaoge (Song of Woodcutter) and Peilan (Having Orchid).
During the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, opera and narrative music came into limelight.
The former genre mainly includes Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performances) and
Nanxi (Southern Opera), while the latter refers to Zhugong’diao (Tunes in Multiple
Modes).
In the Northern Song Dynasty, Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performances)
was a general term for different formats of performance, such as farce, puppet show,
shadow puppets, narrative singing, song-and-dance, acrobatics and martial arts, but
it can also refer to a special kind of operatic performance. In the ensuing Southern
Song Dynasty, there was an understanding that “only Zaju is idiomatic”2. Zaju was,
2 From Ducheng Jisheng (Records of the Capital), written by Nai Deweng in the Southern Song Dynasty.
6 INTRODUCTION
of course, the leader of miscellaneous performances, and it can be considered as an

early genre in discovering the system of roles (operatic convention of distinguishing
the stylized roles of male, female, painted face and clown), and it was successful in
combining song, dance and drama in the same performance, but there were still many
non-dramatic elements. Zaju bccame matured during the Jin and Yuan Dynasties. The
music for Zaju in Yuan Dynasty (formal term being Yuan Zaju) was Beiqu (Northern
Tunes). The structure of Yuan Zaju was very strict, and it usually includes four acts
(sometimes with an added “Wedge (Xiezi)”, meaning “Introduction”). The music
of Yuan Zaju is based on the design that every act is founded on a suite. Each suite
consists of a number of connected sequence of Qupai (Labelled Tunes) with the same
music style and same rhymes (involving at least 3 labelled tunes, such Zhui Han
Xin (Chasing Han Xin); at most the music can include 26 labelled tunes, an example
being, Mohe’luo; at the end of each suite, there is an ending section; one or two
labelled tunes can be inserted at the beginning, middle or end of the act as “wedge(s)”.
The collection Jiugong Dacheng Nanbei Cigong’pu (A Great Collection of Songs
in Nine Modes from North and South) has recorded 553 northern tunes. Famous
writers of Zaju and their works of the Yuan Dynasty include Guan Hanqing and
his Dou’e Yuan (The Injustice to Dou’e) and Wang Jiangting (Looking at the River
Pavillion); Wang Shifu and his Xixiang’ji (The West Chamber); Ma Zhiyuan and his
Hangong’qiu (Autumn of Han Palace).
Nanxi (Southern Opera) came into fashion in early era of the Southern Song
Dynasty (1127–1279); its birthplace is in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, hence it is also known
as Wenzhou Zaju or Yongjia Zaju (Yongjia is alternative name of Wenzhou). The
geographic nature of the genre distinguishes it from Yuan Zaju in the north. It is
natural that the music used for Southern Opera is called Nanqu (Southern Tunes).
A Southern Opera includes many acts. One musical characteristic of the genre is
that each act may be based on more than one suite. The interlude between each suite
can comprise Jiqu (taking music phrases from different pieces to form a new piece),
which is independent musically; the music of each suite is not limited to one mode
(Gongdiao), and it can be made up of several Qupai in two or three modes. Each
act can include a long and lyrical aria, and it may not have a distinct ending section,
meaning the music may end abruptly. Southern Opera accommodates northern tunes,
forming Nanbei Hetao (Suite Combining Northern and Southern Tunes), which have
enriched the power of expression. Jiugong Dacheng Nanbei Cigong’pu records 1,442
tunes (including Jiqu), and many are related to Southern Opera. Famous repertoire
of Southern Opera includes Jingchai’ji (The Romance of a Thorny Hairpin), Baidu’ji
(Story of Rabbit), Baiyue’ji (A Fixed Marriage) and Shagou’ji (Killing the Dog to
Rescue the Family).
Zhugong’diao (Tunes in Multiple Modes) was a large-scale narrative art form in
the Song, Jin and Yuan Dynasties. Accompanying instruments in the Song Dynasty
included drum, clappers and flute, and the ensemble was augmented with Pipa
lute and other stringed instruments in the Yuan Dynasty, hence its name Tao Tanci
(Plucked Verses) and Tan Changci (Plucked and Sung Verses). Zhugong’diao is
based on Tang and Song Ci poem tunes, Tang and Song Daqu music (Composite
Music) and Chanling of Zhuanci (a type of narrative singing)3 and other popular
folk songs of the early Song Dynasty. Zhugong’diao is an extended work comprising
several short suites in a sequence, while each short suite includes several sections of
Gongdiao (modes, or melodic style). That is why Zhugong’diao is grand in structure
and rich in melodic contents, and the genre has much impact on the development
of opera and narrative music of later generations. A short Zhugong’diao has four
components: independent tunes; the same labelled tunes repeated twice or more
with closing section; Qupai of different modes connected within the Gongdiao
system and a closing section; the addition of Chanda (Intertwined Extension) in the
Chanling (Intertwined Piece). In Xixiang’ji Zhugong’diao (Dream of West Chamber
Zhugong’diao) by Dong Jieyuan of the Jin Dynasty, the collection includes 14 modes,
151 basic tunes and some variants of labelled tunes, with a total of 444 tunes. This
large-scale collection of Zhugong’diao is an example of extant narrative music of the
in Song and Jin Dynasties, with complete lyrics and most of the melodies.
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, opera, narrative music and folk instrumental
music continued to develop. The four major operatic Shengqiang (Vocal Melodic
Types) in the Song and Yuan Dynasties continued to develop in the ensuing Ming
Dynasty; these included Haiyan’qiang (Melodic Type of Haiyan), Yuyao’qiang
(Melodic Type of Yuyao), Yiyang’qiang (Melodic Type of Yiyang) and Kunshan’qiang
(Melodic Type of Kunshan, later called Kunqiang or Kun Melodic Type). There was
then no distinction between Shengqiang and types of operas, hence these can be
considered four major types of operas. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, opera
Shengqiang refer to four categories, namely Kunqiang (Kun Melodic Type), Gaoqiang
(High Melodic Type), Bangzi’qiang (Clappers Melodic Type), Pihuang’qiang
(Xipi and Erhuang Melodic Types). The four kinds of Shengqiang had led to new
development of Chinese operatic music, especially the Pihuang’qiang of Beijing
Opera in the eighteenth century. Beijing opera has a strict pattern, wide repertoire,
thriving schools of actors and perfect art form, making the genre the most developed
Chinese opera, hence hailed as the “National Opera” of China.
Narrative music evolved from Northern Dagu (Big Drum, or narrative art using
drum as accompaniment, popular in northern China) and Southern Tanci (Plucking
Singing) on the basis of the Cihua (Words and Stories) in Yuan and Ming Dynasties.
Coupled with Daoqing Paizi’qu (Labelled Tunes for Taoist Expressions), Qinshu
(Strings Narratives), Shidiao (Fashionable Song) and Xiaoqu (Ditties) performed at
teahouses, storytelling halls, markets, temple fairs as well as villages and fields, these
genres became firmly established as folk culture with a huge audience.
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was a close relationship between
folk music and customs, leading to the evolvement of different combinations of
instrumental ensembles and music genres. The five categories of instrumental
3 Chanling ( 缠令 ), literal translation as “intertwined orders”, one of the two music structures used in the
Changzhuan ( 唱赚 ), or Zhuanci ( 赚词 )，in which two tunes were sung alternately.
8 INTRODUCTION
ensembles include string ensemble, string and wind ensemble, wind and drum
ensemble, wind and percussion ensemble, and percussion ensemble; famous genres
associated with these ensembles include Twelve Muqam, Xi’an Guyue (Xi’an Wind-
and-Percussion Music), Dongbei Guchui’yue (Northeast Wind-and-Percussion Music),
Heibei Yinyuehui (Wind-and-Drum Music in Hebei), Jiangnan Sizhu (String-and-
Bamboo Ensemble in Southern Jiangsu), Shifan’gu (Ten Variations Ensemble with
Drum Solos), Shifan Luogu (Ten Variations of Percussion Ensemble), Fujian Nanyin
(Southern Sound of Fujian Province), Chaozhou Xianshi (Poetic String Music of
Chaozhou), Guangdong Yinyue (Cantonese Instrumental Ensemble), Yunnan Dongjing
(Dongjing Ritual Performance of Yunnan), Tujia Daliu’zi (Percussion Ensemble of
Tujia People) and Shanxi Weifeng Luogu (Powerful Percussion Ensemble of Weifeng,
Shanxi).
With the development of printing in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, a great number
of Guqin zither and Pipa lute scores were in circulation, which helped promote the
development of instrumental music. Over 300 tunes printed in the Ming and Qing
Dynasties have survived. Famous Guqin scores from the Ming and Qing Dynasties
include Pingsha Luoyan (Wild Geese Alighting on a Sandy Beach), Yuqiao Wenda
(Conversation Between Fisherman and Woodcutter), Liangxiao’yin (Tune for a
Peaceful Night), Shuixian’cao (Song of Narcissus), Longxiang’cao (Flying Dragon)
and Wuye Wuqiufeng (Leaves of Chinese Parasol Dancing in the Autumn Wind);
famous Pipa music includes: Shimian Maifu (Ambush on All Sides) , Bawang Xiejia
(The Warlord Disrobing His Armour), Haiqing Na’tiane (Eagle Catching the Swan),
Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General), Xiyang Xiaogu (Sounds of Vertical Flute and
Drum at Moonlit Night), Yue’ergao (The Moon on High) and Pingsha Luoyan (Wild
Geese Alighting on a Sandy Beach).
II. Rich Connotation of Traditional Chinese Music Culture

The vast land and rich cultural mix of ethnic groups in China have led to diversified
music genres. Recent research projects on Chinese music to preserve, collect and
collate main genres include folk songs, narrative music, opera, dance music and folk
instrumental music: this has led to the discovery of over a thousand types of folk
songs (some 20,000 songs); nearly 1,500 types of folk dance music (about 8,000
dance tunes); over 300 types of narrative music (over 3,000 excerpts); over 300 types
of folk opera (over 6,000 excerpts); folk instrumental music, in addition to Anthology
of Historical Guqin Pieces (Qinqu Jicheng) (nearly 30 volumes have been published).
The preserved sound tracks include nearly a thousand solo pieces, grouped into nearly
a hundred types of folk instrumental ensemble music, with over ten thousand sound
tracks. One may argue that such rich heritage of musical culture is second to none.
It poses a great challenge to ethnomusicologists to sort out, define and classify music
of this rich musical cultural heritage, and the process of research is on-going. After
some fifty years of heated debates, academics in China have pretty well consolidated
the following theories of classifying traditional Chinese music research.
Rich Connotation of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 9
First, it is easiest to explore the five-category theory of traditional music,

admittably the earliest and most widely accepted classification of traditional Chinese
music by recent scholars. In Introduction to National Music (Minzu Yinyue Gailun)
compiled by Institute of Musicology of CCOM and published by Beijing Music
Publishing House in 1964, traditional Chinese music is grouped into five categories:
(i). Folk and ancient songs; (ii). Dance music; (iii).Narrative singing; (iv). Opera;
(v). Instrumental music. This pioneer work on traditional Chinese music has a great
impact on academic institutions throughout the country. As music research develops,
this classification is found to be more appropriate for the classification of folk music,
rather than the fuller connotation of traditional Chinese music.
The second classification relates to the dynastic theory of historiography. This was
proposed by Huang Xiangpeng at the “Asia-Pacific Symposium on Traditional Music”
held in Beijing in June 1987, which involves the diachronic three-part classification
of traditional Chinese music, the first being bell-chimes and drum music in the pre-
Qin period (with typical example of the full set of musical instruments in the Tomb
of Marquis Yi of Zeng dated BC 433), the second being medieval court music
(characterised by Xianghe Daqu4, Qingshang Music5 of the Wei, Jin, and Southern and
Northern Dynasties to the song-and-dance court music, Gewu Jiyue6 of Sui and Tang
dynasties), while the third being contemporary secular music (the music in this period
has been transformed into stylized form of opera, and losing the characteristics of
song-and-dance composite music, Gewu Daqu). The dynastic theory has successfully
condensed the long history of Chinese musical culture into three stages, based on
three distinctive musical forms, distinguished by two historical and cultural divisions,
largely on the basis of historiography. This insight is characterized by an eye-catching
title, concise summary, while highlighting main points. The drawback of Huang’s
classification is the failure to address the long history and rich varieties of Chinese
music, and such simplification would inevitably result in only seeing one side of the
coin of traditional Chinese music culture.
The third theory of classification involves the regional division of folk songs,
focusing on musical styles. Its essence is outlined in On Classification of Han Folk
Songs by Similar Regions (published by Shanghai Literature and Art Press) by
Miao Jing and Qiao Jianzhong in 1987. Han folk songs are roughly divided into
eleven regional styles, which include the following areas: (i) Northeast plain; (ii)
Northwest plateau; (iii) Jiangsu and Anhui; (iv). Jiangsu and Zhejiang plain; (v)
Fujian and Taiwan; (vi) Guangdong; (vii) Jianghan plain; (viii) Hunan; (ix) Guangxi;
(x) Southwest plateau; (xi) Hakka. The regional approach is mainly applicable to
Han folk songs, and not music for ethnic minorities. On the one hand, the regional
classification of Chinese folk songs is a new insight which contributes to music
scholarship, on the other hand, it still needs to be further developed.
4 Xianghe Daqu ( 相和大曲 ), the concept can literally be translated as “Great Harmonious Music” which is a
type of art music popular in ancient China.
5 Qingshang Music ( 清商乐 ) is a type of ancient suite music which includes both instrumental and vocal music.
6 Gewu Jiyue ( 歌舞伎乐 ) is a type of Couot music of Sui and Tang Dynasties.
10 INTRODUCTION
The fourth classification is founded on the idea of cultural transformation. This

was put forward by Fei Shixun in his academic paper National Music and Cultural
Flow7, published in 1988, in which he distinguished six geographic branches of
Chinese culture, which included the Central Plain Huaxia; Bapu and Chu; Lingnan
(south of the Five Ridges) and Yue; plateau including Qiang and Tibet; grassland and
Hu foreign areas; as well as Silk Road and West Regions. By proposing the study of
traditional Chinese music culture from the backdrop of traditional Chinese cultural
branches, Fei has highlighted the importance of choosing a broader, deeper and higher
level of research topics.
The fifth classification is based on the four-category theory of traditional Chinese
music. Wang Yaohua proposed this in his book Introduction to Traditional Chinese
Music (Minzu Yinyue Gailun)8 published in 1990 highlighting four major categories
of traditional Chinese music: (i) Folk music (including folk songs; song and dance
music; narrative singing; opera; national instrumental music; composite music);
(ii) Music of literati (including Guqin music; Cidiao poetic music); (iii) Court music;
(iv) Religious music (including Buddhist music; Taoist music). This is a new approach
to teaching and research since the publication of Introduction to National Music (Minzu
Yinyue Gailun) in 1964.
The sixth classification focuses on the ethnography of music. This requires a
comprehensive understanding of the scope and value of music culture in China, or
mankind in general, by investigating and distinguishing the music of 56 ethnic groups
within the large population in China. This approach, though difficult to achieve, is
scientific and practical, as well as providing a comprehensive view for research on
traditional Chinese music. The first book on this approach of research is Records of
Bai Nationality Music (Baizu Yinyue’zhi)9 by Wu Guodong published in 1992.
The diversified ideas on classification of traditional Chinese music reflect many
possibilities of treating the subject, depending on personal inclination, level and aim
of research. It is fair to say the wide range of research outcome has contributed to the
promotion and preservation of Chinese music culture in one way or another.
Notwithstanding the somewhat inevitable divided views of Chinese music research,
the pedagogical feature of this book will include logical presentation of research
outcome and viewpoints from important scholars, as well as taking into account the
limited time and objectives of a music curriculum. This would mean ideas of different
scholars are presented systematically, scientificity, comprehensively, stimulatingly and
authoritatively in succinct academic manner, at the same time from the perspective of
the 21st century features of textbook presentation. This book follows the classification
of Introduction to National Music (Minzu Yinyue Gailun), which includes “folk
songs”, “dance music”, “narrative singing”, “opera” and “instrumental music” in five
parts. The Chinese version also includes religious music, featuring “Buddhist music”
7 See People’s Music, 1988 no 1: 19-21.

8 Haitang Business Culture Co., Ltd.
9 Culture and Art Publishing House.
Main Features of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 11
and “Taoist music”, as well as ritual music, highlighting the its procedures and music
of Confucian ceremony, while coping with other folk sacrificial rites and their music.
However, these are not included in the English version. “Court music”, of course, is
regarded as part of historical literature, and hence should be covered by music history
course, so as to avoid undue duplication of teaching contents.
III. Main Features of Traditional Chinese Music Culture

A. Diachronic Symbol of Time
The diachronic symbol of time is a main feature of traditional Chinese music
culture from a historical perspective. As the emergence, development and changes
of the art was gradually achieved in a specific historical process, its variation and
successive interpretations often appeared to be partial and quantitative. A Chinese
music genre has its legacies from different periods, including performance practices of
folk musicians. Hence listening to a performance is both contemporary and historical.
That is to say, past cultural prosperity is enlivened in contemporary context.
B. Synchronicity of Regional Differences
The synchronicity of regional differences is the approach of viewing characteristics
of traditional Chinese music culture geographically. There is a common saying, “there
are changes within ten kilometers, and customs may vary within hundred kilometers.”
It outlines the general rule of folk culture from the perspective of folk customs. Within
one genre, there are differences in different regions, albeit at the same historical
period. Such characteristics appear owing to different living conditions and cultural
background of the ethnic groups. The existence and development of a music genre is
linked closely to economic life, social structure, national psychology, religious beliefs,
culture and arts, folk customs and language, as well as other cultural traditions of a
region. Owing to constraints of geopolitical relations, each music genre has its own
characteristics, even under the same music culture. Local styles and flavours emerge
as there are differences in the training and development of performers in various
towns, villages or troupes, even for the same genre.
C. Commonality of Social Functions
The commonality of social functions is an extensive and profound characteristic
of traditional Chinese music culture shown in the cultural attribute. There are many
similar factors of social functions in the making of traditional Chinese music,
embodying Chinese cultural characteristics in the art tradition. It is possible to
view the development of Chinese music from the broader scope of considering
vital stages of development of human society, such as the Stone Age, Pottery Age,
Bronze Age, Neolithic and Palaeolithic culture, pottery culture and bronze culture,
formed correspondingly with common economic and cultural heritage in the history
of human civilization. The archaic primitive beliefs have laid the foundation for
the common faith and customs of human beings. From a narrower perspective, the
ideas of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism of Chinese have influenced all aspects
of folk arts profoundly. The social functions are manifested in forms of folk style,
12 INTRODUCTION
religion, rites and sacrifices. These manifestations contain both cultural connotation
and characteristics of humanity as a whole, and the civilizations of the nation, region
and community. The universal phenomenon of the commonality of social functions is
a reflection of the similar, approximate or same cultural creation of traditional Chinese
music culture.
D. Type of Model Structure
The model structure defines traditional Chinese music according to music forms.
This reflects the diachronicism and relative stability of Chinese music forms. The
main features of model structure include the close relationship of solo, ensemble
and instrumental accompaniment in many music genres, as well as the structure of
instrumental ensembles; tuning of musical instruments and the Gongdiao (modes
and degrees, or melodic styles) structure; the patterns of different melodies used
in narrative singing, operas as well as how labelled tunes are justaposed to form
suites; the musical forms of representative types of music genres and structural mode
of the respective singing and playing skills and styles. While different structural
characteristics are shared by various genres, each genre has its own uniqueness,
while taking all the model features as a whole, they function as important principles
of classifying different music varieties, and form a foundation for the distinguishing
the different styles. Owing to the diachronic symbol of periodical characteristics
of Chinese music, an ancient music genre, a type of narrative singing, or an opera
genre often contains features of several model structures. It is a revelation of the
music features of all ages. It is also the inevitable result of cultural transmission and
variability of different music genres, such as song, dance, music, narrative singing,
and instrumental music through the ages.
E. Compatibility of Renewal and Development
The culture of a nation is a continuous process of development, evolving from
past to present. The emergence, development, evolution and decline of a musical
culture can be seen in various stages of the development of human society, and in
the long history of the formation of a national culture. Cultural preservation is the
basis of the continuity and survival of a music culture, which is, a kind of social
and cultural phenomenon of human society. Therefore, the genes of some musical
elements remain relatively intact in some historical periods. There are some core
elements which form the basis of a music culture, and they have qualities to survive
from generation to generation, and hence features of ancient music can be found in
the living tradition. The relatively stable hereditary genes that have survived are vital
features of traditional Chinese music in the process of evolution. This is in spite of the
long tradition of Chinese music. Once the process of transmission is tampered with,
the features of a music culture will soon disappear, which is inevitable. That is to say,
in the lineage of music culture, stability is relative, while variability is absolute.
Variability is typically shown in the process of social change when Chinese music
is being inherited, the most prominent feature being inclusive and all-embracing.
From a historical perspective, one ought to consider the compatibility of cultural
traits, as traditional Chinese music can be subject to all sorts of challenges, yet it
Main Features of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 13
can still achieve spontaneous renewal, change and development by continuously

absorbing, digesting and accommodating different elements, while most believe that
only the fittest survives.
The exchange of music and culture between China and neighbouring countries
can be traced back to the Zhou Dynasty. The extensive contact between culture of
the Central Plains and Western Regions began in the Han dynasty, but culmulating
in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. After the Song Dynasty, there was exchange between
music culture of Central Plains and ethnic minorities. In the ensuing Ming and Qing
Dynasties, there have been contradiction, absorption and fusion between music in
China and Western regions. There were exchanges of music under different historical
periods, or economic and political conditions; such differences in cultural background
have left a lasting impression on traditional Chinese music. Many foreign musical
instruments, such as Pipa lute, Bili pipe, Suona shawm, Yangqin dulcimer, Huqin
fiddle, have been absorbed, developed and Sinicized in the long process of historical
development, and these have become an important feature of traditional Chinese
music.
Indigenous Chinese music culture shows both pluralistic and integrated
characteristics. It is the result of constantly self-updating and self-developing in the
acculturation of world music culture, most notably of adjacent lands. The exchange of
world music culture is one of the most important impetuses to promote civilization.
Human beings are dependent on one another, and the music culture of each country
is both independent and interdependent on others. This inevitable developmental
trend of human society, on the basis of evolution of traditional Chinese music culture,
should be judged under the value system and the psychological quality of the nation;
there is a strong desire, amongst Chinese scholars, to construct a new scientific
approach to Chinese music culture, so as to allow it to be appreciated as part of world
music culture.
CHAPTER I
FOLK SONGS
SECTION 1 OVERVIEW
I. Definition of Folk Songs

Folk songs refer to music sung at leisure or work; the music and texts can either be
original or much more commonly, transmitted over generations orally. In the long
process of development, folk songs have been in sustained circulation, and therefore
undergoing collective screening, transformation, processing and refining. One
may assume that folk songs still sung today have traces of collective wisdom and
emotional experience, from different regions, and therefore possess different identities
and human experience. Folk songs have a long history of being able to survive
relentless erosion and elimination, but those have survived are symbols of human
ideological and emotional expression, which some believe to be heading towards
perfection. One can therefore argue that folk songs are timeless, with everlasting
vitality, and are a strong reflection of uninterrupted civilization. They are part of
human lives and feelings, and the treasure trove for those in contemporary society
to put their real lives in historical context. Folk song is arguably the earliest form of
music in any human society; they have given rise to other folk music genres, music
for professional musicians, as well as original compositions. In short, folk songs
provide the foundation for all other musical genres.
II. Historical Evolution of Folk Songs

A. Folk Songs from the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods up to Han
Dynasty
Folk songs in China have a long history. According to literary sources, Book
of Songs (Shijing) compiled by Confucius during the Spring and Autumn and the
Warring States Period is the first extant collection of song texts in China, even though
the music is lost. This classic includes Guofeng (Airs of the States, folk poems
collected in Shijing-Book of Songs), which contains 15 folk songs spanning some
five centuries from the early Zhou to middle of Spring and Autumn Period (BC 11th
- BC 6th centuries), geographically covering the present Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan and
Shandong in the Yellow River Basin and northern Hubei and eastern Sichuan in the
Yangtze River Basin. The texts of these folk songs are based on work, life, class
oppression, patriotism and optimism. The classic also includes scattered records of
folk songs in Jiangsu and Zhejiang in southern China. Some folk songs in the State
of Chu (present Hunan) were recorded in Jiuge (Nine Songs) of Chuci (Songs of Chu
State) after the systematic collection and editing by the patriotic poet Qu Yuan. Other
works in Songs of Chu State were mainly written by Qu Yuan and fellow scholars in
form of folk music and dance.
18 CHAPTER I FOLK SONGS
Xianghe’ge (literally translated as “Harmonious Song”, a type of song in the Han

and Wei Dynasties, in which the music was accompanied by a Jie clapper) of the Han
and Wei Dynasties (BC 206–220 AD) includes both primitive folk songs popular in
the north, artistic songs adapted from the folk songs and extended dance music Daqu
(Composite Music) developed from folk songs.
B. Folk Songs during the Three Kingdoms, Jin Dynasties and Southern and Northern
Dynasties
During the Three Kingdoms, Jin Dynasties, and the Southern and Northern
Dynasties (220–589), migration and de-centralisation of political and cultural centres
resulted in folk songs in the south flourishing, as they gradually grew popular, and
spread northwards. Worth noticing is the importance of Xiqu (Western Tunes) in
Hubei and Wuge (Songs of Wu) in Jiangsu. Both types belong to folk Tuge (Bare
Songs, unaccompanied singing), highlighting courtship. Many Xiqu reflect the
feelings of parting by the waterside, while Wuge express the interesting conception
of family love. Folk songs with geographical features in the south and north can
be distinguished at this point. In general, southern folk songs were gentle, delicate
and lyrical, expressing love, while northern counterparts were heroic, robust and
impassioned.
C. Folk Songs in the Tang and Song Dynasties
Folk songs spread widely in the Tang Dynasty (618–907), owing principally to
China’s extensive empire, hence there were opportunities for their development; many
popular tunes were further “improved” with lyrics changed and special singing skills
introduced, hence the creation of “Quzi (Tunes)”. Although these songs were based on
folk songs, they have almost lost the elements of their folk origins.
In the Song Dynasty (960–1279), folk songs became even more popular, and
various folk music genres appeared, such as Shuochang (Narrative Singing) and
opera. Men of letters vied to imitate the style of folk songs to compose lyrics, known
as Cipai (poetic labels set musically).
D. Folk Songs in the Ming and Qing Dynasties
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1911), as urbanization thrived, the
population of cities increased dramatically, resulting in new folk songs being brought
from rural areas. These songs were “improved” by artists in cities for performance in
public, contributing to the spread of folk songs. This was also the period when block-
printed editions of folk songs appeared. By the Qing Dynasty, there were at least 208
Xiaoqu (Ditties) in circulation, according to various written sources, and famous songs
included Daoban’jiang (Oar Upside Down), Dieduan’qiao (Overlapping Broken
Bridge), Yijian’mei (A Blue Blossom), Gua’difeng (Wind Weeping on Ground),
Jian’dianhua (Cutting Blue Paper Flower), Xiu’hebao (Embroidering a Small Pouch),
Manjiang’hong (The River All Red) and Taiping’nian (A Peaceful Year). Some of the
folk songs are still sung today, in spite of their long history.
III. Status of Folk Songs in Lives of the Chinese

Folk songs of a region are closely associated with daily lives of its inhabitants, hence
Status of Folk Songs in Lives of the Chinese 19
they can be considered indispensable. One has to distinguish folk songs from music
professionally performed; functionally speaking, the latter exists for the benefit
of an audience, while the former is largely for self entertainment. Folk songs are
therefore mostly sung by ordinary people engaged in various activities, who make
music in their spare time, and hence amateurs. While it is hard to assess the value
of folk songs, it is possible to prove these are vital aspects of people’s lives, or in
some cases, even livelihood. An example is Haozi (Work Songs), presumably created
collectively, used to unify movements in a timely manner, as well as to balance
human emotions. Folk songs can be functional, as seen in ritual songs performed on
wedding and funeral ceremonials. They are indispensable on festive occasions, as
they have long become part of custom activities; in daily lives, folk songs serve well
as a form of entertainment, allowing the expression of emotions. When performed
by professional musicians, they become a source of spiritual enjoyment, or a kind of
intangible cultural consumption. Folk songs are often performed in special venues,
where relevant rules and regulations are observed to show courtesy and respect to
the performers involved (song creators, performers and other related personnel). For
the working people living amongst folk music, it is their innate partner. To quote
a song text from Kazakh, “Singing accompanies you when you lie in the cradle
and when you leave the world.1” In their lives, folk music, especially folk song is
omnipresent, and has vital social implications. For example, there are folk songs
for self-appreciation, entertaining others, courtship, sacrifice, ceremonies, recording
legends, imparting knowledge of production and life, organizing collective work,
promoting national heroes, and recording historical transformation of ethnic groups.
Their multi-functional characteristics make them closely related to every aspect of
human live. When attending folk music performances in the right performance context
(not on stage), the audience are close to the performers, and would echo, cheer, hiss
and boo freely to express their emotions towards the performances, revealing a close
relationship between the two parties.
Folk songs for labour and expressing emotions were common amongst Han people
and ethnic minorities; they can also be a medium for recording myths, history and
legends. This specifically applies to ethnic minorities with a relatively short written
history. Folk songs can have the role of preserving historical records, as illustrated by
the following types distinguished by their roles and texts.
A. Songs for the Creation of the World2
Folk songs in form of long narrative poems and epics exist in some ethnic
minorities in China, such as the Meige (Meige, a girl’s name) of the Yi people, Guge
(Ancient Song) of the Miao people, Panwang’ge (Song of King Pan) of the Yao
people, Kaitian Pidi’ge (The Creation of the World Song) of Hani people, Munao
Zhaiwa (Dancing Together with Sorcerer) of Jingpo people, and Chuang’shiji (Genesis)
1 “你伴着歌声躺进摇篮，也伴随歌声离开人间。”
2 This part of the material is based on Chinese Nationalities Literature 《中国少数民族文学》by Yang
Liangcai, Tao Lifan, and Deng Minwen, People’s Publishing House, 1st edition, 1985.
of Dulong people. These folk songs are based on ancient myths and legends on
the universe and human origin, perception of natural phenomena, as well as early
trends of history, agricultural production, lives and etiquette. These songs are often
performed on festivals, sacrificial rituals or wedding and funeral ceremonies by
sorcerers or senior personnel of nobility and high prestige, in a solemn atmosphere.
The tunes are close to the spoken language, and hence easier to recite; the lyrics are
usually lengthy, with some up to tens of thousands of lines, taking hours or even days
to complete the performance.
Myth is a legacy of ancient society; this was a stage when human productive
capacity and cognitive ability were very low, and their livelihood depended much
on natural forces. Human ancestors were curious about natural phenomena, such as
the rising and setting of the sun and moon, celestral appearance, fear of thunders and
lightning, disasters caused by droughts, floods, insects and beasts, and the origins
of mountains and rivers, as well as the existence of plants and animals. Nature was
too powerful for them to conquer, so they developed the idea of animism, believing
that natural objects, phenomena, and the universe had desires and intentions. They
visualized natural forces, and wanted to conquer nature with the help of their
imagination, generating all kinds of colourful myths, which were preserved orally, and
these were continuously enriched with improvement of human cognitive ability.
In the section of “Creation” (Chuangshi) of Meige of the Yi people in Yunnan,
there are records of myths and legends of ancestors of the Yi people in creating the
world:
Once upon a time, the God Gezi turned nine golden fruits into nine sons, and
five of them were to create heaven; he turned seven silver fruits into seven
daughters, and four of them were to create the earth. The sons creating heaven
made their clothes with clouds, and their rations with dew; the daughters
created the earth made their clothes with moss, and the rations with mud. In
the shapes of an umbrella and sedan, they created heaven and earth with the
spider web as a base. Unfortunately the earth was too big to be covered by the
sky. Therefore, God Gezi released three pairs of boars and three pairs of the
elephants to dig deep valleys and erect mountains, and this was how the sky and
earth were connected. God also tested the strength of the sky and earth with
thunder and earthquake. The sky and earth were shattered to cracks and holes.
God then patched the sky with clouds and filled the holes with leaves of sweet
potato. The newly created world was rickety. God had to kill three thousand jin
(half kilogram) he-fish and seven hundred jin she-fish to support the corners of
the earth. He also killed a tiger and supported the sky with its bones. The sky
and earth finally stopped wabbling. God took the right and left arms of the tiger
to be the sun and moon, and its eyes to be stars. Light then appeared in the
world. God turned the tiger’s intestines and stomach into rivers and seas, and
the tiger’s fur into the vegetation. Creatures began to appear on earth.
The song Munao Zhaiwa (Dancing Together with Sorcerer) is widely circulated
and well-received by Jingpo people, with far-reaching effect. This is a song about
history, which gives an account of the evolution of Jingpo from antiquity to modern
era. The content of the song is summarized as follows:
Prior to the creation of heaven and earth, there was only a small cluster
of cloud spinning in the sky, but it accumulated and turned into mud. Then
heavenly ghosts representing Yin and Yang appeared, with the former (male)
named Neng Wangla and the latter (female) Nengban Muzhan. They created
heaven and earth, as well as the sun, moon and stars. A “holy book” was
inscribed, and it brought wisdom to human beings. Their offspring Panwa
Nengsang symbolized wisdom, and was supposed to have grown teeth in the
womb, and could at that stage smile, talk, straighten his back, and stretch his
legs; he was born with all knowledge he needed. He named himself Panwa
Nengsang Zhewa Nengzhang, meaning eternal wisdom, such as possessing the
ability to solve all problems encountered in life. He embodies the wisdom of the
Jingpo people.
Neng Wangla and Nengban Muzhan died after giving birth to the pair of
heavenly ghosts Waxiang’neng Tuila and Nengxing Nongrui Muzhan, who
had to continue the task of creating the world. They separated day from night,
created animals such as birds, fish and shrimps, and gave birth to many
heavenly and earthly ghosts to look after their people. When shaping the
world, Waxiang’neng Tuila wanted the world to enjoy sustained day light,
while Nengxing Nongrui Muzhan preferred the darkness of night. Failing to
compromise, they turned to Panwa Nengsang, who divided the day into two
halves. The world thus had days and nights. When Waxiang’neng Tuila died
on mountain top, he was the first to receive sunlight. So the day breaks on
mountain top; Nengxing Nongrui Muzhan died in Wazili, and she was the first
to feel the darkness of night.
The couple gave birth to Penggan Zhilun and Muzhan Waishun, who created
wind, rain, thunder and lightning, high mountains and deep valleys, rivers and
lakes. They invented working tools, hunting weapons and were the ancestors of
human beings. They gave birth to the first Prince Delu Gongshan as well as the
clever and brave Ningguan’wa. The latter was an ancient hero of the Jingpo
people. Finding the mountains arid, he remoulded them and flattened the land;
he was a popular figure, and became the first Mountain Official. This aroused
jealousy of the nine sons of his brother, who was picky on his contributions. A
fight broke out between the two sides. Ningguan’wa summoned wind and called
for rain. The heavy downpour lasted 140 days, ushering in the deluge. After the
flood subsided, a man and his sister who hid in the wooden drum married, and
inhabitants multiplied for generations until the present.
Myths and legends described in Meige of Yi people and Munao Zhaiwa of Jingpo
people have great significance amongst ethnic minorities in southern China. The fairy
tale Miluo’tuo (Miluo’tuo, a Goddess’s name) has been known to Yao people since
antiquity, and it also refers to god giving birth to nine sons to help create the world;
the deluge and marriage of brothers and sisters are mentioned in different sources,
including Guge (Ancient Song) of Miao people, Chuang’shiji (Genesis) of Naxi
people, Bubo (Bubo, a hero) of Zhuang people, the legend Renlei de Qiyuan (Human
Origin) and Jiedi’liang (Sister and Brother) of Li nationality. Sister and Brother has
been sung for generations in form of “lullaby”. The text of the song reads:
Cradle, swing softly.

Baby, sleep quietly.
Sweet mum, sing an old song,
Sing the history of the people of Li .
B. Songs on the Origins of Ethnic Minorities

Some folk songs are sources of origins and migration of ethnic groups, who have
preserved legends about such useful sources of anthropology, by recording the deeds
of ancestors of the clan and tribe, as well as their geographic distribution. Contents of
the folk songs are a mixture of myths, legends and history, a typical example being the
reference to the power of gods in creating a nation, or their role in migration, either
from heaven to earth, or more realistically, from one earthly location to another.
The ancient song Miluo’tuo (a Goddess’s name) of the Yao people, refers to a
goddess worshipped as the first female of their ancestors. Her last contribution was
creating humans with bee larvae and beeswax. She “pinched the head, hands, feet with
beeswax into the shape of human”, in turn putting them into a jar. Miluo’tuo chants
beside the jar:
A chick shall be born in twenty days;

A puppy shall be born in ten months;
A human baby shall be born in nine months.
Nine months later, the bee larvae in the jar became human beings. Miluo’tuo
summoned Miling to feed the babies with milk, and they later became the ancestors of
the Han, Zhuang, and Yao people.
The story of Chuang’shiji (Genesis) of the Naxi people goes: The origin of human
ancestors began on the generation of Congren Li’en (a hero of Naxi People) when
“brothers and sisters acted as husbands and wives; brothers and sisters matched with
each other”. They learned how to work like butterflies and ants, and they farmed until
“they went to the abode of gods.” This angered god. “He detests human beings under
heaven, and he wanted to drown the earth with flood to wipe them out.” The kind-
hearted Congren Li’en won the mercy of God of East, and survived the disaster. While
he was despondent and lonely, he met the heavenly maid Chenhong Baobai, and they
soon fell in love. Chenhong Baobai took Congren Lien to heaven, where the latter
tackled all challenges by god with great courage and wisdom, and God ordered him
to marry his daughter Chenhong Baobai. The couple had to endure much hardship,
and later returned to the mortal world after a long and hard journey, including braving
wind and dew, no less than the challenges of Pamina and Tamino in Mozart’s Die
Zauberflöte. They reclaimed land and raised poultry and livestock in the land, and
fought against diseases spread by the demons. They gave birth to three sons, who
respectively became Tibetan, Bai and Naxi ancestors.
Dong people now live in the intersection of Guizhou, Hunan and Guangxi
Provinces. The narrative song Dongzu Zuxian Cong Nalilai (Origin of Dong People)
is about migration of Dong ancestors, giving an account of the reasons and tools
they used, as well as the adventures with the company of Miao people. The ballad
also describes how Dong people resisted their move to remote mountains, and began
building ships with maple, which were clumsy for communication. Miao people, in
contrast, were diligent, intelligent and courageous, and they went to deep forests to
sever phoebe zhennan to build ships, which were solid and mobile. With the help of
Miao people, Dong people finally managed to settle down. To date, Miao and Dong
people still live in the neighbourhood in the same villages. Ancient folk songs can
serve to preserve history, as well as provide enlightenment and education for the
present population.
C. Heroic Epic in Folk Songs
Heroic epic is a collective literary output developed from folk songs, ballads,
myths and legends, and it has been created and sung for generations.
The epic has a shorter history than myths; it mainly describes wars between clans
and tribes in the olden days, as well as the achievements of heroes of wars. During the
transition from primitive to slave society, the clan system was on the verge of collapse.
The alliance of tribes took shape, and there was a trend for private ownership. Wars
broke out frequently among clans and tribes; concurrently, the rise in productivity had
weakened the psychological reliance on the power of gods. Hence, there was a shift
to the worship of heroes, and there were more concern on the outcome of wars than
the somewhat intangible influence of gods. This can be a possible explanation for the
origin of heroic epic.
Epic of Jangar (Jiangar, a hero) is an outstanding Mongolian heroic epic, and it has
caught attention of the world. Its present form has taken about 400 years to develop:
part of it is believed to date back to the late primitive or early slave society3. It consists
of an introductory song and 13 parts, and each part focusing on a central figure. While
all parts can be treated independently, there is a chronological relationship between
them, hence making it an organic whole. The entire epic covers different topics, but it
is threaded by a theme, which relates to the utopia of peace, prosperity and happiness.
Manas is a magnificent and resourceful Kirgiz hero epic. It records how
Kirgiz people struggled for national independence, against alien enslavement and
3 According to Chinese Communist social classification, human societies are divided into five progressive
stages: primitive society, slave society, feudal society, socialist society and finally communist society.
oppression under the leadership of eight generations of Manas, reflecting the firm and
indomitable, gallant and unyielding spirit of the nation. The work includes eight parts.
“Manas” is the title of the epic, and the subtitle of the first part. Each of the remaining
parts is also named after a hero, who is an offspring of Manas, from the first to seventh
generations. Each part is an independent extended poem, yet these are all closely
related. While the epic vividly describes battle scenes and characters involved, it also
gives an account of the myths and legends of the Kirgiz founding fathers, history and
social development of the people, ethnic relations, social customs, religious belief
and geography from the tenth to fifteenth centuries. It is a precious primary source
for ancient Kirgiz history, folklore, religion, language, literature, music, as well as the
broader history and culture of Central Asia.
Zhaoshutun, also known as Zhaoshutun and Nanmuruona, is a household epic
circulated in Dai people’s living area for over one millennium. It was made into a
film entitled Peacock Princess (Kongque Gongzhu). The epic tells the story of Prince
Zhaoshutun and the beautiful Princess Nanmuruona: they have fallen in love and lived
beside Golden Lake, but soon the land was invaded by their enemies, and the Prince
is forced to go to war. Zhaoshutun’s father is superstitious, and expels Nanmuruona
from home. When her husband returns home in victory, he found his beloved wife
gone. He spent three years desperately searching for her, in many occasions risking
his life. Eventually, he arrived at the Land of Peacocks, and happily reunited with his
wife.
D. Long Stories in Folk Songs
Long stories inherent in folk songs are obviously extensive works involving
characters and plots, relying on various methods of narration and portrayal of the
characters. These long stories often grew out of late slavery and feudal societies,
when there was much transformation of social lives. Human relations grew more
complicated, with increased class and state oppression. There was a tendency to
express personal feelings through long narrative songs, so defiance to oppression was
the most striking theme. These songs, sympathetic to those suffering the greed and
brutality of the ruling class, condoned the unyielding struggling spirit of ordinary
people. Some songs have pacifying effect on those longing for peace in opposition to
wars; they might also stand against feudal ethic practice of forced marriages.
Gada Meilin, based on the real historical event of Gada Meilin Uprising in 1929,
is a good example of relatively recent Mongolian long narrative songs. The farmers
and herdsmen in Darhan Hoshuu (present Horqin Left Middle Banner) rose to rebel
under the leadership of Gada Meilin, against the famous Warlord Zhang Zuolin who
discontinued the lineage of the Mongolian royal family. The revolt lasted several
years, and it affected a few counties.
It is slightly complicated to expedite the meaning of the name of the Mongolian
hero Gada Meilin (1892–1931): in Mongolian he is known as Nada Mude; the
Chinese equivalent is Meng Qingshan; his infant name is Gada, meaning the youngest
son, while “Meilin” is his official title, when he was a minor official in local armed
forces under the reign of Prince Darhan. In 1929, the Prince sold the land of the
banner, ignoring the livelihood of the Mongolians, and reclaimed the land in the
grassland in collusion with warlords, forcing his herdsmen to flee their homeland.
Gada Meilin spoke for the Mongolians, but was deposed by the Prince. With some
allies, he travelled afar to Mukden (present Shenyang) to launch an appeal, which
enraged the Nationalist warlord Zhang Zuolin, who imprisoned Gada and his friends,
and later sentenced them to death. Gada Meilin’s naïve illusion of the ruling class
vanished; he was rescued by his wife Mudan (Peony), in a manner recalling the story
of Beethoven’s rescue opera Fidelio, but he went further to gather a crowd, numbering
over a thousand, for an uprising. They fought in Zhaowuda area in the west of
Liaoning and Zhelimu area of Jilin. Gada Meilin never retreated under the most
perilous circumstances of strong enemy, but only having short supply of ammunition
and food. In the final war at the Xikai River, Gada Meilin and his men chose to die
rather than surrender, for being hopelessly outnumbered. Soon after the Gada Meilin
Uprising, there were songs in praise of their heroic acts: early works were short lyric
songs, but these developed into a long narrative song accommodating all details of the
uprising. This song is still popular among the Zhelimu League.
In a more relaxing mood, the Yi folk song Mama de Nver (Mum’s Daughter) is
an extended work combining lyric and narrative styles delivered in the first person.
Repetitive analogies serve to express the daughter’s resentment and sorrow for the
arranged marriage, in weeping tone, hence very touching, as shown in the text:
Oh, mum’s daughter! The high mountains look happy, but that is only a
paradox; the undulating mountains can only be happy when the sheep are
there!
The prairie looks happy, but that is only a paradox; the boundless grassland
can only be happy when cattle are there!
The forests look beautiful, but that is only a paradox; the quiet forests can
only be beautiful when lacquer trees grow there!
Oh, miserable. I am really miserable.
By alluring to the happiness and freedom of sheep on the mountains, cattle on the
grassland and lacquer trees in the forests, the introductory song reflects the somewhat
ironical apprehensive feeling of the bride-to-be.
The daughter also had a wonderful childhood. She can recall her mother holding
her, “White milk was mixed with rice, it was as sweet as honey”; when she was held by
her dad in his arms, “Fresh meat was mixed with rice, it was so nice and delicious.” In
her childhood, “There was an inner chamber for me to sleep; a place under the eaves
for me to sit; I jumped freely in the courtyard and played in the stockade.” “My bone
earrings are swaying. My skirt is bright and red. Oh, mum’s daughter! How pretty I
am!”
But when the daughter reaches seventeen or eighteen, “Dad wants to marry me out
and my brother wants to seize my betrothal gifts.” This is when the daughter shows
her grievances for the different treatments of son and daughter under the patriarchal
system, in a succinct manner.
Oh, mum’s daughter! Once upon a time, my brother and I grew up together,
wearing the same clothes, eating the same food. But today (when I am about to
get married) I know, my brother is the master, and I am the guest; my brother is
the domestic sheep, and I am the fostered sheep; my brother is the family asset,
and I am the small change.
The daughter regrets bitterly that she will not be able to return home freely from
now on.
Oh, mum’s daughter! The rider rides on the horse. The horse can return, but not
the rider; brother and sister leave home together. Brother can return, but not
his sister.
The mists bring forth the rain. The mists return to the sky, but the rain falls
in the black soil; the bow is pulled to release an arrow. The bow resumes it
shape, but the arrow is left on the ground. The needle pulls a thread. The needle
returns to its place, but the thread is stitched on the clothes; brother sends his
sister away. He has returned to our parents, but his sister is left in the home of
mother in law. Oh, mum’s daughter! I can never return!
The continuous tearful complaints are truly moving, and can arouse deep emotions.
The daughter is totally hopeless, as she thinks of committing suicide. Yet the defiant
daughter has been married, she is now “family property” of her husband. “If I kill
myself in my in-laws’ home, I fear that my bother will be implicated; if I kill myself in
my parents’ home, I fear that they will fail to compensate the betrothal gifts.” At this
critical moment of life, the daughter is alone and feeling helpless, as she has become
the puppet of fate when she marries. Her life in her in-laws’ home is miserable as
reflected towards in the lyrics.
Oh, mum’s daughter! If this meal is not nice, there is hope for something better
next time. If this dress is not pretty, there is hope for something better next time.
Yet if husband and wife cannot get along, there is never a remedy!
Mum’s Daughter is not unfolded in narrative style, but rather, the misery of the
protagonist is presented as a first person. Such a direct manner of expressing emotions
provides much more opportunities for Yi women to proclaim their resentment to the
mercenary marriage system. The work is an epitome of negative sentiment because
it highlights the tortures bestowed on Yi women throughout all eras. One notices the
burst of anger or intense struggle do not exist, but the emotions are more introvert,
conveying the ideas of sorrow, bitterness and tears, or the state of mind being lonely
and helpless.
The most common topic in the genre of long narrative songs is courtship,
especially stories that are tragic. Examples include Ebing and Sangluo and Yehanzuo
and Maonongyang of Dai people, Saliha and Saman of Kazakhs, Zhulang Liangmei
of Dong people, Taohun’ji (Runaway Bride) of Lisu people, Mawuge yu Gadoumei
(Brother Mawu and Sister Gadou) of Hui people, Lusheng Aige (Mouth Organ
Lusheng Elegy) of Benglong people, Larenbu and Qiemensuo of Tu people, and
Huangdaichan of Yugu people. There are social and historical reasons for the ready
adoption of the topic.
While many ethnic groups in China are relatively liberal in pre-marriage
relationship, their feudal tradition means that marriage is strictly controlled by parents,
who have to consider the opinions of a match-maker, the avunculate system (product
of matriarchal and early patriarchal society). For example, a son of maternal uncle has
the priority to marry the daughter of his aunt. In the event that the maternal uncle has
no son, his approval is needed for the marriage of his sister’s daughter. If a girl refuses
to marry her maternal cousin, her family will need to compensate her uncle a sum
known as “Maternal Uncle Money”. Clan exogamy (endogamy is prohibited in some
clans), feudal sense of hierarchy and feudal ethics code played very important roles in
matrimony. These social norms have generated numerous tragedies for generations.
There were wide-spread unacceptable marriages, such as those arranged by parents,
bartered or even captured brides, the primitive custom of looting women, leading to
girls refusing to marry by eloping or committing suicide. Such tragedies in real life
are obvious themes to arouse emotions, hence adopted for many long narrative songs.
The famous Hui long narrative song Brother Mawu and Sister Gadou is based on
a true story in the Qing Dynasty. It happened in Monigou of Hezhou (present Linxia,
Gansu) in 1881, and the 18-year-old girl Gadou was in love with the young man
Mawu, vowing to marry him. The beauty and talent of Gadou caught the attention of
the local bully Ma Qiwu, who forced her to marry his ten-year old son Gaximu. There
was a chance for Gadou and Mawu to spend the night secretly at Gadou’s house.
Alas, they were discovered by her husband Gaximu, and they strangled him to death
in desperation. Mawu left one of his shoes as he escaped, and this was the evidence
presented by Ma Qiwu to the Hezhou court. The story includes the typical encounter
of a corrupt official in Hezhou: Gadou presented him with dozens of Yuanbao (shoe-
shaped silver ingots), but Ma Qiwu produced more bribes for the higher official in
Lanzhou, leading to Mawu and Gadou being beheaded on the Hualin Mountain in the
west of Lanzhou.
Mawu and Gadou were denigrated for “corrupting public morals” and “as
lascivious couple” by the ruling class, but they have drawn infinite compassion from
the public. Their search for true love was turned into a poem and then a song, which
was wide-spread. In spite of the strict censorship, popularity of the song has grown
over the past century, particularly in Gansu, Qinghai and Ningxia. Originally the
repertoire of the Hui people, the song is sung by other ethnic groups, such as Han,
Dongxiang, Sala and Bao’an, and it exists in many versions.
The lyrics of Brother Mawu and Sister Gadou are based on the two-line structure
of Hua’er (Flower, a type of mountain song) and the music is based on “The tune of
brother Mawu”; its popularity can never challenged.

Folk songs can therefore serve to record the life experience of all segments of
a community, and they can carry human emotions with a high degree of accuracy.
Through their performance, it is possible to appreciate people’s way of lives, as well
as their feelings as the manner of expression is often direct, simple and subtle.
SECTION 2 TYPES OF FOLK SONGS AND
THEIR ARTISTIC FEATURES
I. Folk Songs of Han People

Han folk songs can be classified according to their musical and rhythmic
characteristics: the three common types are Haozi (Work Songs), Shange (Mountain
Songs) and Xiaodiao (Ditties).
A. Haozi (Work Songs)
1. Overview
Haozi, also known as Laodong Haozi (Work Songs), is a type of folk song sung
during physical labour, and highly functional in coordinating the work force. The
pre-Qin history Lyushi Chunqiu—Shenying Lan (Master Lyu’s Spring and Autumn
Annals-Examinations) reads, “When trying to lift the timber, men in front shout while
those at rear echo.4” This is the earliest record of work songs.
Singing Haozi is described as “crying out Haozi (Yao Haozi)” in the north, while
other terms such as “shouting Haozi (Han Haozi)”, “beating Haozi (Da Haozi)”,
“calling Haozi (Jiao Haozi)” and “roaring Haozi (Hou Haozi)” are used in the south.
When engaging in hard labour, a work song provides a signal to the workmen, hence
can unify the pace of movement, adjusting breaths, and releasing the load on body.
As primitive shouting develops into work songs, the genre has the practical functions
of enlightening spirit, adjusting moods, and organizing collective work; they also
possess certain artistic values. There is, however, some degree of balance between
practical and artistic values: when the song reflects high labour intensity, artistic value
decreases, owing to the inhibition of a more musical performance. The reverse is true.
The most common style of singing is solo followed by echoing. The soloist is often
the leader of work. The lyrics of the leading part are some kind of commands, set to
changeable melodies; the lyrics of the chorus are padding words, work cries, or simple
repetitions of the lyrics of the soloist, with simplified melodies.
The development of work songs from simple, rhythmic cries of work to
sophisticated lyrics set to complete melodies highlights the wisdom of ordinary
people, as well as their optimism and courage to survive poor conditions in life.
2. Types of Work Songs
Various types of work songs developed, as there are different forms of labour,
including:
(1) Work Songs for Transport
“Work Songs for Transport” refer to music involving the process of goods
4 “今举大木者，前呼舆谔，后亦应之”。
transport by manual labour, such as loading and unloading, carrying and lifting,
carrying a load on shoulders, or pushing a cart. One notices in such mode of collective
transportation, it is necessary to keep the pace, regulate the breath, and maintain a
positive atmosphere, in order to maintain safety and efficiency. Hence work songs are
highly functional.
Heilongjiang has the largest reserves of timber in China, hence intense transport
work is needed in the forests there, and circumstances have nurtured a tradition of
singing work songs. These have no fixed lyrics, as they are often improvised by the
leading singer, who directs the collective workforce. Hence the leader sings, while
others echo. Sometimes the leading part and choral echoes overlap, forming a quasi-
contrapuntal style, as in the song Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua).
Example 1-1. Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua) from Yichun, Heilongjiang
Province. The score is transcribed by Zhao Ximeng
Folk Songs of Han People 31
Example 1-1 (continued). Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua) from Yichun,
Heilongjiang Province. The score is transcribed by Zhao Ximeng
Translation of the Lyrics:

Hayao’gua, (you hei), (you hei), squat on heels,
Fasten hooks ready, stand up, (hei hei),
Hood up, don’t rock, go straight, (you hei)
Eight brothers, move the wood,
Go to the access board (you he), (hei hei), steady steps,
Be careful (you hei), (you hei hei)
Pulling from front, hei,
Pushing from back, pulling and pushing,
Hei hei ya, hei hei,
You hei, now on the place.
Bend back and put it down.
Hei....
The upper part is the main melody, supported by the chorus. As seen in the
lyrics, the lead singer directs the operation, as his workmen coordinate their
movements accordingly to complete the task. This song comprises six phrases,
plus an introduction and a coda, describing the entire working process. The first
6 measures form the “introduction”, as the lead singer commands others. The last
4 measures make the coda, as workers are instructed to unload the timber. The
core phrases portray several stages of work, such as squatting, hooking the timber,
standing up, moving forward, and getting on the springboard. Musically, it is a kind
of strophic form in six phrases, allowing slight variations to the melody. While the
first, fourth and fifth phrases are made up of 8 measures, the second and third phrases
are expanded to 10 measures, but the sixth phrase is reduced to 6 measures. Such a
structure allows the main melody to dominate, yet changes are introduced when the
mood warrants, or a kind of “creativity within bounds”. In other words, the audience
will only appreciate subtle changes, as the music maintains a unified atmosphere. The
trick is to introduce new music materials to phrases with the same length, but when
a section is prolonged, similar music materials are used. For example, the first two
phrases comprise 8 measures and 10 measures respectively, yet they share a similar
structural idea, that the first 4 measures (including the leading part and the choral part)
comprise two measures as a unit, while the fifth to eighth measures of the first phrase
and the fifth to tenth measures of the second phrase apply some kind of imitative
technique between the leading part and chorus, forming a small climax.
The opening phrases highlight the command of the leader over his subordinates.
The following two phrases have the same structure, comprising 8 and 10 measures
respectively. The third phrase contains 5 units, while the fourth phrase 4 units;
each unit has 2 measures. These two phrases occupy a central position in the song,
and there is not much variety in the treatment of rhythm, structure and pitch. It is a
variation of the overwhelming part of the beginning, posing to reserve energy for the
music that follows. The fifth phrase is also in 8 measures, and there is a high-pitched
crying tune in the fifth measure5, forming the climax of the song. The sixth phrase is
a kind of stretto, with music materials repeated, and it leads to the coda. The first 2
measures of the fifth phrase appear, followed by last 4 measures of the introduction.
In general, the work song Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua) sung
by the workmen has certain crudeness of an authentic work song, lacking beautiful
melodies owing to their coping with heavy loads, but its structure somehow reflects
their grasp of some rules of art forms.6
Jiang Taigong Sitting Alone on a Fishing Platform (Jiang Taigong Duzuo
Diaoyutai) is a song for carrying load on shoulders. It has a narrow range, and is
based on four phrases, highlighting variations technique and repetitions. The first
two phrases have the same ending, both falling on the degree do; the first beat of the
second measure and the second beat of the third measure establish the relationship
between that of fourth and fifth, and the two phrases are also linked by other music
5 Zhou Qingqing, Chinese Folk Songs, People’s Music Publishing House, 1st edition, 1993, pp 30-31.
6 Zhou Qingqing, Artistic Appreciation of Chinese Folk Songs, Shanxi Education Publishing House, 1st edition,
1996, p 23.
materials. The third phrase is a kind of varied repetition, with the reduction of the
second measure of the first phrase, becoming a phrase of three measures, hence
very unique. The fourth phrase is an exact repetition of the second phrase. This song
highlights shortness of the breath and elastic rhythm. Often, similar pitches are repeated
(such as the first and second beats of the first measure, the second beat of the second
measure and the first beat of the third measure, the second beat of the fifth measure
and the first and second beat of the sixth measure). The music provides an appropriate
mood for the waggling and the paces when carrying a load on shoulder poles.
(2) Engineering Work Songs
Engineering work songs are sung during ramming, tamping, logging and quarrying.
Take the example of tamping: tamper is a round flat stone or iron rammer tied with
several ropes used as a tool to operate the ram for laying foundation. The tamper can
be light or heavy. In light tamping, the tool is lifted overhead, hence also known as
flying tamping, and the movement is relatively agile; heavy tamping will naturally
be clumsier, hence taking longer. Tamping Song (Dawo’ge) of Hubei is a work song
for heavy tamping. The first beat of the chorus is inevitably an accent, as the song is
designed to synchronise with the movements of tamping.
Example 1-2. Tamping Song (Dawo’ge) from Macheng, Hubei Province

pomegranatepo (ai), blossom (lie), (ya wei yi he ye he ye),
Leaves are blue (lie he he ye), (he ye he ye ye he ye),
Leaves are blue (lie he he ye).
This song is distinguished by its asymmetry. First, it is the asymmetry of metres,

alternating 2/4 with 3/4. Second, the phrases are asymmetrical: the first phrase
consists of two parts, with 4 measures and 8 beats, while the second phrase comprises
3 parts, with 6 measures and 13 beats. Musically, it is in form of question and answer,
as well as adopting melodic extension. The soloist and the chorus sing the first phrase,
which consists of two measures. They form the pitch relationship of a fourth and fifth;
the second phrase does not use the materials of the previous phrase, even though it
develops the second measure of the first phrase, transforming it to the third measure of
the second phrase. The first and the third phrasal parts are variations, while the second
phrasal part is a development. As the work song needs to be sung in conjunction with
movements, the music includes regular repetitions. Here, the third part of the second
phrase is a repetition of the first phrasal part, providing the right effect.
(3) Farming Work Songs

Farming work songs are sung, as the title suggests, during agricultural activities,
such as threshing wheat, husking rice, pump irrigation and weeding. Since farming is
not considered an intensive activity the songs are less vigorous, hence they often have
more beautiful melodies, fluid rhythms and with richer and more varied lyrics.
Example 1-3. Rice-husking Song (Chongmi Haozi)

(hey chi hey chi hey chi hey chi), beating once (na ge) stick, huming (na) once
voice (lai),
Sound of huming (na ge), white rice easily (lai), (a yi ya ha), turning around (lai).
(hey da liu zi hey chi hey chi), (you hey chi),
(three flowers blossom, ya you you he he hey chi),
(hey chi hey chi hey chi hey).
Rice-husking Song (Chongmi Haozi) begins with 4 measures of shouts based on

“hey” and “chi”, associated with rice husking. “Hey” is the word uttered by farmers;
each “hey” is an accent, and the frequency of its appearance is related to the progress
of work. “Chi” is the sound of inhaling of the workforce. The central pitch of the
song changes from mi in the first 8 measures to do in the tenth measure, then to sol
in the fifteenth measure, ending on sol. The changes of the central pitches are subtle:
each new section begins with the previous central pitch, hence measures 9 and
14 begin with mi and do respectively, ensuring the listeners have a seamless aural
transformation. The lyrics of the song are juxtaposed logically, allocating the first 13
words of the two seven-word phrases to the lead singer, leaving the last word for the
chorus. This provides continuous interaction between the soloist and chorus, and of
course, creates a joyous atmosphere in the midst of laborious tasks.
(4) Shipping and Fishing Work Songs

Shipping and fishing work songs are often heard in water transport, fishing
and shipping activities. Since shipping work is diversified, coupled with the ever-
changing water routes and climate conditions, such work songs are divided into many
categories, to be identified with the variety of work. Boatmen in different regions sing
work songs in various situations. For example, Fishermen Song (Yumin Haozi) in
eastern Hebei comprises four sections, namely “pulling rope”, “pulling net”, “pulling
rod” and “pulling hook”. The melody and rhythm of each section are unique. The tone
quality and rhythm of the first section is mild and peaceful. As the music develops, the
range of melody will increase, while the rhythm becomes more intense, as the mood
gets more excited. It ends in a hurried vigorous cry.
Lishui River Boatmen Song (Lishui Chuangong Haozi) of Hunan consists of
“introduction”, “Sanyao’tai” (a song for calm water route), “passing the rapids”
(Guotan, sung when the boat sails through hazardous conditions, divided into
fragments in low and high pitches), and “back to calm water” (Pingban). Approximate
metronome mark of the piece changes from 58 beats per minute to 104 beats,
finally returning to the original speed. This is a great example of boatmen song with
remarkable melody and lyrics. There is no notional text in the “introduction”. Both
the lead singer and chorus sing padding words, with the former introducing some
variations. The attractive melody possesses rich artistic traces. The ensuing “back to
clam water” expresses the boatmen’s lofty sentiment with a facile melody: “The sun is
red like fire. We take the boat and sail far. The Dongting Lake is rough. The boatmen are
all time heroes.7” With the perfect setting of lyrics and melody, the sense of pride and
self-confidence of the boatmen are duly expressed. The rhythm is gently stretching, and
a complete musical phrase is formed between the lead singer and chorus.
The 29th measure is the rapping low voice of the “passing the rapids”. “Rapping”
in folk songs refers to the emphasis on rhythm while ignoring changes in pitches.
Here, the lead singer uses syncopated rhythm, which is not adopted in the previous
melody, bringing a sense of instability, and a warning to forthcoming danger.
The chorus also features rapid rhythm not previously used. This demonstrates the
determination to fight against odds. At this juncture, the leading part and chorus divide
into two vocal parts, with the lead singer in syncopated rhythm, being decorated by
staggered rhythm of the chorus.
The lead singer is usually the steersman in shipping, owing to his experience and
determination to tackle dangers. Such kind of personal quality is a treasure, especially
under adverse living conditions in olden days. It is perhaps impossible for a bystander
to witness a legendary steersman, but the lyrics of the boatmen song can justify his
resourcefulness. In the high range section when the boat is passing the rapids, the
steersman sings, “The anchor of bamboo is long and pointed. One pole is needed to
push the boat far away.8” This shows that the steersman’s demonstration of courage
at hazardous moments. The melody is shaped on Hunan dialect, with much emphasis
7 太阳出来红似火，驾起船儿走江河。洞庭湖里掀大浪，自古驾船是好汉。
8 楠竹篙子尖又尖，一篙撑到天外天。
on rhythm, rather than melodic contour. As the rhythm builds up a momentum, the
texture changes from three to two, then to four parts. Different rhythmic patterns
intertwine, creating much excitement. Very few folk songs possess such kind of
tension, let alone professionally written music. This is a unique quality of folk songs
sung when life is at risk.
The ending of Lishui River Boatmen Song is in a different key, as the boat re-enters
calm water. The rhythm is expanded and it accommodates the reappearance of the calm
and graceful melody. The steersman sings, “Sing, sing together. How happy we are
Music Example1-4. Introduction and Sanyao’tai parts of Lishui River Boatmen Song (Lishui
Chuangong Haozi)
when we sing; our song makes the chicken feather sink and the stone float.9” The lyrics
vividly reflect the confidence of the steersman and his crew in sailing against all odds.

Introduction:
(hey ou ah hey), (lou li he he hey), (you ha hey), (ou li he he hey).
( you he you he, ye sha ou di hey), (ye sha ou di hey).
Sanyao’tai:
The Sun (na di ge) is raising (ya ai), (ye sha ou di hey),
It is red (ah di ge), like fire (luo he), (ye sha luo di hey).
Rolling (ya di ge), a bort (na ha), (ye sha luo di hey),
Flowing (lai), on the river (luo he he he),
(wo he, ye sha ou di hey hey he di)...
3. Artistic Features of Work Song

(1) Simple and Direct Expression; Decisive and Robust Characteristics
In collective work involving labour, there is no consideration given to an
individual, hence the task will be performed without hesitation and cringe. The
gateway to success involves accumulation of perseverance, courage, and concerted
efforts. Work songs seldom give the impression of being weak, insufficient or
torturous, but rather, firm, bold and robust. Hence the genre highlights short phrases,
concise and lively melodies (excluding those which are lengthy or intertwining).
Characteristics of work songs are, of course, determined by the relationship
between work and music (rhythm, melody, structure and singing style). Conversely,
a work song can throw light on the nature of a particular trade, hence a song for
tamping is firm and steady, that for carrying a load is lively and waggling, while that a
boatmen song features variety.
(2) Rhythmic Repetition
Haozi (Work Songs) is closely associated with productivity. The pace of labour
determines the rhythmic characteristics of the work song. This is the way to
distinguish Haozi (Work Songs) from other genres of folk songs.
The basic pace of work determines how the rhythm of its work song is repeated.
The repetitive rhythmic patterns have an approximate duration, as well as related to
certain melodic characteristics.
It is possible to classify three kinds of rhythmic repetitions:
First, long rhythmic patterns: the rhythmic unit is usually equivalent to a phrase,
and is associated with work conditions that are relatively stable. The work can involve
intensive labour, but the work pulse may be slow, such as sailing in clam water or
after the rapids of boatmen song, or for cases of hammering, and heavy tamping.
Second, moderate rhythmic patterns: the rhythmic unit is usually equivalent to a
9 要唱歌儿一齐来，一齐唱歌多开怀；唱得鸡毛沉河底，唱得石头浮起来。
phrase. The work it associates is in moderate pulse, and warrants strong coordination
regularly. Hence the work song is compact in rhythm, regular in melodic shape and
possessing a strong driving force, an example being the transport song Bend Your
Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua) of Heilongjiang.
Third, short rhythmic patterns: the work associated needs to be completed in
short time span, hence the rhythmic unit is short and the pulse fast, with constant
repetitions, often using one measure as a rhythmic unit. Jiang Taigong Sitting Alone
on a Fishing Platform (Jiang Taigong Duzuo Diaoyutai) and Lishui River Boatmen
Song (Lishui Chuangong Haozi) fall on this category.
(3) Repetition of Melodic Materials
The cultural limitation of the general work force means that their music sung at
work often has less melodic interest, especially in terms of development. Hence one
would expect frequent repetitions of music materials in work songs.
(4) Soloist and Chorus
Work songs can involve solo, antiphonal and choral singing, but by far the most
common style is based on “one takes the lead and echoed by the crowd.” In any
collective work, one would expect a leader to keep pace and unify movements, who
will also be the lead singer. Hence the opening solo passage often contains the core of
the lyrics. Examples like this are in free rhythm, with ascending melodies and texts
improvised, in a sonorous manner. This will have the effect of drawing attention to
the chorus, which will repeat fragments of the lyrics or padding words. The melodies
are less attractive, yet the thrust of the song lies on rhythmic interest, with patterns
repeated, allowing subtle changes.
Solo and choral singing in work songs can have three main combinations:
First, soloist alternating with chorus: the soloist and chorus sing in turns, and the
rate of exchange, or the pulse of music, are related to the pace of collective labour.
The work songs Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Huyao’gua) and Tamping Song
(Dawo’ge) aptly reflect this style.
Second, soloist overlapping with chorus: the leading part and chorus overlap,
forming two or more parts. Such a performing style is often found in songs related to
intensive labour, such as “Passing the Rapids” section in Lishui River Boatmen Song
(Lishui Chuangong Haozi).
Third, mixed mode of singing: this is often found in songs related to work
involving a complicated process, hence allowing more variety to be introduced, as
soloist and chorus adopt a more flexible singing style, as in Bend Your Back to Hook
the Timber (Hayao’gua) and Lishui River Boatmen Song (Lishui Chuangong Haozi).
(5) Structural Simplicity
The musical structure of work song usually has the following characteristics:
First, simple music structure: phrase structure is regular (even though the solo part
can exhibit some freedom), with parallel narration and answering phrases.
Second, songs for continuous working process: for on-going labour, when the work
song needs to be sung repeatedly, with imprecise ending, as the work song can end
any time.
B. Shange (Mountain Songs)

1. Overview
Mountain songs are naturally sung outdoors, hence these are sonorous, with
long and free rhythm, for the practical purpose of allowing the music to travel long
distances. These songs are structurally free, allowing the work force to fully appreciate
spatial possibilities, and feelings expressed are often some kind of ourbursts.
The most common topics of mountain songs are admiration for love and narrating
miseries of life. The lyrics are mostly improvised, hence with simple feelings, bold
imagination and metaphors that are vivid and sincere. For example, the text of a
mountain song of Sangzhi County Hunan Province reads, “The leek blossom is fine
and fluffy. I love you, whether you are rich or poor; as long as we love each other,
the tea soaked in cold water can be flavoured.10” The song gives a vivid and rational
description of the rustic, deep affection between husband and wife. Another example
is a Gansu Huaer (Flower, a type of mountain song), “I see you off at the bank of the
Yellow River and watch you get on the boat; my tears are enough to make the dough,
and I cook it for your journey. The dough can be cooked to rations for the beloved
to consume on his trip.11” This metaphor is exaggerated and moving. Such frank but
unadorned verses are typical of emotions expressed in mountain songs.
The attraction of mountain songs is the perfect combination of texts and melodies.
The opening usually focuses on high pitches, so as to aggregate a feeling of urgency
in open air. These loud and resonant melodies generate echoes, and they can
accommodate florid decorations in the high range, adding a romantic feeling. Some
mountain songs are sung with falsetto when the range is extended beyong that of the
real voice.
2. Classification of Mountain Songs
There are three common kinds of mountain songs, distinguished by their
applications, including those sung for general purpose, field (rice transplanting) and
herding.
(1) Mountain Songs for General Purpose
Mountain songs for general purpose refer to those sung in many regions by Han
people. They are named differently according to their origins; hence they are called
“Xintian’you (Floating in the Sky)” in northern Shaanxi, “Shanqu” (Mountain Tunes)
in Shanxi, “Pashan’diao (Mountain Climbing Tune)” in Inner Mongolia, “Hua’er
(Flower)” and “Shaonian (Lads)” in Qinghai and Gansu, “Gan’wuju (Five Phrases)”
in Hubei, “Chenge (Morning Songs)” in Sichuan, “Man Ganche (Driving a Cart
Slowly)” and “Zhengjing’hong (Red in Faces)” in Anhui. In southern China, many
mountain songs have no specific appellation, hence they are named according to
locations, such as Xingguo, Liuzhou, and Wenzhou mountain songs. There are few
mountain songs in north and northeast China.
a. Xintian’you (Floating in the Sky)
Xintian’you, also known as “Shuntian’you (Following the Sky)”, is popular in
10 韭菜开花细绒绒，有心恋郎不怕穷；只要二人情意好，冷水泡茶慢慢浓。
11 我送阿哥到黄河沿，眼看着上了渡船；哭下的眼泪调成面，给阿哥烙上些盘缠。
northern Shaanxi and its bordering regions, such as Ningxia and Eastern Gansu,
western Shanxi and southwest of Inner Mongolia. The music comprises two phrases,
and there are no strict rules on libretto, apart from that the lines are symmetrical, with
seven characters in a phrase. Xintian’you uses natural voice for singing, except in rare
occasions.
The first phrase of Xintian’you often uses the archaic poetic technique of “Bi
(analogy)” and “Xing (metaphor)” to unfold artistic conception and imagination. The
second phrase is about the specific narration or expression of feelings. “Bi” refers
to analogy, that is, “to compare something with another; “Xing” serves to “allure
to the subject by referring to something else” (Annotation to Shijing, Zhu Xi, Song
Dynasty)12. Melodies of Xintian’you are broad, high pitched and passionate. The
first phrase is loud, sonorous and broad, and in two parts, in order to prepare for
overlapping of voices; the second phrase, by contrast, is inward looking. When the
melody descends, it features twists and turns, hence possesses much potential for
narration and exclamation. Hence, when an appropriate atmosphere is built up, the
“reality” appears, often in a lower register.
Most Xintian’you are either plaintive or on topics related to love, examples being
the famous Lan Huahua (A Girl Called “Blue Flower” ) and Jiaofu’diao (Tune of the
Stevedore). The latter has distinctive features of Han folk songs in the northwest, with
a typical inclusion of a wide range of consecutive leaps of a fourth in the melody:
Example 1-5.13 Jiaofu’diao (Tune of the Stevedore) from North of Shaanxi Province
English translations of the lyric:

The sun is red in March; why a man like me, as a deliverer, has to endure
such a difficult life?
Lyrics of Jiaofu’diao (Tune of the Stevedore)of northern Shaanxi adopt the

“Xing” approach, that is, the metaphor of comparing the red sun with the misery of
the deliverer. The first phrase comprises a leap of two ascending fourths, followed
by descending double fourths, to end on the degree do (in G major), forming
an open structure; similarly, the second phrase focuses on an ascending double
fourth and a descending double fourth, but its range is narrower, and ending on the
12 Annotation to Shijing 宋 · 朱熹《诗集传》：“先言他物以引起所咏之辞”。

13 The music examples cited in this chapter without acknowledgment of transcribers are from the internal
teaching materials of CCOM.
mode tonic sol, hence aptly responding to the do of the first phrase. This example
of Xintian’you mainly uses the degrees sol, do and re. One notices the degree la
appearing as a decoration in the penultimate beat, anticipating the final degree sol.
The degree la is used as a buffer to absorb the somewhat abrupt effect of the double
descending fourths, at the same time adding colour to the three main notes of the
melody.
Northern Shaanxi was the military base of the People’s Liberation Army during
the civil war against the Nationalists prior to the founding of the People’s Republic.
Hence Communist ideology always had a strong influence on the local population,
as reflected in some Xintian’you songs. A typical example is Guerrillas Descending
from Heng Mountain (Hengshanli Xialai Youjidui), which combines two traditional
Xintian’you songs. The head (introduction) and tail (ending) constitute theme A, while
the middle section is theme B. The two themes are in the mode of Zhi (tonic is sol)
and are cleverly juxtaposed, with theme A relatively broad, free and rhythmically
extended to create an intensive atmosphere typical of Xintian’you mountain songs;
theme B has regular rhythm and compact phrases, hence a strong narrative power
similar to Xiaodiao (Ditties).14
b. Shanqu (Mountain Tunes)
Shanqu (Mountain Tunes) are frequently sung in Hequ, Baode, Pianguan, Wuzhai,
Ningwu, northwest Shanxi and Fugu, as well as Shenmu, northern Shaanxi. As in
Xintian’you, the basic unit of Shanqu comprises two phrases. Most lyrics are based on
seven characters per line, and the rhythm in duple metre, even though it may venture
into triple metre, such as 3/4 or 3/8. The melodies are either pentatonic or hexatonic,
with modes based on the degree Zhi (tonic is sol) or Shang (tonic is re). The singing
often combines falsetto and natural voice.
The Loess Plateau where Shanqu is popular has loose soil and dry weather, hence
is affected by landslides in rainy seasons. The living condition is poor, and peasants
had to migrate to Xikou, the ancient pass of the Great Wall between Shanxi and Inner
Mongolia. Zou’xikou (Going to West Mountain Pass) refers to such migration. The
lyrics of a famous mountain song read, “Hequ and Baode are barren lands, with only
one harvest in a blue moon. Men had to leave home to work and women could only
dig edible herbs.15” Men leaving home (Zou’xikou) begin their ventures in spring
and return home in autumn, but many can only afford making a return journey once
every few years. Those unlucky few may even die in foreign land. It was usual to
regard bidding farewell for a husband or son an emotional moment, owing to the
uncertainties in lives. The annual departing scene at the Yellow River ferry was
notoriously unbearable to many.
Shanqu (Mountain Tunes) is also known locally as “Suanqu” (Love Song), as it
is a kind of courting song. Owing to the unique geographic circumstances, the love
14 There are two types of Xintian’you spread among the local people: one is a kind of mountain songs, the other
being Xiaodiao (ditties). See Jiang Mingdun, Introduction to Han Folk Songs, Shanghai Literature and Art
Press, 1982, pp133-136.
15 河曲、保德州，十年九不收。男人跑口外，女人掏苦菜。
songs are specific in content and emotion; many are associated with Zou’xikou (Going
to West Mountain Pass), expressing the despondence of the separation of the family,
as sad stories arise owing to the want of basic means of living. For example, When
Mentioning My Love Going West (Tiqi Gege Zou’xikou) features the helplessness of
a woman when seeing her beloved going west. Everyone is at Home but You (Renjia
Douzi Ni Buzai) is about a woman’s anxiety when other men return home, but not her
husband. Men often have a mixed feeling of leaving home, as it is a double challenge
to leave his love one, and to face an uncertain future:
Example 1-6. The Mountain Keeps Us Apart (Liaobujian Meimei Shan Dangzhule) from Hequ,
Shanxi. Based on the version sung by Wang Yulan; recorded by Xiao Xing, Jian Qihua
Lyrics:
1. Green mountain and clear water form a stream, but I cannot help crying
as I leave my love one.
2. I can see the clouds and mists over Wuhua Town, but my tears block my
eyes from seeing you.
3. I can see tall walls of Wuhua Town, but I can’t see you inside the wall
except the treetops.
4. I can see the gate of Kuixing Tower, but I can’t see you, the beloved. (etc.)
Shanqu (Mountain Tunes) is based on symmetry and repetition: the beginnings

of the first and second phrases are often identical; sometimes the two phrases are
almost repetitions, only with minor changes to the ending. The final pitches of the
two phrases are mostly a fourth, fifth or octave apart. The first measure of the first and
second phrases of The Mountain Keeps Us Apart are similar, even though the second
measure of the second phrase is transposed a perfect fourth downwards. The so-called
question and answer are in the relationship of tonic and sub-dominant. Cover Three
Days’ Journey in Two Days (Santiande Lucheng Liangtian Dao) is an example with
the difference of the ending between the two phrases. It describes the anxiety of a man
returning home eagerly after working elsewhere.
The act of Zou’xikou (Going to West Mountain Pass) has resulted in mass
migration of northern Shanxi population to Inner Mongolia, hence enhancing
cultural exchange, an example being the prevailance of Shanqu in Inner Mongolia.
Acculturation of Shanqu means that they have elements of Mongolian folk songs.
Musically, it means the frequent appearance of leaps of intervals of a seventh, octave,
ninth, or even eleventh in Shanqu.
c. Huaer (Flower)
Huaer (Flower), also known as Shaonian (Lads), is popular in Gansu, Qinghai
and Ningxia,16 where ethnic minorities inhabit. Huaer is also widely sung by Hui, Tu,
Sala, Baoan, Dongxiang, Tibetan and other ethnic groups, in addition to Han people.
Huaer has the connotation of music for courtship amongst the young, thus it is
also known as “Yequ (Wild Tune)”, and forbidden indoors or within the boundries
of villages, and certainly not in front of the community leaders and elderly. While
the songs are sung outdoors, there are occasions known as “Huaer’hui (Flower
Gathering)” where the songs can be sung at famous mountains and scenic ancient
temples in the fourth, fifth and sixth lunar months (especially in the sixth month),
lasting one to four days.
There are two forms of lyrics for Huaer: the first is “equal length”, consisting of
4 phrases, divided into two pairs of upper and lower sub-phrases (like question and
answer). The number of words in each phrase is similar, but the sub-phrases form an
interlaced effect in rhythm. The upper sub-phrase ends on one or three words, while
the lower phrase is improvised, forming an odd-even contrast. The second form of
lyrics is vividly known as “Liangdan’shui (Two Buckets of Water)” or “Zheduan’yao
(Breaking the Waist)”. This refers to a six-phrase structure, that is, with a short phrase
of three to five words inserted between each pair of the upper and lower phrases. This
is a means of enriching the lyrics, at the same time allowing enhanced projection of
diction, hence strengthening the expressive power.
Huaer is distinguished by “Ling (used for Cipai, and Huaer folk song)”, or
stock melodies, which number hundreds. Some of these are named after the ethnic
groups, such as Sala’ling (Sala Ethnic Song), Baoan’ling (Baoan Ethnic Song) and
Tuzu’ling (Tu Ethnic Song). Some are named after places, such as Hezhou’ling,
Lianhuashan’ling and Huangyuan’ling.17 Some are named after the metaphor and
padding words of songs, such as Baimudan’ling (White Peony Song, meaning
“beautiful girl like white peony”), Cang-lang-lang Ling (Cang-lang-lang are padding
words), Jinjing Hualing (Jinjin Flower Song), San-san Er-liu Ling (Three-Three-Two-
Six Song) and Dayanjing’ling (Big Eye Song). Others are named after the trades of
the singers, an example being Jiaohu’ling (Stevedore Song).
The melody of Huaer tends to encompass a wide range, great contour, continuous
leaps and constant motion, on the basis of broad and free rhythms. The songs are sung
with a combination of real voice and falsetto. Ascending a Mountain to Watch the
Plain (Shangqu Gaoshan Wang’pingchuan) is a well-known Hezhou’ling with lyrics
that are implicit and poetic, conveying the pain of unrequited love in the form of
metaphor. The melody features the leap of re-sol, or a perfect fourth. The main motive
switches from sol-la-do-re to its inversion re-do-la-sol. The phrases are long, and the
song is sung with lingering breath. The lyrics of the 4 phrases comprise the repetition
of the upper and lower phrases. When the music reaches the high range, the singer has
an opportunity to improvise, allowing the music to travel afar with more resonance.
16 There are two forms of Huaer: Yaomin Huaer and Hehuang Huaer. Discussed here is the latter, which is
widely sung at the Yellow River and Huangshui River basins, known to the locals as “Shaonian” (young
fellows) and “Yequ” (wild tune).
17 Hezhou, Lianhuashan and Huangyuan are areas in Gansu.
Towards the end of the song, the melody descends an octave sharply from the high
sol, repeating this twice before the final notes, adding a strong sense of melancholy.
This tune is also known as “three rises and three falls”, owing to its meandering
shape.
d. Jiangzhe Shange (Mountain Songs of Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces)
Jiangzhe Shange refers to mountain songs prevailing in Jiangsu and Zhejiang
Provinces. Contrary to their northern counterparts, Jiangzhe Shange mountain songs
are less specific, and there are fewer basic tunes. Most are sung in Zhi (fifth degree),
Yu (sixth degree) and Shang (second degree) modes, but most are in Zhi mode
(Example 1-7). To compensate for the small number of melodies available, the
genre has a freer structure, and is also improvisational, allowing new melodies to be
derived from old ones. The lyrics are based on many different topics, and its phrase
structure and flexibility of melodic shape allow the music to express many different
moods.
Example 1-7. Typical Use of Zhi mode of mountain songs of Jiangsu and Zhejiang
A Jiangzhe Shange usually comprises four phrases, with flowing melodies,

hence featuring expression of gentle emotion. They have a narrower range than their
northern equivalents, and the focus is on subtle melodic twists, rather than on creating
a bold and heroic atmosphere. A good example of the genre is Duiniao (Paired Birds),
which originates in Yueqing, Zhejiang, and is based on Jiangzhe Shange, retaining a
four-phrase structure (period). Each of the first 3 phrases has 3 measures, while the
fourth phrase 5 measures. The same period is repeated, even though the lyrics and
mood change. Mountain songs are rich in regional characteristics, owing to the effect
of dialects on melodies; Haozi (Work Songs) and Xiaodiao (Ditties) have less regional
boundaries.
e. Sichuan Shange (Mountain Songs of Sichuan)
Sichuan is a Province in southwest China, and it is famous for being mountainous,
hence has poor links with adjacent lands. The free, resonant and lingering mountain
songs can be heard everywhere. This is also an area with a rich ethnic mix: customs
and traditions in broader areas of the southwest are found in the Province.
Sichuan mountain songs are unique, compared with the Yunnan and Guizhou
counterparts, even though these areas are broadly classified as areas in the southwest.
Sichuan mountain songs reflect a profound cultural tradition: Han mountain songs
there are akin to Han folk music. The tunes are perky and resilient, like the beautiful
landscape and character of the local people. Picking Grapes (Zhai’putao) is a popular
mountain song in eastern Sichuan, as seen in Example 1-8:
Example 1-8. Picking Grapes. Eastern Sichuan mountain song, arranged by Zheng Chenglu
English translations of the lyrics:

The mountains there are lower than those here,
There is a good grape tree in this mountain.
I would like to pick a grape and eat,
But I am too short; the tree is too high.
Picking Grapes is a humorous song on the pain of unrequited love, similar to

Ascending a Mountain to Watch the Plain. The difference is that the former is in a
self-mockery mood, while the latter reveals deep sentiment. Picking Grapes possesses
the frankness and open-mindedness of Sichuan people. This song also consists of two
periods, with 4 four-bar phrases each. Three measures are added to the end of the last
phrase, in order to emphasise the ending.
Popular in Sichuan and southern Shaanxi, “Lian’ baju (Connected Eight Phrases)”
is based on the insertion of Shuban (Rapping Beats) between two recurrent changing
periods of upper and lower phrases. Hence the song comprises 8 phrases, the origin
of its name. Sometimes the middle section is a complete 4-phrase period, forming a
recurrent ternary structure, as seen in the song All the Way Following the Sun (Genzhe
Example 1-9. All the Way Following the Sun. Sichuan Shange (Mountain Song of Sichuan)
Taiyang Yilulai) of Daxian County, Sichuan (Example 1-9). The rhythms of the
introduction and ending are extended, and the melody has conspicuous features. Each
period contains two three-measure phrases; the Shuban in the middle has condensed
lyrics, with a quasi-recitative melody with strong accents. The period comprises 4
phrases, and each phrase in 2 measures. The Shuban period is in contrast with the
opening and ending by its intensive and prolonged rhythmic pattern; this generates
an exclaimatory pattern with a recurring optimistic melody. This also serves as basic
material for subsequent passages.
English translations of the lyric:

The Sun is rising (ye), and I follow the Sun (hai, you).
I hold a yellow stick on the left hand, and firewood on the right hand.
The Sun is beating dew at the front, I am carrying dry logs behind.
The Sun is rising (ye), and I follow the Sun (hai, you).
f. Yunnan Shange (Mountain Songs of Yunnan)

Like Sichuan, Yunnan is in southwest China, with the Hengduan Mountains in
the west and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau in the east. Yunnan has the largest number of
ethnic minorities in China: these include Yi, Bai, Dai, Hani, Zhuang, Miao, Lisu,
Va, Hui, Naxi, Lahu, Jingpo, Yao, Tibetan, Bulang, Achang, Mongolian, Benglong,
Dulong, Pumi, over twenty ethnic groups, in addition to Han population (about two
thirds). Hence the Han people there have close contacts with many ethnic minorities,
particularly their culture and music. There is a cultural connection between Yunnan
and people south of the Yangtze River, owing to sustained migration in the past.
Therefore, within southwest China, mountain songs of Han people in Yunnan exist in
larger quantity and are more varied than those in Sichuan and Guizhou. They possess
the lyrical beauty of music from the water towns south of the Yangtze River, as well as
the fresh and untampered feeling in remote areas, along with exotic novelties of ethnic
music culture. The melodic content of Yunnan mountain songs can be rich, often in a
joyous atmosphere, owing to large leaps. Others are delicate and decorative. The song
Ganma’diao (Horse Riding Song) (Example 1-10) is bold, vigorous and unrestrained,
while Midu Shange (Midu Mountain Song) (Example 1-11), is gentle, graceful and
lovingly despondent.
Example 1-10. Ganma’diao (Horse Riding Song), from Binchuan, Yunnan

Translation of the Lyric:

Don’t disturb the stems of Grapes when cutting trees;
Good girls won’t love a lazy man.
There is a leap of an octave between measures 1 and 2 of Ganma’diao (Horse

Riding Song), and the high la is held, before dropping to do. The singing is very
free, and in the light of the descriptive music notation provided, the 2/4 metre is just
indicative, with an ad lib treatment of the top note. The octave leap of the opening
phrase sets the mood of the song, which is bold, unrestrained, free and facile, creating
an apt atmosphere of bare mountains. The music setting is also unique, with three
measures of music against two lines of lyrics. Worth noticing is the overlapped lyrics
and music of the second and third phrases. In short, the opening 10 measures include
two three-measure and one four-measure phrases. The prolonged third phrase has the
effect of creating asymmetry, but also acts as a buffer to the previous phrases.
Example 1-11. Midu Shange (Midu mountain song), from Midu, Yunnan

Mountains facing mountains, stones facing stones,
Bees catch flowers in the mountains.
Bees die for flowers; Liang Shanbo dies for his beloved Zhu Yingtai.
One common feature of Midu Shange (Midu Mountain Song) and Ganma’diao
(Horse Riding Song) is the appearance of the highest pitch at the beginning. The
latter genre, however, includes a passage in medium range, before the appearance
of an ascending octave, while the former omits such preparation, and the leap is
a fourth, hence less forceful. An upward leap is often more vigorous than the the
reverse, and the effect is more conspicuous for large intervals. Therefore, Ganma’diao
renders a stronger mountainous atmosphere than Midu Shange. It is worth noticing
that melodically Midu Shange progresses stepwise, a feature of folk songs south of
the Yangtze River, which accounts for its gentle and graceful nature. However, in
the eleventh measure, the ornament and main note form an octave. The subsequent
descending fourth is a bit abrupt, which contributes to evolve a broad mountainous
atmosphere, even though this happens near the end, as a means of providing contrast
to a short piece.
g. Hunan Shange (Mountain Songs of Hunan Province)
Hunan is famous for being hilly: eye-catching mountains on the east include Mufu,
Wugong, Wanyang and Zhuguang ridges in south Qitian, Mengzhu and Dupang,
mountains on the west Wuling and Xuefeng, and central Hengshan. It is therefore not
surprising that mountain songs are popular in the Province, and they are referred to
as “Gaoqiang” (high melodies), “Pingqiang” (level melodies) and “Diqiang” (low
melodies), according to their vocal range. Gaoqiang (high melodies) features loud
and high pitches, as well as free rhythm, often including “ah-woo-ah-woo” and other
padding words at the end of a phrase. These songs are sung by male adults in open air
with falsetto; Pingqiang has lingering melodies, and is sung by adult men outdoors
with real voice; Diqiang has lyrical melodies, and is sung by women indoors.
During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods (770–221 B.C.), Hunan
was part of the State of Chu, with a strong tradition of practising sacrificial rites for
ghosts and spirits, with songs and dances performed with drums to entertain gods.
From the texts of Songs of Chu State (Chuci) compiled by the patriotic poet Qu Yuan,
it is possible to appreciate some aspects of folk songs in the region: they are romantic,
imaginative, passionate and meticulously structured. This romantic feeling still exists
in Hunan folk songs, both in lyrics and melodies.
A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors (Langzai Waijian Dashange)
is an extended Hunan mountain song, comprising three periods. The lyrics fully
demonstrate its social function in courtship. The lyrics highlight pairing of sentences,
such as “In and out of the house, front and back of the mountain, clever mother and
smart father”, “clean and fresh, tidy and neat, crossing the sea, passing the sky”; these
are treated musically in form of Duoju (piled phrases), a common technique of folk
songs, often highly energetic, syllabic but in free rhythm. The beats are regular, with
conspicuous pauses and transitions, similar to Shuban (rapping beats) for recitation.
The focus of Duoju is on the delivery of lyrics with vitality, and is usually introduced
in the middle section. Its sonorous and forceful beats create a sharp contrast to the
fluid melodies in the outer sections, hence expanding the expressive power of the
song.
A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors comprises one five-phrase period and
two four-phrase periods. Indeed, the “Five-phrase” mountain song is a genre popular
in Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Shaanxi and other southern regions. It is based on first
two phrases corresponding to the upper and lower lines of lyrics, while the fourth and
fifth phrases mirror these opening phrases. The middle phrase can adopt materials of
the opening, or include new materials, and it often ends on the tonic, but sometimes a
second above or below, or a fourth above tonic. The finals of the five-phrase mountain
song are therefore: fifth - tonic - tonic (or second, fourth) - fifth - tonic.
The dotted bar lines of the score indicate free rhythm, or the song is not strictly
metrical. It can either be 2 or 5 beats in a bar, owing to the irregularity of accents.
The first bar is Qianqiang (opening melody), and can be extended, featuring padding
words. The first period spans from bars 2 to 23, comprising 7 phrases, made up of a
five-phrase mountain song, with reappearance of the first two phrases. The first phrase
encompasses bars 2 and 3, ending on re, dominant of Zhi mode (fifth degree). The
sixteenth notes do and la after re are ornaments. The second phrase is made up of
bars 4 and 5, ending on the mode tonic sol, while the short mi is an embellishment.
The third phrase spans from bars 6 to 11, which is part of variation of the five-
phrase mountain song. Its range is extended by adding Duoju (piled phrases), but the
song still ends on the fifth re. The fourth phrase comprises bars 12 to 17, and is the
continuation of the repetition of the mountain song. This phrase also contains Duoju,
and it ends on the tonic sol. The fifth phrase spans from bars 18 to 19, and it is the
third phrase of the five-phrase mountain song. It ends on the fourth do above the tonic
Zhi. Each of the subsequent two phrases comprises two bars, ending on the fifth re
and tonic sol respectively, and being the fourth and fifth phrases of the five-phrase
mountain song.
The second period strethches from bars 24 to 32, and contains 4 phrases; each
phrase comprises 2 bars, except the third phrase, which has 3 bars. The 4 phrases end
on the fifth, tonic, fourth, tonic respectively, and the fourth phrase is a conversion of
the second phrase.
The third period also contains 4 phrases, with 4 bars in each phrase. The phrases
end on the fourth, tonic, fourth, tonic respectively. The last two phrases are a variation
of the first two phrases. The structure of A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors
is outlined as follows:
First period (five-phrase passage) Second period Third period
Illustration 1-1. The Structure of A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors18
Ending notes: fifth, tonic, fourth, fifth, tonic, fifth, tonic, fourth, tonic, fourth, tonic,
fourth, tonic.
(2) Tianyang Shange (Rice Planting Mountain Songs)
Tianyang Shange is also known as “Tianyang’ge (Rice Planting Songs)”, or “Tiange
(Field Songs)”, in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, “Yangge (Field Songs in Anhui)”, “Yang’haozi
(Field Working Songs in Anhui, Jiangsu)”, “Haocao’ge (Weeding Songs)”,
“Chanyang’ge (Weeding Field Songs)”, “Haocao Luogu (Percussions for Weeding)”,
“Danao (Beating and Sounding in Hubei, Sichuan and Guizhou)”, and “Diaozi
(Tunes)” or “Haozi (Shoutings in Southern Shaanxi)”. Tianyang Shange is sung during
rice planting, ploughing, weeding and pump irrigation, activities that are seasonal and
need to completed in limited time span. Therefore, working hours are long, and a high
degree of concentration is needed. During this busy season, many temporary workers
18 For the score of the song, please see: Zhou Qingqing, Music Scores Compiled for the Course of the
“Introduction to Chinese Traditional Music”,volume 1. Beijing: Central Conservatory of Music Press, 2007,
p 46.
are employed to work in the fields, and singing Tianyang’ge is supposed to have the
effect of improving productivity. In some areas, “Shange Troupes” or “Song Masters”
are hired to sing work songs on the spot. The proverb aptly describes the value of the
singing, “drum-beating can double work efficiency.19” This presumably refers to the
moral support generated by the performance; there is no question of distracting those
working in the fields.
Both Tianyang Shange and Haozi are sung at work, and both genres are
supposed to dispel fatigue and boost human spirit: the former serves as some kind of
enlightenment, while the latter, as its title implies, is more functional, especially when
the labour gets more intensive, and workers need to be unified in pace.
Tianyang Shange is stylistically complex, as it is based on mountain songs, yet
features of other genres are found, such as Haozi (Work Songs) and Xiaodiao (Ditties).
A good example is “Han Yangge (Calling Work Song)” or “Da Yangge (Great Work
Song)” of Chaoxian County, Anhui, which begins with a passage of the lead singer,
with lyrics organized in periods of two phrases; the range is wide, with many padding
words and grace notes. The response is sung by one to three persons, by means of
repeating the last two or three words of the lead singer, or just padding words, or even
a long vowel. This is continued until the crowds pick up the melody and lead towards
the ending. The song is sung in free rhythm, but the chorus is more metrical. This kind
of Tianyang Shange heavily resembles mountain songs.20The weeding song Qiang-
huo-Qiang (Firing the Gun) of Zunyi, Guizhou, is sung by a lead singer and chorus,
and the forceful rhythm makes it like a Haozi.21 The rice field song Crossing River
with the Lead of a Silk Thread (Yigen Sixian Qianguo’he) of Jiangdu, Jiangsu, has
more of Xiaodiao (Ditties) features. There is a vast number of Tianyang’ge in Jiangsu
and Zhejiang, and their popularity has led to their performances in temple fairs and
teahouses, a kind of acculturation as a result of urbanisation.
(3) Herding Mountain Songs (Fangmu Shange)
Herding mountain songs are, as their titles suggest, sung by herdsmen, and mainly
by children in rural areas, to call for their livestock, or just to sing in form of question
and answer for amusement while working. The lyrics are mainly drawn from activities
of rural children, and such form of singing is more lively and entertaining, compared
with other kinds of mountain songs, especially with the clever juxtaposition of calling
padding words.
3. Artistic Features of Mountain Songs
(1) Frank and Straightforward Lyrics; Vibrant and Unrestrained Melodies
The lyrics of mountain song can be implicit or tortuous, yet the music setting is
always straightforward, hence avoiding undesirable twists or euphemistic expressions,
achieved through direct and vivid treatment of the lyrics. The songs can also cope with
the hidden meaning of the lyrics; the musical character is robust and unrestrained.
19 一鼓催三工。
20 Zhou Qingqing, Chinese Folk Songs, pp 71-72.
21 Ibid., pp 36-37.
The melody usually begins at the highest notes, nurturing much enthusiasm and in
improvisatory style, as if deliberately avoiding the calculated restrains often found in
art music. Even when the song relates to courtship, the melody is preicse and forceful,
rather than gentle and delicate. This genre focuses on the burst of strong psyche
hitherto hidden, frank and without restraints. Hence the emotion is inherent rather
than external, and simple means are used to create such an affirmative mood.
(2) Free and Lingering Tempo and Rhythm
When notated, a mountain song usually has irregular metres and free rhythms, and
two interdependent components, the narrative section and its tail. Its tempo is close
to that of speech, in order to verbalise one’s mind; the main melody is complemented
by a tail. Free tenuto often appears to express the hidden lament. There is a contrast
between the regular intensive rhythm in the narrative part of the lyrics and the
restrained singing in the more emotional part. Owing to the alternating appearance
of the two singing styles, some kind of dramatic contrast is generated. The genre can
also accommodate poetic allusions, such as drifting clouds and running water, hence
adding strength to its expressive power.
(3) Loud and Sonorous Melodies
Melodies of mountain songs feature leaps, drastic fluctuation of contour, wide
range, and high register, and these are more applicable to those in the north and west.
The highest pitch of a song often appears at the very beginning, contributing much to
generation of passion, and serving as a mechanism for signaling.
(4) Musical Structure
a. Sectional Structure
Most mountain songs are organized in two or four phrases, with those in the
north in form of upper and lower lines, such as Xintian’you (Flowing on the Sky),
Shanqu (Mountain Tunes), and Huaer (Flower); the southern equivalents are mostly
based on four phrases, an extension of the two-phrase structure, some being a kind
of duplication, such as the Sichuan mountain songs Sister Loves the Hardworking
Man (Meier Aideshi Qinkuai’ren) and When Shall the Flower of Chinese Scholartree
Blossom (Huaihua Jishi’kai). Some songs have three phrases–the first repeated
prior to appearance of the third–as in examples from Hunan A Pond of Clear Water
(Yitang Qingshui Yitan’lian) and A Pond of Lotus. In some cases, the second and
fourth phrases are similar, as in Midu Mountain Song (Midu Shange) from Yunan.
Sometimes, a four-phrase structure may be divided functionally as introduction,
exposition, transformation and recapitulation.
The so-called five-phrase structure in Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan and southern Shaanxi
is transformed from a period comprising upper and lower phrases, but with an added
third phrase derived from these materials.
“Lian’ baju (connected eight phrases)” popular in southern Shaanxi and Sichuan, is
a kind of tripartite structure of upper and lower phrases, but with a complete 4-phrase
Shuban (rapping beats) inserted between the two outer sections.
Longing for the Red Army (Pan Hongjun), an example of Lian’ baju, is a “modern”
patriotic mountain song popular in Lichuan, Hubei, and it is a hybrid of five-phrase
song and Lian’ baju. The first measure Qianqiang (opening melody) is followed by
upper and lower phrases spanning from measures 2 to 11: the first phrase contains 6
measures, ending on la, a fifth above the mode tonic, while the following 4 measures
constitute the second phrase, which ends on re, or tonic Shang (second degree) mode.
The first phrase is extended for two measures by repeating the second half of the
phrase; the somewhat asymmetric structure does not reduce the coherence of the
music, but rather, makes the expression more truthful, as well as generating more
flexibility in the structure. The following 9 measures are the Shuban (rapping beats)
section of the Lian’ baju. Each of the first three phrases contains 2 measures, while the
fourth phrase 3 measures. These phrases are shortened. The melody flows according
to the spoken dialect, incorporating a change of mode, with the answering section in
Shang mode. The Shuban section is in Zhi (fifth degree) mode. Moreover, the ending
pitches of the four phrases of Shuban section no longer correspond to the fourth and
fifth, but rather the more narrative, that is, second (la) - tonic (sol) - second (la) - tonic
(sol). The word “hey” in the twenty-first measure is Qianqiang, which leads to the
next part of the song. Its appearance, of course, marks the end of the Shuban section.
If the Shuban section is not counted, the subsequent 4 measures (lyrics “Standing
by the corn field, looking at Motianling”) will be the third phrase of the five-phrase
mountain song. The ending pitch of the 4 measures is sol, and is a fourth above the
Shang mode. It is the continuing section that follows, but it is closely related to the
Shuban: its phrase structure is consistent with that of the Shuban lyrics in 2 measures,
with ending pitches still la and sol. The appearance of “hey” of Qianqiang in the front
clearly classifies it as beginning of the latter part. There is a linking section, judging
from its structural significance and mode, when considering its Shuban nature (contrast
in final pitches of phrases), modally, the final pitch is Zhi tonic in Shuban, or a fourth
above the tonic of Shang mode in the later responding section. If the 21st to 25th
measures are omitted, this song is in standard Lian’ baju form.
b. Phrasing
Mountain songs are often asymmetrical in phrasing, and coupled with rhythmic
freedom, these features provide the necessary basic qualities for the music being
unfettered. More concrete technical features include:
Free tenuto: phrase lengths to accommodate special musical effects, as in measures
2 and 6 of Jiaofu’diao (Tune of the Stevedore) of the northern Shaanxi Xintian’you
(Flowing on the Sky); measures 2 and 3 of Ganma’diao (Horse Riding Song) of
Binchuan, Yunnan.
Jiacao (added narration): changes in phrase length owing to added narration, such
as phrases 3 and 4 of A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors (Langzai Waijian
Dashange) of Changsha, Hunan.
Addition of melodic fragments: expansion outside the normal period, such as
measure 1 of A Man Is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors, measures 1 and 21 of
Longing for the Red Army (Pan Hongjun) of Lichuan, Hubei, measures 1 and 2 as
well as 11 and 12 of Midu Mountain Song (Midu Shange) of Yunnan.
C. Xiaodiao (Ditties)
1. Overview
Xiaodiao (Ditties) is also known as Xiaoqu (Ditties) or Suqu (Folk Tune). Unlike
Haozi (Work Songs) and mountain songs, Xiaodiao are sung in town fairs as well as
in rural areas.
The development of ditties reflects the mutual influence between urban and rural
music cultures, and these songs are sung by people of all walks of lives. Ditties may
have some bearing to the social status of their singers, but the popularity of the songs
means such distinction is often blurred.
Xiaodiao is free from the restraints of work songs, and coupled with the artistry
of urban professional musicians, the music is more refined and reflects certain
conventions of performance, such as melodic shape. These songs are more expressive
than Haozi and mountain songs, with certain sophisticated beauty inherent in the
setting. Hence one can describe the genre as a more “artistic” form of folk songs. The
content and form of Xiaodiao is more complex owing to its large circulation.
Xiaodiao can be sung as a solo piece, antiphonally or in groups, even though solo
singing is by far most common, and the songs are often accompanied instrumentally.
Xiaodiao is sung at work intervals, festivities, entertainments and social gatherings;
performers can be amateurs or professionals (or semi-professionals who also work
at the fields or as tradesmen). Sometimes, these occasional musicians give up their
original trades, leading to a two-fold development of the genre: the songs will undergo
a process of refining, in order to make them more graceful and delicate than the crude
Haozi and mountain songs; the more radical professionals gear at commercial gains,
and vulgarise the songs, allowing common languages to infiltrate original song lyrics,
in order to adapt to popular taste. This has, incidentally, also happened to the trade of
operatic performance or other stage arts.
Xiaodiao tends to be sung with fixed lyrics, owing to the transmission and
dissemination of professional musicians. The songs can relate to seasonal changes, or
even a narrower scope, such as five watches of the night and twelve months. They can
cover a wide range of subjects, from major social and political events to practicalities
of daily lives, customs, love and entertainment, hence may involve virtually all aspects.
Xiaodiao possesses the qualities of popular music, with a easily memorable
melody and simple structure; coupled with the artistic singing of the professionals,
its circulation is much broader than, for example, Haozi or mountain songs. Xiaodiao
is sung by people from nearly all social classes, including peasants, the lower-class,
craftsmen, merchants, scholars and government officials. Some Xiaodiao are sung
nationally, and these include Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang), Moli’hua (Jasmine
Flower), Jian’dianhua (Cutting Blue Paper Flowers), Yinniu’si (Silver Thread)
and Dieduan’qiao (Tripping at Broken Bridge). Their influence has covered areas
inhabited by ethnic minorities, partly owing to their long history, as it can be testified
that repertoire dated back five centuries (from the Ming dynasty) are still sung.
The extensive circulation of the genre means it possesses the qualities of profound
content, standardized form and imaginative music technique. Each existing Xiaodiao
has certain intrinsic elements that represent collective wisdom that has undergone
timeless challenges and revisions. However, such refinement means the original robust
intensity might have been weakened, when compared with Haozi or mountain songs.
This is in addition to the commercialization and vulgarization of some Xiaodiao,
leading to the lost of the fresh, vivid and sincere characteristics of coarser folk songs.
Needless to say, a more sophisticated audience will appreciate the singing of the more
authentic rural Xiaodiao than those have have been “improved” by professionals to
adapt to the taste of the audience.
2. Types of Xiaodiao (Ditties)
Xiaodiao can be divided into three types, namely Yinchang’diao (Chanting Tune),
Yaoqu (Ballad) and Shidiao (Fashionable Song).
(1) Yinchang’diao (Chanting Tune)
Yinchang’diao includes children’s song, lullaby, pedlar’s song and chanting of folk
rituals; these are songs with decisive functions, and are sung for practical purpose in
daily lives. For example, children’s song is sung when children are at play; lullaby
is for putting children to bed; pedlar’s song is a means for vendors to advertise their
products; chanting tunes are sung at weddings, funerals and sacrificial rites. The music
of the last resembles chanting in local dialects, often with a simple structure, loose
organization and “occasional” in style (or independence in form).
Shuiniu’er (Water Snail, Example 1-12) is a children’s song popular in Beijing
based on the creature of the title, and in simple musical language based on repetitions
of one phrase. Each phrase ends on Gong (first degree), and the endings are inevitably
do, la, do. The first phrase comprises 7 measures; the second phrase contains 9
measures, with the fourth and fifth measures developed from the first phrase; the third
phrase consists of 6 measures, divided evenly into two sub-phrases. The first sub-
phrase is derived from measure 5 and measures 1 and 2 of the first phrase. The second
sub-phrase is based on measures 4, 6 and 7 of the first phrase. Phrases 1 and 2 follow
the contours of the spoken language, therefore the range is narrow, and not generating
exaggerated sentiments. The rhythm of the third phrase is regular, and the melody is
a shuffle of notes of the previous phrases, but still creates a fresh feeling, in addition
to the feeling of familiarity. Such a simple structure conforms to the children’s limited
musicality, yet allows them to enjoy singing by active participation.
Example 1-12. Shuiniu’er (Water Snail), from Beijing

Translation of the lyrics:

Water snail, water snail,
The corner comes first, then its head.
Your parents bought grilled lamp bone and mutton,
If you don’t eat them, the cat will.
(2) Yaoqu (Ballad)

Ballad is a more developed art form compared with chanting tune. It is usually
short, with a formal structure in metrical setting, classified according to its content,
such as those expressing one’s woes, love, life experience or happiness.
a. Suhu’ge (Songs of Woes)
The long history of Chinese folk songs has allowed ordinary people to air their
views of lives, but more specifically, there are many examples of songs complaining
on the corrupt system of government in olden days, especially when the country
was under Imperial rule. Such songs are emotionally vivid, and are very touching,
especially when they highlight some kind of wishful thinking that could never become
reality.
These woeful songs are mostly based on subjects relating to slaves, women,
orphans and widowers; complaints made by slaves are by far most common amongst
Xiaodiao of Han people. The singers tend to be male, and the tunes are simple and the
mode of expression direct.
The melody of Wutou Ganche (Wutou Driving the Cart) is derived from Qitai
Yangge (Field Dance Song of Qitai), a genre originated in Qixian and Taigu, counties
of Shanxi. It developed into folk skit from the original Xiaoqu (Ditties), and is widely
sung in central regions of Shanxi, such as Fenyang, Wenshui, Jiaocheng, Taiyuan,
Pingyao and Jiexiu. Qitai Yangge is famous for its beautiful melodies which possess
unique charm. Travelling tradesmen have brought folk songs from the south and other
regions, enriching the local Xiaoqu; these are further modified by folk artists, leading
to a kind of composite music blending all kinds of tunes.
Wutou Driving the Cart (Wutou Ganche) is a song comprising three phrases, each
ending on mi. The last measure of each phrase shares the same melodic fragment,
a technique known as “Hewei (the Making of a Common Ending)”. Although there
are great melodic similarities in each phrase, one notices, for example, the subtle
references to pitch relationship of a fourth and fifth, on second half of measure 1,
second beat of measure 2 and first beat of measure 3. The third phrase is a variation of
the previous phrase.
Longing for a Sunny Day (Pan Qingtian) is a Xiaodiao based on a three-phrase
structure, each phrase comprising 4 measures. In the pentatonic mode, the fourth or
fifth above and below the tonic are primary degrees besides the tonic–as in harmony
of Western music–hence these are, in sol-fa terms, re and do in Zhi (fifth degree)
mode, la and sol in Shang (second degree) mode, and mi and re in Yu (sixth degree)
mode. If Gong (first degree) is tonic, the fifth above is sol and the fifth below is fa.
As fa in the pentatonic scale is a subsidiary degree, sometimes it will be replaced by
mi as a backbone to Gong. The song is in Gong mode, and in addition to the tonic do,
other backbone degrees are la and mi (not the usual sol and fa above and below, nor
even sol and mi); this is an example of a folk song in Gong mode showing the tonal
colour of Yu, the sixth degree pitch. The crossing of Gong and Yu is a characteristic of
folk songs in the northeast, which is supposed to generate an atmosphere of subdue
beauty. In addition, subsidiary degrees fa and si are often found in these folk songs,
and hence expanding the scope of the pentatonic mode to hexatonic modes (do, re,
mi, fa, sol, la; or do, re, mi, sol, la, si), or the heptatonic mode, like the major scale
in Western music. One notices when subsidiary degrees are involved, they make part
of the melody, rather than being mere ornaments. This song incorporates subsidiary
degrees si and raised fa to achieve the desired musical effect22.
b. Love Songs
Many Xiaodiao are love songs, and their artistic values are often high; the
attractive melodies can fully demonstrate the frankness of ordinary people in
addressing abstract feelings like love.
There are many love songs entitled “Xiu’hebao (Embroidering a Small Pouch)”
throughout China. In spite of its practical usage, a pouch has the notion of femininity,
owing to the established Han custom of presenting a self-embroidered pouch to the
lover, as a sign of affirmation of the relationship. Embroidering Pouch of Cangshan,
Shandong (Example 1-13) comprises three phrases: the outer phrases contain 6
measures each, while the middle phrase has 8 measures. The first phrase ends on do,
while the second phase on sol, making these like a question and answer; the third
phrase can be interpreted as a re-affirmation of the previous phrase, with the last 4
measures duplicated. The first 4 measures are reduced to 2, allowing the music to
develop briefly, before returning to the previous music material. In short, the song
comprises an opening phrase as a question, but it is complemented by two answering
phrases.
Example 1-13. Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), from Cangshan, Shandong
22 For regional characteristics of Chinese folk songs, please see Zhou Qingqing, Chinese Folk Songs, chapter
2:“Stylics Classification of Han Ethnic Folk Songs and Their Artistic Features.”
Translation of the lyric:

Sister (ah) is embroidering (yahuu) a pouch (deer) in her room (layii),
Holding a steal needle and embroidering carefully.
This is a demonstration of her superb technique (ai ai you),
A demonstration of her superb technique (nii).
The lyrics are asymmetrical, with the number of characters assigned to each of the
three phrases as “seven-seven-five”, that is, “Jie Er Fang Zhong Xiu He Bao, Shou
Na Gang Zhen Qing Qing Miao, Xian Xian Shou Duan Gao”, meaning “The girl is
embroidering a pouch in her room. Holding a needle in hand, she stitches gently to
offer her best.” The musical setting does not follow the patterns of lyrics: the second
of (seven + five) of the last two phrases is prolonged owing to the addition of padding
words. Likewise, the third phrase is extended by two measures of padding words, and
they are repeated in the last four measures. In the event, the lengths of the lyrics and
music do not coincide, yet the repetition in the last phrase serves as a summary, and
provides some kind of balance to the song.
Embroidering a Smaoll Pouch (Example 1-14) of Yibin, Sichuan is a delicate and
graceful Xiaodiao with a typical musical style of the region. The song comprises two
phrases, the first containing 4 measures, while the second phrase 5 measures. The
lyrics and padding words of the first measure of the first phrase are well-matched.
The first phrase ends on re, but its short duration challenges melodic stability, yet the
first appearance of a crotchet provides some kind of compensation. The second phrase
is asymmetrical, owing to an additional measure. To achieve balance, 2 measures of
padding words are added to the first measure, and the second beats of both measures
are in crotchets. One notices the appearance of the familiar anapestic rhythm of
measure 2 of the second phrase, which acts as a buffer to the music. As this is just the
beginning of the second phrase, it will not create an abrupt break to the melodic flow,
but just a division of rhythm. The rhythm of the third measure of the second phrase
originates from the end of the first phrase, yet the rise in melodic contour provides
a feeling of continuous motion. Since the second phrase ends on a minim preceded
by an acciaccatura, there is an appropriate feeling of an end to the melody. The
two phrases are asymmetrical, but the music flows freely; the simple structure can
accommodate variety in rhythm and phrasing, hence achieving continuity. The song
has all typical features of a Chinese folk song.
Example 1-14. Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), from Yibin, Sichuan

Translation of the lyric:

Holding a pouch (ma yi ya), busy to embroider (a ya er, yi er ya),
Embroidering a pouch (ma gu er ga jin gang suo luo mei),
I’ll present it to my little lover (you wei).
c. Songs of Daily Lives

Many Xiaodiao relate to people’s daily lives, customs and practices: examples
include “Dasuan’zao (Picking Wild Jujube)”, “Xiu Denglong (Embroidering a
Lantern)”, “Fang’fengzheng (Flying a Kite)”, “Kan’yangge (Watching Field Dance)”,
“Hui’niangjia (Returning Home)” and “Youchun (Spring Outing)”. These melodies are
simple and lively, reflecting mostly leisure activities of ordinary people, encompassing
a wide range of topics rarely found in other types of folk songs.
The lyrics of Embroidering a Lantern of Changli, Hebei are based on the five
watches of the night, hence carry an important subject matter found in Xiaodiao.
The song is divided according to the time slots in the title, each based on a historical
story or legend. The melody is leisurely, introspective, optimistic and delicate, and in
moderate tempo, with a setting easy to decipher. Each of its five phrases comprises 4
measures, except the fourth phrase, which only has 3 measures. One also notices the
first phrase is repeated, hence strictly speaking, it is a four-phrase structure. Other than
the first phrase, the others end on do, la, re, la, typical of the structure Qi (beginning),
Cheng (continuation), Zhuan (change) and He (ending) of traditional folk music.
d. Frolic Songs (Xiyou’ge)
Frolic songs are Xiaodiao that are playful, joyous and sometimes based on
questions to invoke sharp and brisk responses, hence are sung in a relaxed and
entertaining manner.
A typical example of frolic songs nationwide is Duihua, which involves guessing
the names of flowers in form of witty questions and answers. These tend to involve
four seasons, twelve months, numerical sequence or flower names. Duihua (Quiz on
Flowers) of Weifang, Shandong begins with a game of numbers, leading to a rhyming
game on flower names and corresponding numbers; a new rhyme emerges in each
period, highlighting lyrics that are lively and humorous. The melody comprises six
four-measure phrases neatly divided, with the first four phrases ending in descending
sol, mi, mi, do. The fifth phrase is a linking passage, leading to the final phrase, which
is a repetition of the fourth phrase. Hence it is a four-phrase structure in disguise23.
Another type of frolic songs challenges the wit and mental arithmetic of the singer,
examples being Counting Frogs (Shu’hama) and Counting Crabs (Shu’pangxie).
The first section of Counting Frogs begins with “one frog has one mouth, two eyes
and four legs”; the corresponding numbers of body parts will increase, as there are
more amphibian species around. Similarly, Counting Crabs is based on the logic of
counting the number of shells, forearms and legs. A similar example is “Peng’hama
23 About the four-phrase style juxtaposition and other structural types of folk songs, see Sha Hankun, Structure
and Melody Movement of Chinese Folk Songs, Shanghai Music Publishing House, 1st edition, 1988.
(Weighing Crabs)” from Qianjiang, Hubei:
Example 1-15. Peng’hama (Weighing Crabs), from Qianjiang, Hubei

One frog has one mouth,
Two eyes and four legs.
With mixed colour and green, and jumping into water,
(peng dong ai, peng lai ye, peng di you, pen he ge ye peng ai).
Some frolic songs are known as witty ditties, which possess the qualities of
being funny, burlesque, mockery, lashing, critical of anti-social behaviours, or social
injustice and malpractice. In short, these songs can accommodate a wide range of
human emotions, especially those of the deprived, as seen in Lazy Wife Cursing the
Chicken (Lan Poniang Maji) of Zhenping, Henan and Gossip Song (Chebai’ge) of
Hunan.
(3) Shidiao (Fashionable Song)24
Shidiao is a kind of highly developed form of Xiaodiao. The songs have an
established structure, attracting rhythms and melodies, as well as unique manner
of voice projection. They are sung for self-entertainment, but also performed
professionally at a wide range of public venues, such as streets, lanes, restaurants,
teahouses or even tourist attractions for economic reasons.
Shidiao is usually sung to an accompaniment, with its lyrics encompassing
extensive topics; in addition to life experience, it also involves historical figures,
legends, topics of dramas and Shuochang (Narrative Singing). It has a long history,
and those developed into popular songs can have different lyrics set to the same
melodies. Shidiao can accommodate music of many regional styles in form of changes
in different music elements, such as voice projection, rhythm, speed, embellishment,
accompaniment and mode. Some variants of Shidiao have made significant changes
in the structure and melodic framework with respect to their prototypes. Many new
24 For the Shidiao (Fashionable Song), readers can also read Jiang Mingdun: Introduction to Han Ethnic Folk
Songs; Zhou Qingqing, Chinese Folk Song. All details discussions about Shidiao in these books are only
breifly discussed.
works can therefore be generated from one original song, while adhering to the notion
of “myriad changes based on a central principle”, the main thrust of Chinese folk
music. One may regard this as a kind of variation technique, or using the same melody
to accommodate plethora kinds of lyrics, in order to evoke different emotions and
moods. Owing to such flexibility, Shidiao is often absorbed by opera and narrative
singing to form Qupai (Labelled Pieces), which can be sung in different dramatic
situations.
The following are some common types of Shidiao:
a. Mengjiang’nu Diao (Lady Mengjiang Melody)
Mengjiang’nu Diao is also called “Spring Tune (Chundiao)”, “Dressing Table
(Shuzhuang’tai)”, “Ten Cups of Wine (Shibei’jiu)” and “Longing for the Secular
World (Sifan)”, and it is one of the most influential folk ditties. The same melody
is set to many different lyrics on extensive subjects, even though many of them
relate to parting, sadness, resentment or love, as in The Crescent Moon Shining on
Nine Zhou (Yue’er Wanwan Zhaojiuzhou), A Buddhist Nun Longing for the Secular
World (Nigu Sifan), A Widow Attending to the Tomb (Guafu Jifen), The Suffering
People (Ku Baixing), Ballad of a Hired Labour (Changgong’yao), Farewell My Love
(Song’qinglang), Longing for My Love (Pan Qingren) and Five Watches of the Night
(Xiao Wugeng). In addition, there are narrative examples, such as Embroidering a
Palace Lantern (Xiu Gongdeng), White Lady (Bai Niangzi) and Ten Sighs for Three
Kingdoms (Sanguo Tanshi’sheng). The modern Cantonese song Always Revolutionary
under Leadership of Communist Party (Genzhedang Yongyuan Naogeming) is an
example of Mengjiang’nu with modern lyrics; the famous soundtrack Four Seasons
Song (Siji’ge, arranged by He Luting) in the film Street Angel (Malu Tianshi) is
also based on “Mengjiang’nu Tune”. This melody has a great influence on opera
and Shuochang (Narrative Singing), owing to the its adoption as Qupai (Labelled
Piece), even though under different titles, such as Dressing Table (Shuzhuang’tai)
of Yangzhou Opera, Yang Tune (Yangdiao) of Henan Songs, Song of Fengyang
(Fengyang’ge) of Shandong Qinshu, Tune of Siping (Siping’diao) of Lyu Opera,
Green Onion Planting Tune (Zhongcong’diao) of Taiwan Gezai Opera, Great Wall
Tune (Changcheng’diao) of Sichuan Qingyin (Pure Sounds from Sichuan, a kind of
narrative singing popular in Sichuan) and Flowers Picking Tune (Caihua’diao) of
Guangxi Province.
Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang), a folk song in Jiangsu Province (Example 1-16)
is a condensed version of “Mengjiang’nu Diao (Lady Mengjiang Melody)”, and has a
typical four-phrase structure of “Qi (beginning), Cheng (continuation), Zhuan (change)
and He (ending)”. According to Sha Hankun’s research, such folk song style possesses
the following characteristics:25
First, the ending pitch of each phrase follows a logical pattern of modes: phrases 2
and 4 end on stable degrees, while phrases 1 and 3 on less stable degrees. Hence the
first phrase may end on a fifth above the tonic, while the third phrase on the second or
25 Sha Hankun, Structure and Melody Movement of Chinese Folk Songs, pp 18-19.
fourth above the tonic.

Second, the third phrase is in contrast with its preceding and following phrases in
tone, structure, melodic shape or rhythms.
Third, the second and fourth phrases end on the tonic, and the latter is either a
repetition or variation of the former.
Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang) fits well into this formula. First, each phrase
comprises two measures, and the first phrase ends on re (a fifth above the tonic),
the third phrase on la (a second above the tonic). The second and fourth phrases
end on tonic sol. Secondly, the rhythmic patterns of the first, second, fourth phrases,
especially the last two beats of the first measure and the whole of second measure
are the same; they are in contrast with the third phrase . Thirdly, the second measure
of phrases 2 and 4 are the same, while their first measure form the relationship of a
fourth (the intervals are slightly different, owing to the restriction of the pentatonic
scale (absence of fa and si).
Example 1-16.26 Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang), from Jiangsu

Spring comes in the first month of the lunar year,
Every family holds red lanterns.
Wives and husbands are together in all families,
But Lady Meng Jang’s husband is sent to build the Great Wall.
From the second phrase, each phrase begins with the ending pitch of the previous
phrase. This technique is called “Dingzhen’ge” or “Dingzhong’ge27 (Connecting
Pattern)” found in folk music, and it nurtures a lingering atmosphere.
Liaoning folk song Farewell My Love (Song’qinglang, Example 1-17) is a variant
of “Mengjiang’nu Diao”. It does not keep the interlocking pattern of the original, but
strictly inherits the pattern of assigning the ending pitches of the four-phrase structure,
even though there are more obvious changes to the melody and rhythm. The third
phrase, however, still adheres much to the original.
26 The score is adopted from The Introduction of Han Ethnic Folk Songs, by Jiang Mindun. Shanghai: Music
Publishing House of Shanghai, 1982.
27 Literally,“Dingzhongge”makes more sense than“Dingzhenge”.
Example 1-17. Farewell My Love (Song’qinglang), from Liaoning

Young sister sees her boy friend off,
Accompanying him to the main door.
Tears drop down, and they continue to drop down;
You have to send me messages wherever you go,
Don’t forget your young lover,
You are always in her heart.
b. Jian’dianhua Diao (Cutting Blue Paper Flowers Melody)

“Jian’dianhua Diao” is also known as “Jianjian’hua (Cutting Flowers)” and
“Dianhua’kai (Blue Flowers Blossom)”, and it has been popular since the seventeenth
century. During the reign of the Qianlong (1736–1795) and Daoguang (1821–1850)
Emperors of the Qing Dynasty, its lyrics were included in Nichang Xupu (Continuation
of Nichang Scores), Baixue Yiyin (White Snow Heritage Sound) and other collections
of folk songs. The music is sung throughout the country, hence it exists in many
guises, with the same basic melody set to different lyrics. Most settings are cheerful
and optimistic, surrounding topics of daily lives, as in examples such as Flying a
Kite (Fang’fengzheng), Returning Home (Hui’niangjia), The Lost Ring (Diu’jiezhi),
Watching Opera (Xiao’kanxi), Lantern Show in the Twelfth Month (Shieryue
Guandeng) and Grand Outing (Da’taqing). Some songs express the desire for love,
such as Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), Cotton Picking (Zhai’mianhua),
Lover Falling Sick (Qinglang Haibing) and Embroidering all Night (Xiu’wugeng).
Some are narrative songs to pour out woes, such as Sighing in Brothel (Qinglou’tan)
and Song of a Refugee (Taonan Xiaodiao). This melody has a great impact on opera
and narrative singing, especially in the north, where Qupai dated the seventeenth
century took this as a basic melody, including Danxian (Single String, a type of
narrative singing popular in north-east), Liaocheng Bajiao’gu (Octagonal Drum
Music), Henan Guzi’qu (Narrative Singing of Henan), Zuoqiang Meihu of Guanzhong
(Seated Singing of Meihu Opera in Shaanxi) and Dropping Watermelon (Shuai’xigua)
of Shenxian, Hebei, the last is presented in the following music example:
Example 1-18. Dropping Watermelon (Shuai’xigua), from Shenxian, Hebei

Sister is painting a flower in the room;
Her lover is ill.
She wants to see him, yet not knowing what to bring with her;
Aiai-you, not knowing what to bring.
Flying a Kite (Fang’fengzheng) of Nanpi, Hebei is a variant of “Jian’dianhua

Diao”, even though it maintains the structure of Dropping Watermelon (Shuaixi’gua),
keeping the length of each phrase, as well as adhering to the backbone pitch in each
measure (only do in the thirteenth measure is changed to si). Now the melody is lively
and facile, with fewer words but more decorative singing, contrasting with the direct
setting of the original. It expresses the joy of the sisters flying a kite on a sunny day in
the third lunar month.
c. Xianhua’diao (Flower Melody)
“Flower Melody”, is also known as “Jasmine Flower (Moli’hua)”, a very popular
ditty since the Qing Dynasty; it is even transcribed in Travels in China written by
English traveller John Barrow (published in London by A. Strahan fro T. Cadell and W.
Davies, 1804), and later used by Puccini in his opera Turandot. This melody has many
variants, but few are filled with contents other than the original lyrics of Jasmine
Flower; these include songs of the same title in Yangzhou, Jiangsu and Nanpi, Hebei.
This melody is also used in folk dance, Shuochang and opera, as well as “Di Yangge
(Field Dance)” in North China, “Flower Lantern Tune (Huadeng’diao)” in Southwest
China and narrative singing, such as Danxian Paiziqu (Labelled Pieces Accompanied
by Solo Three-Stringed Lute) and Sichuan Qingyin (Pure Sounds from Sichuan).
Huagu’diao (Flower Drum Tune) of Henan (Example 1-19) is a variant of “Flower
Melody”; the former has developed from folk song to the more complicated genre
narrative singing. It begins with Sanban (free rhythm) and leading to Shangban
(on the Beat, introductory passage, transition from free rhythm to regular beats in
narrative and operatic singing). The tune is greatly expanded from the original three-
phrase single period to the nine-phrase double period structure (4 phrases for the first
period, with the pattern of a a’ b a’ and Gong first degree mode; 5 phrases for the
second period, with the pattern of c d e d’ e’ and Zhi fifth degree mode). The lyrics
also change to vivid description of husband and wife making a living by singing in the
streets. This is an example of incorporating major changes to the original melody in
Shidiao:
Example 1-19. Flower Drum Tune (Huagu’diao), from Kaifeng, Henan. Sung by Du Yanli; recorded
by Cai Mingzhong

Carrying a colourful drum, and holding a gong,
Husband and wife love each other, and they vow to stay together (like measure
and weight).
They smile, and can sing songs,
Walking the street, the legs are changing fast.
They perform a show no matter how many people are around;
My husband, you play the gong, and I play the drum,
You play the gong, I play the drum.
d. Yinniu’si Diao (Silver Thread Melody)

“Yinniu’si Diao (Silver Thread Melody)” or “Yinjiao’si” (same meaning as “Silver
Thread”) was popular in Jiajing (1522–1566) and Longqing Periods (1567–1572) of
the Ming Dynasty. It is still sung, particularly in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. The melody
matches well with local dialects, and its simplicity warrants an immediate appeal.
The lyrics are related to complaints and gossips about mothers-in-law, hence bearing
titles such as “Visiting In-Laws’ Family (Tan’qingjia)”, “Cursing In-Laws’ Family
(Ma’qingjia)” and “Quarrelling with In-Law During a Visit (Tanqing Dingzui)”. This
melody is expressive, and can accommodate witty lyrics, hence is widely adopted
by Shuochang and operas, including genres such as Danxian (Single String), Meihu
(Opera in Shaanxi), Henan Quzi (Tunes of Henan), Sichuan Qingyin (Pure Sounds
from Sichuan), Huju (Shanghai Opera) and Xiju (Wuxi Opera) Operas. The following
Visiting In-Laws’ Family (Tan’qingjia, Example 1-20) and Meeting Mother-in-Law
(Hui’qingjia, Example 1-21) are both based on Yinniu’si Diao (Silver Thread Melody).
Example 1-20. Visiting In-Laws’ Family (Tan’qingjia), from Central Hebei. The score is taken from
Introduction to Han Ethnic Folk Songs by Jiang Mingdun

My son’s mother-in-law, please sit down,
Listen to me,
Since your daughter married my son and joined my family,
She only talks and incapable of doing anything.
It takes her over half of a year to make a pair of shoes (Aihai),
It is hard to let time go by.
Example 1-21. Meeting Mother-in-Law (Hui’qingjia), from Linxi, Hebei.

The score is taken from Introduction to Han Ethnic Folk songs by Jiang Mingdun

The mother from the city comes to the countryside (Yemo), look!
She takes a goat as a wild cat:
Four hoofs, eight plaints,
Horns on the top of head,
small tail rises up (lai).
My daughter’s mother-in-law,
Small tail rises up.
The structure of the above two songs is different, with of the first denoted by a b a’
b’ c c, while the second b b d (new material) b’ (extension of b) c. The first 3 phrases
of the first song (example 1-20) comprise 4 measures each, with the third phrase
splitting into two by a pause. The music material of the first period is derived from
the second half of the first phrase. The second period is an inversion of the first. The
first 4 measures of the fourth phrase is a repetition of the second phrase, but there is
an extension of 1 beat, and with 3 linking pitches added. The fifth and sixth phrases
are exactly the same, each with 5 measures. The first 3 phrases of the second song
also comprise 4 measures each. The first and second phrases are simple repetitions,
with new material added to the third (also different from the first song). The common
feature of the third phrase of both songs is the presence of motive split. The fourth
phrase of the second song (example 1-21) is built on its first phrase and the “b” phrase
of the first song, and with some development, is expanded to 7 measures. The fifth
phrase of the songs is similar in music material and length.
Although both Visiting In-Laws’ Family and Meeting Mother-in-Law are based
on the Yinniu’si Diao (Silver Thread Melody), the latter is freer in organization and
structure (including the distribution and arrangement of music materials, phrase
lengths and setting), hence possessing more novelty and liveliness, particularly in
treatment of melodic twists.
e. Wuxi’jing Diao (Melody of the Scenery of Wuxi)

“Wuxi’jing Diao” became popular in the nineteenth century, and it is still sung in
the north, Jiangsu and Anhui. Its music is narrative and expressive, hence possesses
much descriptive power, hence a means of delivering human affection. In general, the
songs based on the melody sung in the south are more lyrical, while those sung in the
north are more narrative; examples include Scenery of Wuxi (Wuxi’jing) in Jiangsu
and Visiting the Qingshui River (Tan Qingshui’he, in Huolu, or present Luquan City),
Hebei.
f. Mama’niang Hutu Diao (Melody of Confused Mother)
“Tune of Confused Mother” is popular in north, northeast and northwest China,
as well as Jiangsu and Anhui, but not in the south. The content is mostly based on a
daughter’s complaint to her mother for failing to support her pursuit for love. Other
topics of songs based on the melody are reflected in titles such as Autumn Laments of
Prostitutes (Jinv Beiqiu) or Ten Cups of Wine (Shibei’jiu), which are equally woeful.
The Anhui folk song Flower Drum of Fengyang (Fengyang Huagu) also adopts this
melody. In the early days of the founding of People’s Republic of China, it was set to
new lyrics, with a view to emancipating women from restrictive norms of the feudal
society dominated by males, as well a display of support for popular art of the people.
g. Xiu’hebao Diao (Embroidering a Small Pouch Melody)
The melody of “Xiu’hebao Diao (Embroidering a Small Pouch Melody)” is very
well known amongst Han people throughout China. The melody is a kind of Shidiao,
originated in the north and northwest, and often set to sad and sentimental lyrics, as
in songs Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao), Going to West Mountain Pass
(Zou’xikou), Beaten by the Stepmother (Jimu Da’haizi) and Tune of Love Sickness
(Xiangsi’pu). However, some songs evolved can be joyous and rhythmic, such as
Second Sister at the Lantern Festival (Ermeizi Guandeng). The revolutionary songs
Making a Golden Inscribed Plate (Xiu Jinbian) and Attacking Mizhi Town (Da
Mizhi’cheng) are variants of the melody.
The Embroidering a Small Pouch in Shanxi and northern Shaanxi are popular
versions of the melody. These songs have similar lyrics and melody, yet owing to
different technique of vocal embellishment, they can generate vastly different emotion
and character: the Shanxi song is lively and amiable, but Shaanxi’s song is desolate.
h. Duihua Diao (Quiz on Flowers Melody)
Duihua is a popular melody in China, and, having many versions, it is categorized
as Xiaodiao or mountain songs. The “Duihua Diao” here refers to the one sung in the
northwest and north.
i. Dieduan’qiao Diao (Melody of Tripping at Broken Bridge)
“Dieduan’qiao Diao”, is also known as “Dieduan’qiao (Tripping at Broken
Bridge)” or “Jieduan Qiao (Connected Broken Bridge)”28, and it stemmed from Beiqu
(Northern Tunes) in the twelfth century, becoming popular around the seventeenth
century. The song is still sung in the north, northeast, northwest and Jianghuai areas,
28 Chinese characters used for“Die”can be different such as 跌 (tripping) or 叠 (overlapping).

with lyrics which are sorrowful, such as a nun longing for lives in the secular world,
girls want of lovers, wives missing their husbands, and tragic Legend of the White
Snake and her husband Xu Xian. Many types of Shuochang and operas have adopted
it as Qupai (Labelled Piece), such as Danxian Paiziqu (Labelled Pieces Accompanied
by Solo Three-Stringed Lute), Sichuan Qingyin (Pure Sounds from Sichuan) and
Meihu opera.
Jasmine Flower of Changli, Hebei is a variant of “Dieduan’qiao Diao”, set to the
same lyrics as “Flower Melody (Xianhua’diao)”.
Amongst Han people, there is a tradition of joining a sequence of labelled pieces to
form a large suite, examples include Landscape of Suzhou (Gusu Fengguang), Secular
Songs of Pu Songling (Pu Songling Liqu) preserved in Zibo, Shandong, and Five
Great Tunes (Wu Dadiao) of southern Shandong. The lyrics are based on legends,
seasonal landscape or local customs and practices. Composite songs sung in this
manner are close to Shuochang.
3. Artistic Features of Xiaodiao (Ditties)
(1) Dual Roles of Being Narrative and Expressive: Twistful and Delicate Melodies
Xiaodiao can have a descriptive power as well as a means of displaying sentiments,
owing to the perfect integration of lyrics and melodies of character; the mood of the
music is created by intercalating narrative and expressive contents of the lyrics. These
songs nurture a kind of subdue feeling that is somewhat inherent, rather than a sudden
outburst; hence the emotion is controlled, or even to a certain extent suppressed.
When subject to performances of the professionals, they are formally standardized,
and also infiltrated with artistic contents.
(2) Regular, Balanced Rhythms and Metres
Xiaodiao is usually metrical, with simple, varied and evenly distributed rhythmic
patterns (unlike those lengthy and free, forward moving patterns found in mountain
songs or work songs). Hence, rhythmically the genre highlights unity amidst striking
for variety; this is a particularly important factor when the melody repeats itself, a
vital tool of narrative music.
(3) Circuitous and Varied Melodic Flow
Compared with work songs and mountain songs, Xiaodiao have more subtle
changes owing to the frequent juggling of motives; the melodies tend to progress in
gentle undulating motion, rather than leaps or linearly.
There are two common kinds of structure of Xiaodiao; the first refers to songs
based on question and answer, the second on the more developmental style Qi
(beginning), Cheng (continuation), Zhuan (change) and He (ending), hence relying on
transformation of music material.
The “question and answer” structure refers to the joining of the two phrases to
express a shared extra-musical notion, and there evolved many varieties, such as:
First, breaking the symmetrical configuration by expanding and adding additional
components, in order to introduce momentum, varieties or ironically, balance with
such irregular structure;
Genres of Folk Songs of Ethnic Groups 69
Second, the “question and answer” can be varied and repeated to form a four-
phrase structure;
Third, changing the structure into two questions and one answer; or
Fourth, adoption of one question and two answers.
The developmental pattern of Qi (beginning), Cheng (continuation), Zhuan
(change) and He (ending) can also accommodate changes to each of its four sections;
hence the structure can be handled with much freedom, in order to cope with the
musical and extra-musical contents, as well as the singing styles of performers.
II. Genres of Folk Songs of Ethnic Groups

China is a multi-racial country with inhabitants comprising 56 ethnic groups. Other
than Hui ethnic group, the other ethnic groups have their own spoken languages, and
even writing scripts for many.
Most of the ethnic groups have a strong tradition of singing and dancing, hence a
rich repertoire is preserved; this is the reason why it is only possible to limit the scope
of our discussion to some of their folk songs.
A. The Urtiin Duu or Changdiao (Long Tune) in Chinese and Duandiao (Short Tune)
of Mongolians
1. Mongolian People and Their Folk Songs
Mongolian ancestors were nomadic tribes living in the present Erguna River Basin.
Around 840, most Mongolians began to migrate to the west, and they had to give up
hunting for the nomadic style of living. In 1206, the Chief of Mongolian tribe Temujin
(Genghis Khan) unified the other Mongolian tribes, and founded Mongolia, soon
followed by extensive military expansion. After years of conquests in the west and
east, the country developed into a huge Empire covering the Eurasian continents. In
1279, the Mongolians unified China, and put an end to the long-term fragile peace and
coexistence of the States of Liao, Song, Xia, Jin, Tibet, Dali and other states since the
late Tang Dynasty.
In the Yuan Dynasty, there was a shift of Mongolian nomadic economy to
agriculture and handicraft economy of the rest of the country. In the Qing Dynasty,
there was continuous migration of Han farmers to Mongolia, leading to more
diversified forms of economy, based on agricultural and animal farming.
Ancient Mongolians believed in Shamanism, while most modern Mongolians
believe in Lamaism (Yellow Hat Gelug).
There are two ways of classifying Mongolian folk songs. First, they can be
distinguished by the contents of the lyrics, which may relate to animal farming,
praising, nostalgia, banquet, proverbs, narratives or nursery rhymes. They can also
be grouped according to genres, which include Urtiin Duu (Long Tune) and Short
Tune. The former has lingering melodies, free rhythm and extended musical form, and
has a notional link with the the grassland, examples being songs of animal farming,
praising, nostalgia and rituals. Short songs usually have compact melodies, neat
rhythms and simple forms, and examples include songs for hunting, narratives and
ritual dancing.
2. Urtiin Duu Folk Songs
Urtiin Duu folk songs evoke a strong pastoral atmosphere, and are believed to
represent the typical Mongolian music style. After the Mongolian ancestors migrated
from the Erguna River Basin to the Mongolian Plateau, abandoning hunting and
leading a livelihood of animal farming, they built up the tradition of singing pastoral
songs to reflect the nomadic lives. Mongolian Urtiin Duu folk songs are extended, and
are organised in long phrases, with passionate feeling. When producing a sustained
tone, the singer incorporates vibratos and ornamentations imitating the Morin Khuur
(horse-head fiddle). Some examples of Urtiin Duu also possess the vigorous and
heroic spirit of epics or vicissitudes of history.
Romance of the Grassland (Liaokuode Caoyuan) of Hulunbeier League is a Urtiin
Duu pastoral song. In order to appreciate the music fully, one has to visualize the
vast stretch of grassland of Mongolia and the gorgeous scene of “flocks and herds
appearing as grass bends to wind”. The song has free rhythms and long phrases, and
the singer has to use different techniques of embellishment between the lines, rending
a melancholic mood, which is amplified by the slow, extended and desolate melody.
Such kind of loneliness owes largely to their normadic lives, as Mongolian herdsmen
often ride on horses alone, fully appreciating human feelings of freedom, happiness
and sadness. Solitude has nurtured their character of perseverance.
Mongolians are donned with the honour of being brave, owing to their glorious
history of conquering East and West continents, which has, in turn, helped build up
a national spirit immersed in deep spiritual life, an aspect reflected in the substantial,
broad, extensive and forceful characteristics of their folk songs.
3. Short-Tune Folk Songs
Mongolian short-tune folk songs developed in different regions spontaneously.
Dating back to the seventh and eighth centuries, hunting songs were short and
rhythmic, and these were sung with their engagement in hunting at the Erguna River
Basin, west of Heilongjiang, and the songs were often accompanied by dance and
percussion music. After their settlement in Mongolian grassland, lively and rhythmic
short-tune folk songs developed in both animal and agricultural farms. These
melodies are shorter than those of Urtiin Duu, and with a narrower range, even though
the big leaps characteristic of Mongolian music prevail, as in Black Satin Waistcoat
(Heiduan’zi Kanjian).
Mongolian folk songs have Chinese characteristics, owing to the use of the
pentatonic scale, centring mostly on the modes of Yu (sixth degree) and Zhi (fifth
degree). The melody often resembles a parabola, with the climax at mid-length;
big leaps of a fifth, sixth, seventh or octave are common, while rarely found in Han
folk melodies. It is precisely owing to these melodic characteristics that have given
Mongolian folk songs a feeling of robustness, agility and boldness
Black Satin Waistcoat is typical of Mongolian folk songs at Erdos in Yikezhao
League, bordering Shanxi and Shaanxi. The melody includes irregular rhythmic
patterns and unexpected leaps, much in line with the vigour expected. One notices the
presence of syncopations, dotted rhythms, as well as on-beat and off-beat ornaments.

These music features have an impact on folk songs of Hequ and Fugu of Shanxi,
owing to acculturation of “Zou’xikou” (Going to West Mountain Pass) melodies of
migrating workers.
4. Music Characteristics of Mongolian Folk Songs
(i) Scale: Mongolian folk songs also use the pentatonic scale found in Han music,
but it is possible to go beyond such limit, especially in the adoption of the heptatonic
scale.
(ii) Mode: Yu (sixth degree) and Zhi (fifth degree) dominate, while some songs are
sung in modes of Gong (first degree) and Shang (second degree).
(iii) Melodic flow: the melodies are often in the shape of parabola, reaching its
melodic or rhythmic climax in the middle, while accommodating large leaps, creating
the feeling of bareness, robustness, agility and sternness signifying their national
character.
B. Folk Songs of the Kazak People
1. Kazak Ethnic Group in China
Kazak ethnic group in China matured over a long period through mixing and
integrating with many ancient ethnic groups and tribes. Of course, China has
historically ruled many ethnic groups in areas around the present Valley of Yili River
and the Issyk Lake, such as Wusun (Usun) (BC second century - second century AD),
Turks (mid-6th century), Karluk, Uighur (tenth - twelfth century), Kara-Khitan (twelfth
century), Kerait, Naiman, and Kipchak (late twelfth century - thirteenth century).
Kazakh has a long relationship with these groups, and some of the present tribes still
retain their ancient names. In the 1420s, the Uzbek Khanate rose in the east of the
Golden Horde. In 1456, owing to the internal conflicts in Khanate, some inhabitants
fled to the east under the rule of Ili Baliq. This group was known as Kazakh, meaning
“refugees” or “separatists”. In 1589, Kazakh people and their occupied areas were
divided into large, medium and small Yuzi (blood tribe alliance). Part of the Kazakh
people and their settled areas were annexed by Russia; some of them stayed in China,
while others in the People’s Republic of Mongolia.
The main occupation of Kazakh people is animal farming, and early settlers
believed in Shamanism and Buddhism, but Islam began to dominate around the
eleventh century. The ancient Kazakh people used Turkic script, later changing to
Uighur script, and with the introduction of Islam, Arabic script.
Most Kazakh people love music, and many are good at singing and dancing. Their
most common folk musical instrument is Dombra (Tambura).
2. Solo Songs
Kazakh folk songs can be divided into five categories according to the content
of lyrics: these include songs for work, praise, courtship, customs, and other songs.
Customs songs include those sung at weddings and funerals, according to established
ceremonial procedures. “Wedding Songs”, for example, include “Introductory
Wedding Songs”, “Sen-si-ma”, “Bridal Lamentations”, “Unveiling Songs”, “Bridal
Songs”; “Mourning Songs” include “Obituary Songs”, “Songs of Remembrance”
and “Funeral Songs”. Other songs include “Lullabies”, “Riddle Songs”, “Songs
of Lies (Humorous Songs)”, “Map Songs (educational)” and “Genealogy Songs”.
Kazak folk songs can be sung as a solo piece, antiphonally in groups or accompanied
instrumentally. Antiphonal singing has an important social function, and it is a
common format of performance during folk festivals and wedding ceremonies.
Accompanied singing is also referred to as “Singing with Dombra”, and the plucked
stringed Dombra is the national instrument of the people. The rhythm of these songs
is complex, and the melody is close to the intonation of the language. The solo songs29
have attractive melodies, based on simple structure, and they exhibit all features of
Kazakh folk music.
Most Kazakh solo songs are in binary form, with refrains and fixed lyrics, and with
2/4 or 3/4 metres, an example being The Black Lark (Hei Yunque).
Since antiquity, Kazakh people have been leading a nomadic life depending on
lands with water and grass, hence Kazakh folk songs have a strong pastoral character;
they usually start with a passage in high pitches, allowing expansion and prolongation
of the later part of the high register. This is an imitation of the calling and shouting
habits of the nomadic life. In general, Kazakh folk songs are energetic, heroic and
poetic, arguably the positive influence of nomadic life on folk music.
Nomadic life involves travelling away from home, hence loved ones are often
separated, giving rise to inevitable emotional pains, and the proliferation of love
songs wishing partners happy and safe. The Black Lark is a typical example of such
love songs, which begins with a broad melody sung in the high register, but as the
melody descends, a melancholic atmosphere is created. The song is in heptatonic
mode, similar to the European system: fa and si are not “supplementary pitches” (unlike
many Chinese folk songs), but these degrees are core elements of the melody, and can
be accented or sustained.
3. Songs with Instrumental Accompaniment
Kazakh folk songs can be sung and accompanied by the plucked stringed
instrument dombra by the same performer. Such accompanied songs do not have fixed
lyrics; much if left to the singer to improvise. There may not be any guarantee that the
singer has a good voice, but it is certain that he is fully capable of improvising lyrics.
The structure is loosely organized, with complicated rhythms and composite metres,
giving rise to a melody of strong linguistic and narrative features, an example being
Red Flowers (Honghua).
4. Characteristics of Kazakh Folk Songs
(i) Scale: most Kazakh folk songs are based on heptatonic scale (similar to
Western diatonic scale), but the pentatonic scale is also used, sometimes extending to
heptatonic scale by addition of two “auxillary” degrees.
(ii) Mode: When the pentatonic system is used, most songs are in Gong (first
29 Kazak folk songs are divided into two categories:“An”( 安 ) and“Yuelun”( 月伦 ). The solo song here
refers to the former type, and more significant. See Du Yaxiong (compiled): Introduction to the Folk Music
of Chinese Ethnic Groups, People’s Music Publishing House, 1st edition, 1993, pp135-136.
degree) or Yu (sixth degree) mode, hence with melodies beginning and ending in these
degrees. In songs using the heptatonic scale, they can either be in major or natural
minor mode, or a mixture of the two.
(iii) Melodic Shape: the long history of the nomandic nature of Kazakh people
has resulted in a perpetual desire to seach for lands with water and grass, and hence
nurturing folk songs with a strong pastoral nature. Many Kazak folk songs have
“calling” melodies, based on the tonic and its fourth and fifth degrees, often appearing
at the beginning, forming the core motive, gradually ramifying the music.
(iv) Rhythms and Metres: many Kazakh folk songs use composite metres, and
short rhythmic patterns often appear at the beginning of a measure, leading to more
extended patterns in the later part of the measure. Such a design contributes much to
the heroic and broad atmosphere of the music.
C. Love Songs of the Uyghur People
1. Uyghur People
The ancestors of Uyghur people were Dingling people aggregated near Lake
Baikal, north of Huns inhabited areas. In the seventh century, Dingling people (or
Tiele) living in the territory of Mongolia and Western Regions were under the rule
of Turkic Khanate. In 744, Tiele people established Uyghur Khaganate, and in 788,
Uyghur in Chinese changed from Huihe to Huihu. With the downfall of Uyghur
Khaganate in 840, he migrated westwards, and managed to establish three regimes,
namely Hexi Uyghur, Gaochang Uyghur and Kalahan Dynasty. Hexi Uyghur (Ganzhou
Uyghur) occupied part of northern Gansu, and the inhabitants later mixed with the
local residents. The Huangtou (Yellow Head) Uygur (also called Sali Uighur) co-
existed with Mongolians, Han and other ethnic minorities, and developed into
the present Yugu nationality; the remaining two branches gradually assimilated
with ethnic groups in Tianshan areas and the southern Xinjiang, and changed the
nomadic live styles to an agricultural society. In the Ming Dynasty, a large number of
Mongolians and Han people living in the Uyghur agricultural areas were assimilated
with Uyghur people.
The Uyghur people had been influenced by several religions, including
Shamanism, Manichaeism, Buddhism and Nestorianism after migrating westwards.
Their most common religion now is Islam.
Their language is derived from the Turkic language of the Altai family, but
some Uyghur people in southern Xinjiang speak Indo-European language. Strongly
influenced by Islamic culture, the Uyghur language has borrowed from Arabic
vocabulary, while the Uyghur script also adopted Arabic alphabetics.
2. Classification of Uyghur Folk Songs
Uyghur folk songs can be divided into different categories, such as those related
to courtship, work, history and customs; amongst these, many belong to the first
category. Like its people and languages, Uyghur folk music is diversified, owing to
its cultural mix with the Chinese, Europeans and Persian-Arabians. In northern and
eastern Xinjiang, most folk songs have common features of Chinese music, while in
the south they are akin to the Persian-Arabian system.
Uyghur people treasure their adoption of the Persian-Arabian music system, with
music performed in different modes, and tonics based on the degrees of do, re, mi, sol,
la and si. Within the same tonic mode, it is possible to introduce changes to different
degrees, so as to encompass modes of five, six or seven degrees, as well as to include
micro tones. A typical example is the song Laili Guli of southern Xinjiang, with the
following tone row:
Example 1-22. The tone row used in the song Laili Guli
Pitches with upward or downward arrows indicate ascending or descending a

quarter of a whole tone (or three quarters of a whole tone, as preferred by some
scholars). Within such a parameter, it is up to the performers to adjust fine nuances of
the intonation, from quarter to half tone. These “movable” pitches are referred to as
“unfixed pitches” by some scholars30.
Black Eyed Girl (Heiyanjing’de Guniang) is a Uyghur folk song popular in Yili
area of Xinjiang. The song is in the mode of Gong (first degree) in the pentatonic
system, even though it has two subsidiary degrees, fa and si, notably in the transition,
hence still possessing some resemblance to Chinese music. One notices the absence
of micro tones characteristic of the indigenous style, but the use of anacrusis and its
angular melodic shape cannot mask its underlying characteristics of Uyghur folk
music.
3. Characteristics of Uyghur Folk Songs
(i) Scale: Uyghur folk songs are based on five, six or seven degree scale,
sometimes including quarter tones. Folk songs in southern Xinjiang mainly adopt the
heptatonic scale, while eastern Xinjiang the pentatonic scale, and northern Xinjiang
the pentatonic or heptatonic scale; these scales can have some variants.
(ii) Mode: Uyghur folk songs using pentatonic scale are mainly in Gong (first
degree) mode, while some are in Zhi (fifth degree) or Shang (second degree) modes;
those akin to seven degree scale of European system are mainly in natural minor;
while songs adopt the Persian-Arabian system can be in varied modes.
(iii) Metre and rhythm: owing to the accents of Uyghur language falls on the last
syllable, many songs include syncopations and anacruses, even though it is possible to
find some songs in more regular rhythmic patterns.
(iv) Melodic Shape: the melodic lines are mostly angular, ready to accommodate
variable, delicate, and ornamental nuances. Uyghur folk songs share some musical
features of indigenous style of agricultural societies of Han and Korean groups.
30 Zhou Ji: Discussion on the Lineage of Contemporary Folk Music and Qiuci Music in Kuqa Area. See Du
Yaxiong (compiled): Introduction to the Folk Music of Chinese Ethnic Groups,“ Uyghur Folk Music”
section.
D. Lyric Ballads of the Korean Ethnic Group

1. Korean Minority People in China
Ancestors of Koreans in China moved from the Korean Peninsula to the three
provinces in northeast China. Some Korean Chinese settled there in the seventeenth
century, but many moved to China in mid-nineteenth century.
Korean people pay primary attention to education, etiquette and hygiene, and they
have a strong tradition of singing and dancing, especially during important family
occasions. Korean music is noted for its lyrical melodies and expressive power,
and an inclination to use triple metre. Korean folk songs have an important role in
the development of Korean music; the five major genres are agricultural ballads,
lyrical ballads, custom ballads, nursery rhymes and long songs. Among these, the
most widely circulated are lyric and agricultural ballads, examples being the famous
Arirang, Balloon Flower (Jugeng’yao) and Wenghaiya. These ballads truly reflect the
characteristics of Korean folk vocal music.
2. Lyric Ballads
Most Korean folk songs are under the genre lyric ballads, which cover many
different topics, reflecting various aspects of lives of Koreans. Some songs are based
on courtship such as Arirang, Elang Daling; some express the joy of work and harvest,
such as Song of Harvest (Fengshou’ge), Balloon Flower (Jugeng’yao); some describe
the suffering of women in an unequal society, such as Miserable Wife (Ku’xifu); some
intend to be educational, such as Song of the Monthly Orders (Yueling’ge), Flowers in
Diagrams (Shihua’tu), Multiplication Rhymes (Jiujiu Chengfa’jie); others are satirical,
such as Old Man’s Chatter (Laotou Daling), Chatters of Stick and Cap (Gunbei
Daling). Most lyric ballads have flowing melodies, balanced rhythms and structures.
Arirang expresses the passion between the lovers, and appearing in different forms,
it is one of the most frequently sung folk songs by the Koreans. In Yanbian area of
Jilin in China, Arirang is sung in dozens of versions, with varying lyrics and melodies,
expressing the keen desire of the lover, or complaints of the jilted, or simply longing
for a bright future.
Korean folk songs tend to feature repetitions of the same pitch, as in example 23.
Besides, many melodies have a limited range, going round in circles, hence in stark
contrast to Mongolian folk songs featuring big leaps, wide range and grandeur, or
northeastern Han folk songs based on the alternation of minor third and perfect fourth
intervals, fast tempo, as well as syncopations and off beats (Shanban, folk style of
appellation, that is, anacrusis of melody in narrative or operatic singing) to form a
dynamic and lively atmosphere. Such characteristics make Korean folk songs calm,
dignified, elegant and delicate. However, it does not mean Korean folk songs cannot
be passionate, as a melody can have a sudden leap amidst calm atmosphere, as in
the third phrase, ninth measure, where the melody ascends to sol from do, and stays
in the pitch for a measure before descending, encompassing an octave. The song
thus reaches its climax, as this passage covers the biggest melodic range. The fourth
phrase duplicates the second phrase, and the music returns to a calm atmosphere after
momentary briskness.
Arirang is widely sung in Luda of Liaoning, and its newly written lyrics have a
flavour of a revolutionary folk song, a common phenomenon after the founding of
the People’s Republic. Compared with the same song from Yanbian of Jilin discussed
above, this version is more passionate, owing to its extended range, as well as more
agitated rhythms:
Example 1-23. Arirang, from Luda, Liaoning, sung by Jin Shan; lyric translated by Zheng Junji;
transcripted by Xu Yonghua
English translation of the lyrics:

Arilang rilang, Srisrilang, Arali ganannei,
Arilang, Enenen Alari ganannei.
Village girls smile very sweetly,
Their smiling eyes have become linear.
The Koreans refer to rhythm as “long and short”; this indicates rhythmic patterns,
as well as the tempo and character of the music. This is related to the accents of
Korean language, which are trochaic or iambic. Hence, unlike Han Chinese music,
Korean music favours triple metres or triple division of the beat, and metres used
include 3/8, 6/8, 9/8, 3/4, 6/4, 4/4. Even if a song is in 6/8 metre, there are ways of
introducing rhythmic varieties, which make Korean music very complicated; the
positive effect is added vitality and passion. Take the above example, there are several
rhythmic patterns:
The frequent rhythmic transformation generates many surprises during

performance, and alternation of different rhythmic patterns in a short span creates a
sense of urgency, akin to uneven breathing under great excitement. In addition, the
melodic range of this version of Arirang is greater than the previous version, with
more leaps in the intervals, making the Arirang from Liaoning more passionate.
The modes used in Korean folk songs are similar to those of Han people: they are
based on the pentatonic scale, the most common being Pingdiao (level mode) and
Jiemian Modes. Pingdiao is similar to the Han Chinese Zhi (fifth degree) mode and
Jiemian Modes to Yu (sixth degree) mode. Sometimes when the music is in Jiemian
Modes with la as tonic, the degree si can be introduced, expanding the pentatonic
scale to hexatonic. However, the si only serves to accomplish an upward leap of the
fourth si-mi, or do-si descend, but not as the si-do semi-tone ascend. The song above
(Example 23) illustrates such pitch relationship aptly.
Balloon Flower is another popular folk song classified as Korean lyric ballads.
3. Music Characteristics of Korean Folk Songs
(i) Scale and Mode: most Korean folk songs use pentatonic scale (without semi-
tone); the modes frequently used are Pingdiao (level mode) and Jiemian Modes, the
former based on sol as tonic, while the latter la as tonic.
(ii) Tempo and Rhythm: the accents of Korean language are often trochaic or
iambic, hence leading to prevalence of triple metres or triple division of the beat.
(iii) Melodic Shape: features the intervals of a descending second from tonic and
leap of a fourth, as well as the spiral ascend from clusters around the tonic.31
(iv) Melodic Embellishment: the vibrato is applied imaginatively in Korean folk
songs, and it appears in different forms, according to circumstances and the needs of
emotional expression, hence the distinction of “light vibrato”, “deep vibrato “, “pulled
vibrato”, “elastic vibrato”, “soft vibrato” and “pressed vibrato”. The embellishments
can be delivered in different speeds, resulting in “slow vibrato” and “fast vibrato”.
This technique can be applied to the same note with fine nuances, such as “vibrato
before plain singing” and “vibrato after plain singing”32.
E. Tibetan Mountain Songs and Jiuge (Drinking Song)
1. Tibetan People
Tibetan people live in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, particularly in Tibet, and parts of
Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. They have, for generations, been
engaged in animal and agricultural farming. Before the founding of the People’s
Republic of China, Tibetans had been under some kind of political, economic and
military turmoils, particularly the political power of religious leaders, and low
productivity in general. However, there is a long history of civilization there, with
Tibetan literature appearing in the seventh century, as well as a strong heritage in
philosophy, medicine, music, dance, painting, sculpture and architecture.
31 See “Music of Korean Minority” in the Encyclopedia of China: Music Dance, Encyclopedia of China
Publishing House, 1st edition, 1989.
32 See Du Yaxiong (compiled): Introduction to the Folk Music of Chinese Ethnic Groups, Chapter 4 “Folk
Music of Korean Minority People”.
The Tibetan language includes three dialects, namely Ü-Tsang, Kham and Amdo.
Ü-Tsang dialect is spoken throughout Tibet, except Changdu, while Kham dialect
is spoken in Changdu, Diqing of Yunnan, Yushu of Qinghai and western Sichuan,
and Amdo dialect is spoken in southern Gansu, northern Sichuan, and northern and
western Qinghai.
The major religion in Tibet is Buddhism, and inhabitants have a tradition of
choosing their names from Buddhist scriptures.
2. Types of Folk Songs
Tibetans have a strong tradition in singing and dancing; their major types of folk
songs include those sung in mountains (pastoral songs), at work, and for courtship,
practising customs and sutra chanting. Songs for practising customs can be further
classified as those concerned with drinking, riddles, wedding, archery and bidding
farewell.
Mountain songs are referred to as “Lilu” in Tibetan, and as the title suggests, are
sung in mountains and fields. The melodies tend to have a wide range, free rhythms,
long phrases, drastic fluctuations of range, lingering phrases and piercing sonority,
full of characteristics of sung music in plateaus. The songs are based on questions
and answers, and are sung in the modes of Yu (sixth degree), Zhi (fifth degree), Gong
(first degree), Jue (third degree) of the pentatonic or hexatonic scales. Coupled with
the characteristic vibrato in Tibetan style, the melody is echoed in the air, invoking a
scene with a flying eagle circling between the valleys, as in the song Amiyou.
Drinking songs are called “Changlu” in the Tibetan, and these are songs performed
during drinking and toasting, which are often accompanied by simple dances. The
genre is very popular in the urban and rural areas. During traditional festivities, or
at family reunion or wedding, those present will sit around the Tibetan square table,
according to tradition, from right to left, in order of seniority. Women are cupbearers
to serve wine in turns, in order of seniority, singing and dancing. Those who drink
must follow the toasting song, and interpret the meaning of lyrics to complete the
etiquette, such as grabbing the wine cup, using the ring finger to “deliver” the wine
upwards, taking three sips and bottoming up.
There is a wide repertoire of drinking songs, which are sung during blessing,
praying, celebrating, festivities; they can also be sung for amusement or courtship.
The melodies are facile and lyrical, capable of expressing different emotions. A good
example of the genre is Gesangla.
Gesangla highlights modulation on using the same pitch for tonics of different
modes, as seen in some Chinese opera genres, such as Huangmei Opera in Anhui
Province. The first phrase comprises 5 measures, and the melody centres on re (or D =
Shang, second degree), while the second phrase 4 measures, ending on sol (or G = Zhi,
fifth degree). In other words, each of these two phrases take C as Gong (first degree
Do), but without altering the pitch of Gong, the music moves from Shang to Zhi
mode. The third phrase comprises 6 measures, which can be regarded as compressing
the previous music materials, while retaining the modal centres of D Shang and the G
Zhi. One notices fa replaces mi in the third phrase, leading to a fundamental change
in pitch relationship: the modulation is more real, since the pitch of Gong has now
moved from C to F. The original D Shang and G Zhi (C = Gong) become D Yu (sixth
degree) and G Shang (F = Gong). Based on the pentatonic scale, the piece should be
notated as:
Example 1-24. The third phrase of Gesangla
The fourth phrase repeats the previous phrase, but in a faster tempo, even though
the degree fa appears instead of mi. Hence the music should be notated as follows in
context of the pentatonic scale:
Example 1-25. The fourth phrase of Gesangla
While the pitch of the tonic (C) remains unchanged, highlighting D Shang (re) and
G Zhi (sol), yet the mode and tonality have changed subtlely. This somewhat “hidden”
method of modulation allows a seamless link between the two ends of melody in the
course of transition. This helps avoid any abrupt feeling, at the same time creating
a mood of warmth, mildness and vividness. Hence, Tibetan folk songs reflect much
ingenuity of musicianship, judging from the structure and technique of modulation.
3. Characteristics of Tibetan Folk Songs
(i) Mode: Tibetan folk songs have some similarities with Chinese music in the use
of pentatonic scale; the music is noted for its frequent use of the hexatontic scale.
(ii) Tonality: a song often includes alternation of modes, and by far the most
common being transposing down a perfect fifth (to subdominant).
(iii) Melodic Shape: melodies are fresh and lyrical, and richly embellished; full of
surprises owing to frequent changes of modes.
F. “Sida Qiang (Four Major Vocal Melodies)” of the Yi people
1. Yi People
Yi people were descendents of ancient Qiang people, who used to inhabit in
Shaanxi, Gansu and Qinghai. In the early fourth century, Qiang people migrated
southwards, merging with indigenous tribes in the southwest to form the community
of Yi people.
Yi people have traditionally been engaged in farming, and they were polytheists,
even though there is a shift to accommodate religions such as Buddhism, Taoism,
Christianity and Catholicism.
Owing to the scattered locations of habitats and proliferation of dialects, Yi people
is divided into many branches, and hence they have diversified folk music styles.
2. Sida Qiang (Four Major Vocal Melodies)
“Sida Qiang” is a genre of folk song sung by the Nisu branch of Yi people
in Jianshui and Shiping of Yunnan Province. The music is closely linked to the
traditional custom of social activities and courtship amongst the young population,
“Singing at the Bonfire”, which is held in the suburbs, temples, ancestral temples
or public areas in villages in the evening, covering three activities: (i) “Opening
dialogues”, when youngsters drink and smoke, and break the ice by chatting in
rhymed dialogues (sometimes burst into songs), mostly in humble manner mixed with
humour, or teasing one another; (ii) Antiphonal singing, when male and female singers
lead a group of their same sex to sing antiphonally, to the accompaniment of a seated
group, the repertoire being lengthy enchanting songs with fixed patterns, namely “Sida
Qiang”; (iii) Dancing to the strings (Tiaoxian), when the crowd stand up, and dance
to instrumental performance of an ensemble based on stringed instruments, such as
Sixian (four-stringed lute), Sanxian (three-stringed lute), Erhu fiddle, Dizi flute and
the most rudimentary instrument “leaf”.
“Sida Qiang” is a collective term for Haicai’qiang (Seaweed Tune), Shanyao’qiang
(Yam Tune), Siqiang (Four-Tune) and Wushan’qiang (Five-mountain Tune), which are
developed separately in the four districts of Nisu people; they have different melodies,
and sung in form of song cycles. Compared with other genres of Yi folk songs, “Sida
Qiang” is characterized by long phrases, rigorous structure, rich contents and long
melodies. These songs demand high singing skills, hence have a high artistic outlook.
Lyrics of “Sida Qiang” are very varied, often centring on courtship, but can also
involve description of natural scenery and nitty gritty in daily lives. They can be sung
by a soloist, a group, or lead singer and a group, mixing the styles of long lyrical
melody and simple narrative singing, akin to the distinction of recitative and aria in
Western opera seria in the Baroque Period. Singers have to master the technique of
switching between real voice and falsetto.
3. Seaweed Tune33
Seaweed Tune developed in Shiping County, Yunnan Province, and it is also
popular in the neighbouring Jianshui, Tonghai, Yuanjiang, Honghe Counties, with
some influence in Gejiu City and Simao, Pu’er. The music has some impact on Han
folk songs.
The relatively short core lyrics of Seaweed Tune comprise 4 or 6 lines, each line
with seven words. They are set to an extended music structure, which includes three
parts, namely Juqiang (Beginning), Quzi (Tunes) and Luoqiang (Ending), a tripartite
form similar to introduction-song cycle-coda. Juqiang allows singers to perform
antiphonally, using humble words or initiating humour in order to break the ice, with
a flexible length depending on needs. Quzi is the song cycle proper, in which the
four-line core lyrics are set to seven melodies; there are strict rules governing the
combination of music and words, as illustrated below:
Melody I: first 6 words of Phrase I;
33 Read Xu Xiangkun: “Appreciation of ‘Seaweed Tune’ Lyrics of Yi Nationality of Yunan.” Chinese Music,
1989, Vol. 2.
Melody II: 7th word of Phrase I;

Melody III: first 5 words of Phrase II;
Melody IV: last 2 words of Phrase II;
Melody V: complete Phrase III, 7 words;
Melody VI: first 4 (or 3) words of phrase 4;
Melody VII: last 3 (or 4) words of phrase 4.
Each component of Seaweed Tune is made up of about 10 to 50 measures of

varying lengths, with padding words (such as “yo” and “hey”, “ma” and “ah”)
appearing before and after the formal lyrics, and infiltrated with meaningful but
irrelevant words (such as “Hello, Comrade Master and Quzi Master Wang”). All in all,
these “additional” words are more proliferate than the formal lyrics, hence are heard
more frequently than the core lyrics. The chorus joins in to conclude each melody,
adding much vigour. The style and content of the concluding part Luoqiang is akin
to the opening Juqiang, leaving the singer to decide its duration. It takes about 20
minutes to perform the complete Seaweed Tune.
An authentic performance of Seaweed Tune covers all aspects of courtship,
which includes probing, hooking, declining, flattering, vowing, departing, missing,
complaining, and teasing. Probing song intends to break the ice by courteous language
“to test the water”. Hooking song helps draw the attention of the targeted lover, with
text “I am carving the stone in Wenshan Mountain; you are herding cows in the plain;
a stone falls on the back of the cow; will you look up to see me”. Declining song is,
of course, sung to reject the approach of a courter, with the text “a green belt and
green socks are worn; a chicken is hanged on the left and a goose on the right; I can
handle the chicken and goose for sure, but cannot feel your sincerity.” Flattering song
is the mutual flattery of the lovers, targetting appearance, posture, morality, grace and
knowledge. Vowing song is to confirm the offer of eternal love, with the man singing,
“I will not leave you for life or death. I grab some mud to make a clay cow, and tie it
on the ridge of the field. I will only leave you when it eats the grass.” The woman then
sings: “I will not leave you for life or death. I grab some cooked rice on the stone,
and will only leave you when it sprouts.” Departing song is to express the reluctance
of the lovers parting, while missing song is to express love sickness for those in love.
Complaining song serves to accommodate grievences on difference between the rich
and poor, fate, society, parents, matchmaker, or the loved ones separated. Mocking
song is the ridicule, sarcasm or cursing for the jilted.
Songs with formal lyrics are also sung by third parties to celebrate successful
matching of a couple, or simply leisurely to describe beautiful scenery, customs and
daily events.
G. Ethnic Folk Songs Involving Part-Singing
Many ethnic folk songs in China are sung in parts, and these include repertoire of
the Han people. In other words, such a mode of performance is not a monopoly of any
particular group; hence it would be best to discuss this topic in the context of a very
broad base.
There is evidence that folk songs in south China involve part-singing, and these
include repertoire sung by ethnic groups of Zhuang, Dong, Buyi, Maonan and Mulao,
Tujia, Miao, Yao, She, Va, Yi, Lisu, Naxi, Jingpo and Gaoshan ethnic groups living
in Guangxi, Hunan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Fujian and Taiwan. These folk songs mainly
originated from collective activities like labour and social gathering (such as singing
festivals, sacrificial dance rituals and wedding ceremonies). It is possible to suggest
that part-singing developed accidentally through inconsistencies of body movement
or intonation. Then such a mode of performance became formalized structurally, and
different ethnic groups developed indigenous music with characteristic texture and
melodic charms. Singers and audiences began to have a strict conception of intonation
and melodic progression. Intervalic intonation melodically and harmonically soon
becomes the criterion for evaluating the singers. Those who have heard performances
of ethnic folk songs sung in parts tend to rank the singers higher than the Han
counterparts, particularly in delivering accurate intonation when the music progresses
horizontally and vertically; this is in addition to the amazing blending of different
voice parts.
Repertoire of southern ethnic folk songs sung in parts include “Shuangsheng (double
voices)” of Zhuang; “Dage (Galao)”, “Lanlu’ge (Stopping Road Song)”, “Yeh”,
“Geshao” of Dong; “Dage (Galao)”, “Xiaoge (Short Song)” of Buyi; “Huan”, “Bi” of
Maonan; “Xiaoge’qiang (The Tune of Short Song)” of Mulao; “Bridal Lamentations
(Kujia’ge)” of Tujia; “Saihai” of Miao; “Butterfly Song (Hudie’ge)”, “Old Man Tune
(Laoren’diao)” and “Youth Tune (Qingnian’diao)” of Yao; “Shuangyin (Double
Voices)” of She; “Wandiao” of Wa; “Yaqiang” of Yi; “Muguaji”, “Youye”, “Baishi” of
Lisu; “Wo-re-re” of Naxi; “Rice Husking (Chongmin’ge)” of Jingpo; “Weeding Song
(Chucao’ge)”, “Toasting Song (Jiuge)”, “Funeral Song (Sangzang’ge)”, “Rituual Song
(Jisi’ge)” and “Wedding Song (Hunli’ge)” of Gaoshan. From the above we can see that
some songs are named by their functions or styles, while others are just named using
the meaningless syllables used during singing. These folk songs can be divided into
five types: rounds, or juxtaposition of a main theme and an imitative melody; drone
bass, as well as combining ostinato and main melody; heterophonic treatment of the
main melody; and harmony and counterpoint. The texture of these five types is either
heterophonic or harmonic, with more pieces belonging to the former.
Some folk songs sung by Lisu and Gaoshan ethnic groups involve harmonic and
contrapuntal treatment of a melody. Also worth mentioning is a kind of Mongolian
folk songs in the north involving the special technique “Hoomei (Khöömii)”, or
throat singing (using overtones), allowing a singer to generate two voice parts. This
special technique is achieved by skillful manipulation of by first emiting a real tone
through the vocal cord, then control the harmonics generated to form a melody above,
at the same time gradually reducing the magnitude of the original real tone. There
are two kinds of Mongolian Khoomei: “uruulyn/labial khöömii” with beautiful and
lyrical melodies; “khamryn/nasal khöömii” with plain and simple melodies. A skillful
Khöömii singer can generate melodies rich in overtones upon a drone bass, similar in
style to Mongolian long folk songs.
CHAPTER II
DANCE MUSIC
SECTION 1 OVERVIEW
I. Definition of Dance Music

Music for Chinese folk dance shares many features with other genres of folk music,
owing to their common ethnic and geographic characteristics, as well as consistent
musical, artistic and cultural attributes. However, the genre deserves independent
investigation, owing to its uniqueness in structure, social function and eclectic
nature, hence possesses artistic qualities that have enabled its somewhat independent
development and preservation.
First, folk dance music distinguishes itself from dance music performed
professionally, owing to differences at social and artistic levels, even though the latter
may have some folk elements. Apart from the distinction of being “non-professional”
or “professional,” it may also be possible to define folk dance music as performances
integrated with daily lives, hence in a natural performance context.
Secondly, folk dance music is a temporal art linked to dance, which has both
temporal and spatial properties. Hence dance music is an indispensable element of
dance. It is appropriate to regard folk dance as a composite art, similar to Chinese
opera, Shuochang (Narrative Singing) and other folk genres. Since it is possible
to treat music of Chinese opera and Narrative Singing independently, music for
traditional dances may be addressed as an art form on its own.
Thirdly, performance of folk dance often straddles other folk genres, owing to the
high degree of compatibility of its music, especially those of composite nature. In any
case, Chinese folk music is generally considered to encompass five categories, namely
folk songs, dance music, instrumental music, narrative singing and opera. From these,
folk dance music can be further divided into music related to folk songs, instrumental
music and opera. Hence folk dance music has features arising from its association
with dance, at the same time it cannot sever from genres of composite nature.
Having considered all factors relating to this genre, the following is a possible
definition: Chinese folk dance music - in contrast to the more artificial professional
counterpart - is a genre combining folk songs, instrumental music, narrative singing,
opera and other elements of folk music. It has a long history, and is related to social
lives of fifty-six ethnic groups in China. It has coexisted with other musical genres,
and has played a vital role in the transmission of culture, at the same time providing
aesthetic and cultural entertainment for all concerned.
II. Historical Evolution of Chinese Dance Music

A. Music and Dance in Ancient Times
Music for folk dance in China may have originated in the era of ancient clans, as
86 CHAPTER II DANCE MUSIC
recorded in Shanhai’jing (Classic of the Mountains and Seas), “Emperor Jun had eight
sons who could sing and dance.1” Another ancient literary source Sheji in Shangshu
(“Country Section”, Book of History) refers to the performance as “hitting or striking
a stone to accompany dances of all animals”2. These scenes were of course, recorded
by historians many generations later; some unearthed archaeological artefacts of
ethnic minorities matched the descriptions of these written sources, including stone
inscriptions of Cangyuan of Yunnan, Huashan of Guangxi, Yinshan of Inner Mongolia
and dance patterns on unearthed pottery from Datong, Qinghai. One can appreciate the
artistic charm of combination of music and dance in primitive era, while investigating
the development of the art. There are, of course, limitations on pursuing details on
performances based on iconographic sources, especially in the eras want of detailed
choreographic or music notations. It is, however, possible to re-construct a possible
scene of how music and dance were performed in The Music of the Getian Clan
(Getianshi Zhiyue) recorded in Shiji (Book of History) and Shijing (Book of Songs).
Fig. 2-1. A stone inscription of Cangyuan, a county in Yunnan Province
The music of Getian Clan refers to two art forms combined: first, the dance of “three
men holding ox tails and dancing to their paces”, and second, “Ge Baque (singing
eight episodes of songs).”3 It seems the dance was connected with ancient rituals,
1 帝俊有子八人，始为歌舞。
2 击石拊石，百兽率舞。
3 According to the records of Lushi Chunqiu: Guyue (Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Lu, Ancient Music
Section) , the ancient Music of Getian Clan, “Three men held the ox tails and dance to the pace and sing eight
songs (Ge Baque 歌八阕 ) were entitled Zaimin ( 载民 Respecting People), Xuanniao ( 玄鸟 Spiritual Birds),
Zhu Caomu ( 遂草木 Wood and Grass Growing), Fen Wugu ( 奋五谷 Crops Cultivation), Jing Tianchang (
敬天常 Nature Worship), Da Digong ( 达帝功 Emperor’s Power) , Yi Dide ( 依地德 Moral of the Earth) and
Zong Qinshou Zhiji ( 总禽兽之极 Myriad Kinds of animals).”
Historical Evolution of Chinese Dance Music 87
with ox tails as paraphernalia, while the songs could be sung to express the praises,
exclamations or reverence to a tribal totem (mysterious bird), heaven and earth,
sovereignty and people, grass and trees, five cereals, and even myriad things in the
universe related to specific social and cultural proposition of natural religions, politics,
economy and the military. Hence these were folk songs with narrative elements. The
composite nature of dance is conveyed succinctly in the Book of Songs, where its
poems were sung to instrumental accompaniment (possibly the Guqin horizontal lute),
and in some circumstances, involved dancing4.
These performances were some kinds of art forms, but they also served as a means
to preserve history and culture. There is evidence that some dance songs had narrative
elements, and were pieces of early evidences of historical legends and chronicles of
primitive people prior to invention of scripts, just like narrative epics of many ethnic
groups5. When addressing early culture of mankind, it is vital to capture their means
of expression, that is, the tendency to adopt eclectic fusion of arts, literature and
socio-culture. Through appreciating dances as a combined art, it is possible to explore
the development of music, history and literature (poetry).
B. Folk Dance Music during Xia, Shang and Zhou Periods (c. BC 16th Century - BC 771)
In the era of earliest recorded history of China - Xia, Shang, and Zhou periods - the
form and content of music and dance were bound by history and art. Its social function
was still under the primitive theocracy of totems and witchcraft, even though there
was some kind of feudal monarchy. Folk dances were performed as part of worship,
while dances were also performed by witches (Wu, female) and wizards (Xi, male) at
ancestral offerings, divinations and communication with gods. At the same time, folk
ritual genres were performed at court, drawing the attention of the ruling class, and
sowing seeds for the emergence of Yayue (Ceremonial Music). The Xia and Shang
periods have been classified as an early stage of feudal slavery. The genre Daiwu was
a kind of ritual dance developed from folk dance, and was performed in ceremonies
praying for rain6. Since the performances were monopolized by guardians of nature,
such as witches and wizards (Xi), etymologists believe that the character “witch ( 巫
Wu)” was derived from “dance ( 舞 Wu)”, hence the close tie between ritual and
dance. This was the period when Han people of Central Plains had frequent exchanges
with the ethnic minorities of frontiers, a phenomenon still found in provinces like
Yunnan or Xinjiang. During the period from BC 2015 to BC 1774, a tribe named
Fangyi and other representatives of ethnic minorities paid tribute to China by means
4 Mozi: Gong Meng ( 墨子· 公孟 ) reads: “300 songs for reciting, 300 songs for instrumental playing, 300
songs (poems) for singing, and 300 songs for dancing.”
5 Karl Marx used this statement to describe the historical significance of the German ballads. Please refer Karl
Marx: Summary of Thomas Hunt Morgan’s Book “Ancient Society”(《摩尔根〈古代社会〉一书摘要》),
People’s Publishing House, p 234.
6 Yang Yinliu: Draft of Chinese Ancient Music History (Part I), People’s Music Publishing House, 1980, p19.
“Dai” ( 代 ), meaning passing down in turns. Dancers should hold the ox tail and pass it down among the
dancers in turns.
of performing music and dance at the Xia court7. The Zhou period was considered a
model of political and military might, and a Grand Master of Music was appointed
to take charge of all music matters at court, focusing largely on Yayue (Ceremonial
Music) as an administrative and didactic tool. In addition to performances of Six
Generations of Music (Liudai Zhiyue) for ancestral worship of the former Kings,
there were also Sanyue (Han Chinese Music) and Yiyue (Music for Foreign Tribes),
referring to folk music of Central Plains and songs and dances of ethnic minorities
on the borders, and performed by local vassals and Siyi (foreign tribes). The last two
types of music and dance were administered by Maoren (officer for foreign music) at
court8.
C. Folk Dance Music during the Han and Wei through the Tang and Song Dynasties
(BC 206–1279 AD)
During the Han and Wei Dynasties (BC 206–265AD), all genres of folk dances,
music, acrobatics, magic, martial arts and comedies throughout China were called
Sanyue (Han Chinese Music), Baixi (Variety Shows) or Jiaodi’xi (Wrestling Show),
and they were performed as an integrated art. According to Yueshu (Book of Music),
“Jiaodi’xi was instituted during the period of Six States, and it was popularized
during the Qin Dynasty, and flourished then abandoned during the Han Dynasty, but
reinstated by Emperor Wu”. Baixi (Jiaodi’xi) of the Han Dynasty was a vital folk
genre representing the highest level of performing art, and it was part of imperial
feasts, as well as an item at the receptions of foreign envoys. Programmes for Baixi
included Bowl-Drum Dance (Pangu’wu), Scarf Dance (Jinwu), Sleeve Dance (Xiuwu),
Jian-Drum Dance (Jiangu Wu), Stilts and Dragon Dance as well as genres with
designated roles, such as Masquerade (Zonghui Xianchang) and Huang Gong of the
East Sea (Donghai Huanggong). This was the period when Baixi was subject to the
influence of similar genres of surrounding territories of minor people. In the first
century, the Shan nation established by southeast and southwest Shan Dai people once
sent envoys comprising musicians, dancers and magicians to the Eastern Han court9.
In the periods leading to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (220–581), there was
a fashion for Xianghe Daqu, large-scale suites of song and dance evolved from art
songs Xianghe’ge (literary translation as “harmonious song”, a kind of ancient art
song). These dance suites are divided into Yan (overture or introduction), Qu (multi-
7 Lushi: Postscript ( 路史·后记 ), Vol.13, Annotations quoted from Bamboo Annals: “After Shaokang took the
throne, an envoy from the frontier region came to the court and submitted their music dance.” Ancient Edition
of Bamboo Annals ( 古本竹书纪年 ) also records: “In the first year after the new emperor ascended to the
throne, all guests from the frontier regions gathered in the imperial court. The servants introduced the art to
the humped stage, and then all guests danced together.”
8 As recorded in Rites of Zhou: Spring Official ( 周礼· 春官 ): “Hui is the manager of Sanyue and Yiyue,
taking care of the dancers from all places.” Lin Yin ( 林尹 ) noted: “The so-called Sanyue is various kinds
of performances, as it does not belong to Yayue (elegant music or court music). This official is involved in
recruiting barbarians who are good at dancing, and teach them the art. As the music is associated with dance,
it is called “teaching dance with Sanyue.”
9 As recorded in Annals of Later Han: Biography of Southwestern Barbarians ( 后汉书·西南夷传 ), in the 1st
year of Yongning Period of the Eastern Han (120 AD), the Shan Kingdom “once sent envoys to the Eastern
Han court to present music and magic.”
movement singing), Jie (dance interlude between the singing parts) and Qu (coda).
The section Jie is dance music played by instruments in fast rhythm that can be
repeatedly incorporated to songs or instrumental pieces. For instance, in Xinsheng
Ershiba’jie (Twenty-eight Variations of New Sounds), composed by Li Yannian, Jie
was played twenty-eight times. The main body of Xianghe Daqu includes songs such
as Dongmen (Eastern Gate), Xishan (Western Mountain), Luofu (Foilum mori Picking
Girl), Ximen (Western Gate), Momo (Meaningless), Yuantao (Peach Garden), Baihao
(Swan), Jieshi (Jie Stone), Hechang (Negation), Zhijiu (Offering Wind), Luoyang
Xing (Travelling to Luoyang) and Baitou’yin (White Hair Song). The accompanying
instruments include Dizi flute, Sheng mouth organ, Qin lute, Se (25-stringed horizontal
zither), Zheng zither, Pipa pear-shaped lute and Jie-clapper. There are iconographical
sources on dance and music of ethnic minorities in this period from unearthed cultural
relics. The bronze drum design and sculpture pattern of a cowrie-container converted
from a bronze drum unearthed at Shizhaishan, Jinning, Yunnan vividly depicts cultural
scenes of southwestern minorities in Yunnan before the first century. On one of the
drum-shaped cowrie-containers, there are engravings depicting two concentric rings
of dance images. In the outer ring, fourteen bare-handed female dancers dance to the
drums played in the inner ring; the inner ring features a large bronze drum surrounded
by nine dancers, two of whom sing and dance with one of their hands striking the
drum, while the other hands are raised with their palms facing the sky. Another man
holds a small bronze drum, beating it with his left hand to echo the man in front, while
another man seems to be leading the dancers with his knees slightly bent, raising his
right hand with his elbow bent and his left hand in front of his chest. Ancient literary
sources refer to Bayu Dance (Bayu’wu, Dance from Ba people) as a collective work
of the ethnic minorities in southwestern China. In BC 206, a war broke out, and the
ethnic people in the southwest “Banmeiman (Wooden Shield10)” helped the Han
master Liu Bang win the combat. Liu was so impressed with the ethnic dance he
watched, because from it, he could associate his victory with that of the ancient legend
King Wu conquering King Zhou. Liu soon ordered his court performers to learn the
ethnic dance.
Because the dance is still popular along the Yu River in Ba Prefecture between
Sichuan and Hubei, the dance is named Bayu Dance11. In addition, the Turks in
the north and nomadic tribes of Gaoche people in the west also had the custom of
10 The ancient nationality “Cong ethnic group” ( 賨族 ) inhabited in the states of Qin, Shu, Ba and Han during
the Warring States Period. Since the shields they used were made of wood, they were known as “Banmeiman”
( 板楣蛮 ). In the early Western Han Dynasty, they had the privilege to pay less “Cong money” ( 賨钱 ) for
their military achievements in pacifying Qin, and they were known as “Zemin” ( 箦民 ).
11 Annals of Later Han ( 后汉书 ), vol.116, “Biography of Southern Barbarians” ( 南蛮列传 ) records: “The
Emperor Gaozu of Han sent the barbarians to war against Qin. After Qin was pacified, they returned to Ba.
... known as Banmeiman barbarians. There is a river in Langzhong. The people lived by the river banks and
had a valiant nature. They were deployed as the vanguards and won several battles. They sing and dance
regularly. The Emperor Gaozu of Han noticed this and said: “This is the song of King Wu’s conquest over
Yin, and ordered people to learn the dance, known as Bayu Dance.”
assembling, singing, dancing and worshiping on festive occasions.12

In the Sui Dynasty, music and dance as well as Baixi (Variety Shows) were
performed across the country, especially during the Lantern Festival on fifteenth day
of the first lunar month. This was a show of strength by Emperor Yang, who would
summon folk artists to perform Baixi on large scales, partly for the benefit of foreign
envoys. This huge expenditure, of course, drew criticism from court ministers13. Such
kinds of celebrations were to continue in the ensuing Tang Dynasty: the Lantern
Festival was a celebration for three days, allowing people to visit sites all over the
countries; the literary class had an opportunity to solve riddles hanged on lanterns.
It was reported that on one occasion, the Emperor Xuanzong ordered thousands of
maidens and over 1,000 women in Chang’an to “sing and dance below the lanterns for
three consecutive days and nights” (see Chaoye Qianzai, literary sketches by Zhang
Ying in the Tang Dynasty). It was a habit of the Emperor to ascend the imperial tower
to watch lanterns and “share the joy with the citizens”. In late tenth century, the early
Song Dynasty court extended the lantern celebrations from three to five nights, in
order to declare that “the country is prosperous and peaceful”. Performances included
“hocus-pocus and magic tricks, and the singing and dancing Baixi were performed one
after another with music and noise heard over ten Li (each unit is equivalent to 500
metres) away…Tie a bundle of straw in the shape of a dragon and cover the shelters
with green grass. Then densely hang ten thousand lanterns one after another winding
like two dragons flying away.” (Dongjing Menghua’lu, Records on Entertainment in
the Eastern Capital). This could be the first appearance of the dragon dance.
From the third to tenth centuries, ethnic minorities in China encountered excessive
turmoil, migration and changes of relations. Ironically, this was also a period for the
cross-fertilization of songs, dances and other art forms between the ethnic groups,
and with the Han people. Around the year 384, General Lu Guang of the Northern
Wei made an expedition to the West, and brought home Qiuci music that had been
influenced by culture of ethnic minorities. Integration of foreign elements with Han
music of Central Plain had led to a new genre named Qinhan’yue (Music of Central
China). During the reign of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei around 431, Qinhan’yue
was transformed to Xiliang’yue music, which became fashionable in northern areas.
At the same time, Xianbei (an ancient ethnic group), Qiuci (a place currently called
Kuche) and Indian ethnic music were disseminated to Central Plains, and the Court
12 Northern History-Biography of Turks ( 北史· 突厥等传 ): “In mid-May, people gathered to worship the

gods.” “Men preferred playing chess games while women liked kicking balls. They rode on horses, drank
wine and sang songs. They worshipped ghosts and gods and believed in witchcrafts.” Annals of Wei:
Biography of Gaoche ( 魏书· 高车传 ): “Everybody, old and young, men and women, loved parties and
gathering. Healthy people would sing and dance for entertainment while families with the deceased persons
would cry with the musical instruments playing sad tunes.”
13 Annals of Sui-Records of the Emperor Yang of Sui ( 隋书·扬帝纪 ): “In the 6th year (610 AD), from the
1st day to the 15th day of the first lunar month, the Jiaodi Xi (a kind of operatic performance) would be
performed in Duanmen street. Various performances would be put on and the festival lasted for a whole
month.” Annals of Sui-Biography of Liu Huo ( 隋书·柳或传 ): “In recent years, urban people put on Jiaodi
Xi on every Lantern Festival and they vied for excellence. A great deal financial resources were wasted on
this. So a memorial to the throne was submitted to ban the event.”
also had dance genres from Gaochang (a place currently called Turfan), Shule (a
place currently called Shufu county) and Samarkand people in Western Regions, as
well as from nations like Yueban (an old state located in current Kazakstan), Anguo
(an old state located in current Uzebekstan) , Gaoli (present Korea) to enrich Yayue
ceremonial music at court (this form of music for entertainment must be distinguished
from Confucian ritual music of the same name)14. By the Sui and Tang Dynasties,
the main body of the Nine and Ten Sections of Yanyue (Entertainment Music) had
heavy ethnic elements. In 718, the first dance suite Daqu (Composite Music) called
Liangzhou Daqu (Composite Music from Liangzhou) of the minority was performed
in Liangzhou in the northwest. During the mid-Zhenyuan Period of Tang, King Yi
Mouxun of the Nanzhao Kingdom (Nanzhao’wang Yi Mouxun) of the southwest
dispatched Yang Jiaming to offer their ethnic music and dance to Wei Gao, official of
foreign affairs in Jiannan, West Xichuan. Based on these foreign music materials, Wei
Gao composed a large-scale dance suite Nanzhao Music Offered to the Imperial Court
(Nanzhao Fengsheng’yue) to the Tang Emperor. According to Biography of Nanzhao
of New Annals of Tang, the same piece was rearranged according to the format of
Court Music, while retaining the Nanzhao ethnic style. The performance involved
over 200 dancers and musicians; songs included Shengzhu Wuwei’hua (meaning “God
appearing to be inert but in fact active”), Nanzhao Chaotian’yue (Processional Music
of Nanzhao), Haiyu’xiu Wenhua (Elegance of the Land), Pitu Dingling’sai (Dying
for Expanding Land), Tiannan Dianyue’su (Yunnan Customs on the South Land ) and
Fengsheng’yue (The Music for the Emperor); resources were drawn from four Music
Departments, including Qiuci, Big Drum, Foreign and Military; twenty-four pieces
of music instruments formed the accompanying ensemble; songs were sung as solo,
choral and accompanied pieces. The dancers were dressed in “Nanzhao clothes, red
skirts, black hats, golden socks, animal-skinned boots, jewelry headgear and golden
crowns, as well as revealing painted arms”, typical style of southern ethnic minorities.
This is a demonstration of the flexibility of accommodating arts of different origins
to songs and dances in the period, as well as how art forms in China may be enriched
while retaining the Han characteristics.
In the Tang and Song Dynasties (638–1279) rapid development of urban society
provided opportunities for increased public performances of songs and dances, leading
to huge improvement in standards, and a shift from self or mass entertainment to
performance with professional traits. Indeed, this trend of artistic development enabled
the genre to dominate the stage, from court to ordinary people, and from urban to
rural areas. In late Sui Dynasty (581–618), ancient genre of Han song and dance had
developed into three independent sub-genres, namely small and large scale song and
dance, as well as song and dance dramas. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, the genre
small-scale song and dance reached its zenith. The repertoire consisted of over seventy
works, which were performed at festive occasions such as Spring Festival, Lantern
Festival, Tomb-sweeping Day and the Tianning Festival (Birthday of Emperor Huizong
14 See Annals of Sui-Section of Music ( 隋书·音乐志 ).

of Song). Some pieces with the same titles are still performed at urban and rural Zouhui
(Hurrying to Fair) folk festivals, and these include Nannu Zhuma (Male and Female
Bamboo Horses), Pu’hudie (Catching Batterfly), Han’huachuan (Rolling Land Boat),
Cuntian’le (Entertainment), Ta Xiao (Sticks) and Shua’heshang (A Funny Monk).
Large-scale song and dance genre was further developed by professionals on the basis
of Daqu (Composite Music) of the Tang Dynasty, through the archaic Xianghe Daqu
(Composite Harmonious Music) tradition, at the same time absorbing the essences of
the style of ethnic minorities of Western Regions and Han folk songs. Each work is
based on three elements, including Sanxu (Prelude in Free Rhythm), Zhongxu (Fast
Song and Dance) and Po (Broken Form, accelerated tempo). The repertoire consists of
forty-six pieces, including Lyuyao (title of a music piece), Liangzhou (Liangzhou is a
place, but here used as title of a music piece), Nichang Yuyi (Rainbow and Colourful
Coat, title of a famous music piece), Fanlong’zhou (Rolling Dragon Boat), Yushu
Houting’hua (Jade Tree and Backside Garden) and Tujue Santai (Three Variation of
Turks). The accompanying musical instruments included Qing Chime Stones, Xiao
Vertical Flute, Zheng Zither, Konghou Harp, Pili Small double-reed pipe and Sheng
Mouth Organ. Song and dance dramas are folk dances with story lines; repertoire in
the Tang Dynasty included Canjun’xi (Military Drama) and Tayao’niang (Female Song
Drama). The former is a satirical drama; the latter reflects the social relations of men
and women, and they had much influence on later dramatic art forms.
Important genres of song and dance of the Tang Dynasty had great impact on
folk dances of later generations, especially dances such as Jianwu (Strong Dance)
and Ruanwu (Soft Dance). The former is vigorous and forceful, while the latter is
graceful and agile, complying with the styles of Wuwu (Martial Dance) and Wenwu
(Civil Dance) of Yangge Dance (Field Dance) and Yangge’xi (Field Dance Drama)
of later generations. In addition, group dances at the Song Court such as Zhezhi’wu
dance (Zhezhi was an ancient State also called Shiguo in Chinese, Tash in Pesian.
It located in current Uzebekstan), Cailiang’wu (Lotus-picking Dance) and Jianwu
(Sword Dance) are led by Zhugan’zi (Bamboo Holder) and Zhangzi’tou (Stick Head
Holder), together with several dancers. Zhugan’zi is a performer of Canjun’se (Military
Drama) who holds a bamboo pole and serves as announcer of celebratory texts as
well as commander for signaling dancers on and off the stage. These roles are similar
to those of the present conductor, director and stage manager, a tradition preserved in
Yangge performances in North China. The Zhugan’zi of the Song Dynasty is almost
identical to the Santou (Head of Umbrella), Gantou’er (Head of Tree Branch) and
Yao Daifu (Doctor of Medicine) of the present Grand Yangge Dance. In addition, after
the emergence of Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performances) in the Northern Song
Dynasty, it was frequently scheduled with performances of Baixi (Variety Shows)
Group Dance. The mode of performance of the existing tradition of Yangge Dance has
much resemblance to the old tradition.
D. Folk Dance Music during the Yuan (1279–1368), Ming (1368–1644) and Qing
(1644–1911) Dynasties
The tradition of song and dance of the Han people faced a downturn from the
late thirteenth century, owing to the emergence of the more attractive “down to
earth” genres of Shuochang (Narrative Singing) and Xiqu (Opera). The demise
of performance of songs and dances was so conspicuous that the genre was not
mentioned in literary writings for some time, although they were still performed in
ceremonies and banquets, as a result of the joyous atmosphere they might generate.
They were also performed at folk sacrificial rituals, because of their accommodating
nature in contrast to narrative singing or opera. Large and medium scales of folk song
and dance performances were organized in urban areas by travelling troupes (Zouhui),
while performances of small groups were held in rural areas. Promotion of emigration
to the under-developed Eastern Hebei and three provinces of the Northeast had led to
expansion of metropolis and agriculture. This was followed by introduction of genres
of songs and dances, as well as opera from south of the Yangtze River, to entertain the
new settlers, who were military personnel, poor people, prisoners and detainees from
Eastern Shanxi, Shandong, Hebei, and even inhabitants along the Yangtze and Huai
Rivers. By the mid-Ming Dynasty, performances of folk song and dance were of the
same scale as today; North China is the present centre of Yangge, and it has retained
a relatively authentic style of performance. Notwithstanding areas along Yangtze and
Huai Rivers had been centres for song and dance genre, the tradition is replaced by
relatively new genres such as Tea-Picking Dance and Flower Drum Dance, as a result
of the lack of traditional Zouhui activities.
During the past few centuries, there were steady development politically, socially,
economically and culturally along the borders where ethnic minorities aggregated,
leading to wide-spread performances of song and dance genres of ethnic groups.
The art was disseminated from villages to the cities, then to the Court and among
ruling and literary class. According to the History of Rexide (Rexide’shi), History of
Musicians (Yueshi’shi) and other Uyghur historical records, Xinjiang Uyghur Muqam
song and dance genre was developed from ancient Qiuci music by the concubine
Amanni Shahan of the Yerqiang kingdom during the Ming Dynasty. Owing to the
hard work of Uyghur musicians and folk artists over a few generations, the structure
of this large-scale song and dance genre took shape, and comprising three parts,
namely Naghma, Dastan and Mashrap. Around the seventeenth century, Tibetan folk
song and dance genre Duipu began to spread to urban and rural areas, and audiences
included people of all walks (even monks), largely owing to performances of Tibetan
folk opera troupes at Sho Dun Festival. Duipu was, of course, subject to influence
of foreign music cultures, and it later became more serious genres, Gar and Nangma
combining court and folk music and dance. There was a fashion of performing song
and dance in all areas inhabited by ethnic minorities, and their repertoire included
Dage (Wa ethnic dance), Elephant-foot Drum Dance, Lusheng (Bamboo Mouth
Organ) Dance, Bronze Drum Dance, Taoist Master’s Dance (Shigong Dance), Shaman
Dance, Hunting Dance and Banquet Dance, as well as songs and dances of ethnic
minorities in Taiwan. Such developments are well documented in historical records.
Increased interactions between different ethnic groups and with the Han people have
led to further changes in art forms as the result of social and cultural developments.
III. Artistic Features of Folk Dance

Folk dance comprises elements that cannot be severed, and treated as independent
entities. Dance and music in folk culture have a symbiotic relationship; they are
interdependent because the two art forms complement one another. From the
perspective of artistic morphology, it is still possible to view various elements of folk
dance from different angles for diffusing, analyzing and defining their characteristics.
A. Folk Dance as a Comprehensive Art
From an artistic point of view, folk dance is not a mere visual display of body
movements, but a combined art form involving elements of music (singing and
instrumental performance), movement according to pulse, acting and narration. The
ambit of body movement is broad, and may also encompass acrobatics, martial arts
and sports, as well as other elements not classified as artistic. In short, all domains of
body movements can somehow be incorporated to folk dance. It is therefore crucial to
consider these factors and their inter-relationship when appreciating the genre.
As a branch of art, music for folk dance has a strong association with other genres,
such as folk songs, instrumental music, opera and narrative music. Hence its eclectic
nature has led to an enhanced level of expression, as it may allure to specific genres to
achieve its desired programmatic content, accounting for its uniqueness.
B. Genre Classification and Characteristics of Folk Dance
Folk dance can be divided into three categories according to the mode of
performance, namely dancing to songs, dancing to instrumental music, and song and
dance skit. The first two categories refer to performances involving the combination
of body movements and music without the dancers involved in taking up dramatic
roles, while the last has a dramatic element, even though to a much lesser extent than
folk opera (hence more akin to Punch and Judy show in England or Commedia d’Arte
in Italy).
1. Song and Dance
Song and Dance refers to the genre of performance based on singing and dancing,
and can be divided into the following two categories:
(1) Singing and Dancing Simultaneously
The main elements of this genre are singing and dancing. According to the
proportion of dance and song, it may be further divided into: (i) Song-oriented form.
This is found in folk rituals as well as daily performances. Examples of the former
include Shaman Dance Qingshen’ge (Welcoming Spirits) of the northeast ethnic
minorities, Mongolian Andai’ge (Calming Song), Dage (Dancing Song) with narrative
nature (narrative Dage) from the southwestern ethnic minorities, funeral song and
dance of the Jingpo ethnic group, Wo-re-re of the Naxi people and Tujia funeral
dance (Saye Erhe); these folk ritual dances are dominated by singing and chanting,
with simple dance movements. Other examples include dance performances of Han
people associated with Yangge (Field Dance), Tea-picking, Flower Drum and Lantern
Festival, featuring the singing of folk songs and Xiaodiao (Ditties) with simple dance
steps; similar features are found in northwestern banquet dance performances. (ii)
Artistic Features of Folk Dance 95
Songs and dance are of equal importance. This is found in genre such as Tibetan
Sgor-Gzhas, some Dage with emotion expressional nature (lyrical Dage) from
southwestern ethnic groups, as well as hunting and pastoral genres of northern ethnic
groups. (iii) Song and dance accompanied by musical instruments. Some dance genres
dominated by singing may be accompanied by instruments, and these include Tibetan
Duixie that uses the plucked instrument Zhamnie; Xianzi Dance (Xianzi’wu) uses
Ox-horn fiddle (Niujiao’hu) or Erhu fiddle for accompaniment; some lyrical Dage
involves instruments such as bamboo flute, Yueqin moon lute, Xiao flute and Sanxian
lute as accompaniment; Uyghur Twelve Muqam and Dorang Mukam use tambourines,
string and percussion instruments for accompaniment; Han genres such as Fengyang
Flower-drum Dance and Lianxiang (Lutus Bulbs, a kind of folk dance which dancers
hold a stick with inserted small bells), Lianhua’lao (The Lotus Flower Tune), as well
as Xiaoche’wu (Small Carriage Dance), Pao’hanchuan (Running Land Boat) and
Pao’zhuma (Riding on Bamboo Horse) have the similar features.
(2) Alternation of Singing and Dancing
In some dance performances, singing and dancing alternate with one another,
meaning that they are relatively independent. Musical instruments are mainly used to
accompany dance. This mode of performance may be applicable to certain pieces, and
may be adopted when necessary. Examples of the genre include Han dances such as
Dongbei Yangge (Field Dance in Northeast), Jidong Yangge (Field Dance in Eastern
Hebei) and Flower-drum and Lantern Dances of the south; genres of ethnic groups
include Tibetan Nangma and Zhuo dances, Dai people’s Shier’ma Wu (Twelve-Horse
Dance), Gengu’diao (Tune Following Drum) and Va people’s Shuigu’wu (Water-Drum
Dance). One must bear in mind that folk genres of ethnic minorities may not be very
authentic, as there have been persistent cultural exchanges with Han people.
2. Dance Accompanied by Instruments
Dances accompanied by instruments are common in daily performances for
entertainment, and less seen in folk rituals. Instruments used include percussion, wind
and plucked strings (rarely bowed strings). The genre may be further divided into the
following two categories:
(1) Dancing with Musical Instruments
According to the nature of accompanying instruments, the genre may be further
divided into the following three categories: (i) Percussion accompaniment: drums are
most frequently used, as seen in many dances named after the accompanying drums.
First, drums are carried and played by the same performers. This is seen in Han
genres such as Flower-fragrance Drum Dance (Xianggu’wu), Waist Drum Dance of
Northern Shaanxi (Shanbei Yaogu) and Flower Drum Dance of Western Shanxi (Jinxi
Huagu); the manners of playing drums by ethnic minorities are even more varied, the
most notable genres being Uyghur Hand Drum Dance (Shougu’wu), Tibetan Zhuo
Dance, Long-drum Dance of Korean Ethnic Group (Chaoxian’zu Changgu Wu),
Yao Long-drum Dance (Yaozu Changgu’wu), Zhuang Bee-drum Dance (Zhuangzu
Fenggu’wu) and Dai Elephant-foot Drum Dance (Daizu Xiangjiaogu’wu). Second,
performers dance to rhythms of drums. Some drums are oversized, and can only rest
on ground or in a carriage. The people participating frequently dance around the

instruments. When dancing to big drums of different shapes from ethnic groups, or
drums from the south, such as bronze drum or wooden-drum, performers may display
simple body movements as part of the show. (ii) Wind accompaniment: dancing to
wind instruments made of bamboo is popular among southern ethnic minorities,
hence relating to the abundance of raw materials, and the Lusheng (Bamboo Mouth
Organ) is by far the most important instrument used in Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi
and Hunan. There are two types of dances named according to the structure of the
accompanying mouth organ, namely Lusheng (Bamboo Mouth Organ) and Hulu’sheng
(Gourd Mouth Organ) Dances; the latter is under the ambit of Dage, which may
also involve instruments such as bamboo flute, reed branch, straw branch and leaves
(as instruments). Hence, singing is not part of Lusheng Dance. There is, however,
a fashion of “playing songs with Lusheng”, that is, the youngsters vocalize folk
songs on the Lusheng for courtship. (iii) Plucked string accompaniment: this genre is
popular among southern ethnic minorities, and many pieces are performed in similar
style to its counterparts, except those with melodies based on vocalizations of folk
songs, such as Lisu people’s Sanxian Dance, with the small three stringed lute Qibu’e
imitating the local language, much in the same style as “playing songs with Lusheng”.
The Da Sanxian Dance Gaosibi of the Sani people of the Yi ethnic minority is a genre
with accompaniment of the string instrument, yet it is evolved from the song and
dance genre.
(2) Dance Accompanied by Instrumental Ensemble
This form of dancing is found in daily performances, as well as some parts of folk
rituals. The instrumental ensemble truly accompanies the dancers, and differentiates
itself from the dancers, as in Han genres such as Field Dance (Yangge), Flower Drum
Dance (Huagu’deng) and Lantern Dance (Huadeng), which are accompanied by
gongs and drums beside the dancers. There are certain conventions on the choice
of instruments, as well as the size of the ensemble, and it has the same function in
different repertoire, such as Lion Dance and Dragon Dance. Ensemble accompaniment
is often used in dances of secular rituals among ethnic minorities; the main difference
between the ensembles is the adoption of indigenous instruments, such as the use of
hand drum (Raolu, Dake in Naxi) in the Tibetan religious dance Qiangmu (Cham) and
operatic dance, as well as Naxi Dongba Dance. Other instruments of ethnic minorities
with the same application include Bee Drum of Zhuang people, Elephant-foot Drum
of Dai people, as well as bronze and wooden drums with ethnic characteristics.
In addition, Uyghur Twelve Muqam and Naxi funeral dance Boshi’xili are also
accompanied by instrumental ensembles.
3. Song and Dance Skit
The genre comprising song and dance evolves naturally to an intermediary art
form midway between folk dance and opera; typical examples include Erren’zhuan
(Swirls for Two Actors), Erren’tai (Two-narrator Dance-drama) and Hancheng Yangge
(Hancheng Field Dance) of the north, as well as Tea-picking (Caicha) and Colourful
Lantern (Huadeng) Dances in the south. The process of such evolution is reflected
Artistic Features of Folk Dance 97
in Tea-picking Song-and-Dance of Nouthern Guangxi (Guinan Caicha Gewu), a

genre that has existed for over a century. Its development is divided into three stages
of songs, songs-and-dances, and skit. In the first stage, tea-picking songs centred on
Tea-picking in Twelve Months (Shieryue Caicha) are sung unaccompanied; then, the
Tea Picking Song (Caicha’ge) was sung as an encore with Lion-and-Dragon Dances,
an item known as “Lion together with Tea (Shizi Jia Caicha)”. Later, the content of
“tea-picking” was expanded to become a suite of songs and dances over ten songs,
known as the “Tea-picking Grand Series (Caicha Dalie)”. There was a possibility to
insert exotic folk songs to the main programme, known as “Tea Episodes (Chacha)”,
forming a kind of cyclic structure based on the parent song Chaqiang (Tea-picking
Melody). The final stage of development involved the insertion of Caicha Chuangu
(Tea-picking Story) to songs and dances, narrating stories and legends. Dramatically,
the genre was ready to accommodate operatic roles, and musically it was enriched by
adoption of different Qupai (Labelled Pieces), supported rhythmically by gongs and
drums, as well as wind and string melodic instruments. This process of transformation
of Tea Picking Dance Music to Dance Skit is shared by other genres.
SECTION 2 DANCE MUSIC AND ITS
ARTISTIC FEATURES
There are different ways of defining Chinese folk dance music: first, it may be
classified from ontological perspective, according to the dance genre it is affiliated
with, hence is distinguished as vocal or instrumental music 15, and on this basis,
a composite genre of song and dance in grand scale16. Second, dance music may
be classified according to style, according to where and how certain dance forms
originated and developed. The music is then analyzed from different perspectives,
defined and grouped using the same methodology of treating other traditional
Chinese music genres17. Here, the first method of classification is adopted, but it is
supplemented by some aspects of the second.
I. Vocal Dance Music

Chinese folk dances may be performed while singing, and the songs help strengthen
expressive power of the dances, hence they are called Dance Songs. These songs are
usually sung unaccompanied, but instruments may be introduced when necessary.
Dance songs are frequently heard in performances of folk dance of the Han and ethnic
minorities.
A. Tea-picking Dance Song
1. Origin of Tea-picking Dance
Tea-picking Dance is popular in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Anhui, Fujian, Guangxi,
Guangdong, Hunan, Hubei and other provinces producing tea. During the Tang and
Song Dynasties (618–1279), improved tea production prompted the fashion of drinking
tea, leading to rapid development of folk culture in tea producing areas. Tea-picking
Songs became popular in southern provinces, and their influence was strengthened in
the ensuing Ming Dynasty (1368–1644): they were even hailed by scholars as prime
examples of Wuyue (South China, particularly areas around south of Yangtse River) folk
songs. The Ming scholar Wang Jide had testified this in his Qulu (Principles of Labelled
Tunes), “Mountain songs of Wu and Tea-picking songs of Yue are popular folk songs
in the south, and each genre has its own charm, though not comparable to songs of the
15 See Huang Yunzhen: Collection of Chinese National Music: Volume of Singing and Dancing Music.
Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publishing House, 1991, p11. Also Yang Mikang: Chinese Folk Singing and
Dancing Music, Chapter I, Section 3, “Ontological Characteristics of Singing and Dancing Music”. Beijing:
People’s Music Publishing House, 1996, p24.
16 Wu Guodong: Chinese Folk Music. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education Publishing House, 1995, p97.
17 Yang Mikang: Chinese Folk Singing and Dancing Music, Chapter I, Section 3, “Ontological Characteristics
of Singing and Dancing Music”. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1996, p78.
Vocal Dance Music 99
Central Plains.” “Tea-picking” was, of course, the name of a kind of folk dance in the
main tea production areas in Jiangxi, as recorded in Annals of Jiangxi Customs (Jiangxi
Fengwu’zhi), “Handsome boys disguised themselves as tea-picking girls, and eight or
twelve of them lined up in each row, with two senior boys as leaders. Each holds an
ornamented basket, singing and dancing; the song was Tea-picking in Twelve Months.”
By the Qing Dynasty, there were records around the nation on Tea-picking songs and
dances: for example, Notes of Eastern Guangdong (Yuedong Biji) by Li Diaoyuan
records, “In the first lunar month in Guangdong, boys dress up as tea-picking girls in
rows of twelve. Each holds a tea basket with a lit lantern inside covered with crimson
gauze on top. They draw a big circle on the ground, dance along the ring, and sing Tea-
picking in Twelve Months.” Similar activities were organized in Fujian, as recorded in
Lingnan Zaji (Miscellaneous Records of Lingnan) by Wu Zhenfang, “In Chaozhou,
during the Lantern Festival, operas will be staged, and in the evenings inhabitants will
perform Yangge (Field Dance) in the streets, similar to activities in the Imperial capital.
The Tea-picking Dance was particularly attractive and charming, with boys disguised as
tea-picking girls with twelve or eight people in a line, each holding a decorated basket,
singing and dancing gracefully. This was fascinating.” There is also a record on Guangxi
found in Zhengpu County Annals (Zhengpu Xianzhi) during the Kangxi period, “During
the Lantern Festival, from the tenth to the sixteenth day (of the first lunar month), a
lantern will be hanged at the gate of each household. Handsome boys are chosen to put
on beautiful female dresses, each carrying a decorated basket to sing Tea-picking Songs
or put on a drama. They watch dragon dance and have great fun.”
2. Tea-picking Music
(1) Origin of Tea-picking Songs
Tea-picking songs and dances originated in southeast China, and as their popularity
grew, they began to influence surrounding areas, gradually permeating to over half
of the country. There is evidence that the music of the dance genre popular in many
places and formed as a tune family is founded on one basic melody18, Caicha’yao
(Tea-picking Ballad) of Yudu, Jiangxi.
Example 2-1. Caicha’yao (Tea-picking Ballad) of Yudu, Jiangxi

Tea plants are green and budding,
Tea picking girls finish work and watch the evening sunset clouds.
18 Huang Yunzhen: On “Tea-picking Family.” China Musicology,1994, Issue 1.

The song is symmetrical, based on a pair of phrases, with each phrase divided
into two short sub-phrases. The range is narrow (within an octave), and is conceived
according to the basic principle of Chinese melodic structure of Qi (beginning),
Cheng (continuation), Zhuan (change) and He (ending), descending progressively
in the course, as seen in the endings of sub-phrases I, II and IV. Unity is achieved
by persistent appearance of rhythmic pattern with a dotted crotchet. The melody is
simple, condensed, well-proportioned and rigorous, while its character is agile and
pleasant, with rhythm progressing freely and logically. This authentic Tea-picking
song is regarded as a valuable source for numerous pieces for generations in its birth
place Jiangxi, and it has inspired many artists, professional and amateur, to branch out
into multiplicity of related works, especially integration with other folk dance genres.
Among these, South Guangxi Tea-picking Song is most typical.
(2) Branches of Tea-picking Genres
Tea-picking Song and Dance in South Guangxi
Tea-picking Song and Dance in South Guangxi is also known as Chang Zhuma
(Singing Bamboo Horse), Chang Caicha (Singing Tea-picking) or Caicha’xi (Tea-
picking Opera). The genre is mainly popular in Yulin and Qinzhou, but it is also
performed in Wuzhou, Nanning, Mashan and Bai’se of Guangxi. The genre has a
history over a century, and it has undergone three stages of development. The first
is the “folk song” stage, when Tea-picking Song and Dance especially the song
entitled Tea-picking in Twelve Months was sung to express the moods of hard life of
labour and joy of tea harvest; the tune was simple and sung in improvisatory style
unaccompanied, mostly for self-entertainment. The second stage involved singing and
dancing, or performance as a mixed genre, when Tea-picking Song and Dance was
taken as encore, and accommodating lion and dragon dances as well as Kylin songs;
such mode of performance was known as Shizi jia Caicha (Lion Dance together with
Tea-picking Song and Dance). Based on the song Tea-picking in Twelve Months, other
items were added, including Gonghe (Congratulations), Kaihuang (Cultivating from
Bare Land) and Diancha (Tea Selection). Over ten tea-picking songs were sung in
succession, forming a kind of folk song suite known as Tea-picking Grand Series.
Further development included the incorporation of other genres of folk songs, such
as mountain songs and Xiaodiao (Ditties) between the existing items; these “foreign”
music materials were known as “Inserted Melodies (Chacha)”, forming a cyclic
structure based on Tea-picking Melody. The third is the skit stage, in which “Tea-
picking with Connected Stories (Chaicha Chuangu)” was introduced to Tea-picking
Song and Dance, adding a dramatic element akin to Chinese opera; stories narrated
included Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai (Butterfly Lovers), A’lan Maizhu (A’lan
Selling Pigs), Yizhi’hua (A Flower), Zhangsan Guonian (Zhangsan Celebrating the
New Year), Dong Yong Maishen (Dong Yong Selling Himself as Slave) and Xunqin
(Looking for Relatives); the total number of stories was over a hundred. Around ten
performers were involved in performance.
The programme of “song and dance” performances consists of two elements - Tea-
picking Melody (Chaqiang TPM) and Inserted Melodies (Chacha IM) - the former
founded on the basic melody of tea-picking (subject to variations), while the latter are
episodes, akin to an extended Rondo structure in Western music. The following is an
illustration of the structure of Yulin (Guangxi) Tea-picking Song and Dance (Yulin Caicha):
Procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Materials: Overture +A +B +Al +A2 +C +A3 +D +E +F
Type: TPM TPM IM TPM TPM IM TPM IM TPM TPM
Procedure: Congratu- Tea-picking Folk Ordering Tea- Folk Tea- Folk Tea Offering
lations in Twelve Ditties Tea Searching Ditties picking Ditties Brewing Tea to Boy
Months Friend
Illustration 2-1. The Structure of Yulin (Guangxi) Tea-picking Song and Dance
As shown above, the content of Yulin Tea-picking Song and Dance in Southern
Guangxi can be divided into ten components, which are either Tea-picking Melody
(TPM) or Inserted Melodies (IM):
a. Tea-picking Melody (Chaqiang)
These are divided into three groups. The first refers to authentic melodies, which
are the bases of other related melodies; examples include Tea-picking in Twelve
Months in Yulin Tea-picking genre, known as Lao’chapo (Tea Mother), referring to it
as “mother tune”; Qinzhou tea-picking dance genre regards melodies such as Dakai’tai
(A Great Opening), Zhengcha Shili’hua (Good Tea with Five Kilometers Flower) and
Nanyin (Southern Sounds) as Chazu (Tea Ancestor, or Authentic Melodies). In any
case, these so-called authentic melodies are already variants of the more primitive
Caicha’yao (Tea-picking Ballad) of Yudu, Jiangxi mentioned above. An analysis of
the song Tea-picking in Twelve Months from Yulin, Guangxi will exemplify possible
transformations from its original form:
Example 2-2. Tea-picking in Twelve Months from Yulin, Guangxi

In the first month of the year, young tea-picking girls are busy (Ya Yi Du Ya),
Gold fish grass (Ya) stops on both ends.
Golden fish eats food, also the plant (Ya Yi Du Ya),
Especially eating the lotus flowers (Ya).
Lyrics of the song describe how tea farmers work all year round, by starting with
their work in the first month. The song comprises two parallel phrases, each with six
measures, with final on Yu (la in solfege). When compared with the more rudimentary
Caicha’yao (Tea-picking Ballad) of Yudu, the organization of phrases is the same,

even though the melody is now more embellished, with a broader range and showing
the influence of indigenous music from Guangxi, in a style more akin to folk ditties.
One will notice that only the skeleton of the original melody Caicha’yao is left,
including its ending. The second refers to “derived” Tea Melodies. For example, the
song Tea-picking in Twelve Months (itself derived from Caicha’yao), is taken as the
basic melody in Yulin Tea-picking genre, and variants of it are worked out according
to body movements, emotions and local style, in new guises, such as Kaihuang
(Cultivation from Bare Land), Diancha (Tea Selection), Tancha (Tea Searching) and
Zhaicha (Tea Picking). The song Kaihuang (Cultivation from Bare Land) in Yulin
Tea-picking Genre illustrates this phenomenon:
Example 2-3. Kaihuang (Cultivation from Bare Land) in Yulin Tea-picking genre

I (ya) stay (ya) at home (ya), there is (ya) nothing (ya) to do (ya),
I go (ya) Nanshan (ya) to cultivate land (ya).
The song Kaihuang is very close to its fundamental melody Tea-picking in

Twelve Months in structure, mode or melodic contour. There are two reasons for such
evolution: the first is the search for variety in art based on similar geographic and
humanistic environment of simple, unified and confined culture; the second is artistic
development as a result of social and economic changes, but the firmly established
characteristics of Tea-picking Song and Dance will nevertheless remain, allowing its
roots to be traced. The third refers to “loaned” Tea Melodies. Some basic melodies in
tea-picking genres are adopted from folk ditties or Shuochang (Narrative Singing): in
Yulin tea-picking genre, the ninth episode Chaocha (Making Tea) is based on the folk
ditty Jianjian’hua (Cutting Flowers); the tenth episode Maicha (Selling Tea) adopts
the melody of Niang Jiao’dao (Mother’s Rules) from the Yulin folk song Kujia’ge
(Marriage Crying Song); one of the basic tunes of Qinzhou tea-picking Nanyin
(Southern Sounds) is evolved from local Narrative Singing Muyu (Wooden Fish).
b. Inserted Melodies (Chacha)
This refers to freely inserted contrasting materials into fixed Tea Melodies, based
on the same idea of Rondo in Western music. The significance of these inserted
melodies lies beyond the musical effects: one has to bear in mind that the context
of the main themes (Tea-picking Melodies) relate to work songs in tea farms, while
that of the Inserted Melodies is so broad that inspirations may be drawn from almost
every folk music genre. The mode of performance is different: Tea-picking songs are
synchronized with dance steps, while the episodes are sung by a small vocal group.
It is possible to suggest that episodes are all-inclusive, especially when a dramatic
element is present, as its social content can be very extensive. This is how a simple
genre like Tea-picking song and dance (based on a kind of variation technique) can
develop into large-scale dance suite or dances with a dramatic element. The mode
of expression has changed too. Original genres of Tea-picking song and dance are
for entertainment and artistic expression, but when there is a dramatic content, the
performance will lean towards professionalism and social issues. Inserted Melodies
include folk songs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, mountain songs, ditties,
Shuochang (Narrative Singing) and Qupai (Labelled Pieces). The number and nature
of Inserted Melodies are determined by content of a performance, as well as the
artistry of the professionals involved, but two to four episodes will be appropriate.
The genre of Tea-picking dance music in south Guangxi may have influenced Tea-
picking Lantern Dance in west Hunan; there are also traces of this performing style in
the Lantern Dance in south Guizhou and Yunnan.
B. Huagu’diao (Flower Drum Tunes)
Flower Drum Dance is popular among Han people in China, especially in south
Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangsu; it is also performed in other provinces, such as Hunan,
Hubei, Shandong, Shanxi and Shaanxi. The dance genre can be viewed from a narrow
or broad perspective: the former refers to folk genre represented by Huagu’diao
(Flower Drum Tune) of Fengyang, Anhui Province, with performers carrying the
drums on their arms or backs, playing, singing and dancing. Similar genres include
Bianzi’gu (Strap Drum) of Shandong, Huagu (Flower Drum) of South Shanxi and
South Shaanxi; these are somehow related to the dances Fengyang Huagu. The
broader perspective of Flower Drum Dance refers to genres popular in the south,
using the drum as the main accompanying instrument, but it is part of an independent
ensemble (rather than played by dancers). This broad category includes Flower Drum
Lantern of Anhui, Di Huagu (Field Flower Drum) of Hunan, Flower Drum of South
Jiangsu, as well as small-scale performances of songs and dances, such as Jiahu
Huagu (Flower Drum of Jiahu) of Jiangxi, Sanbang’gu (Three Drum Beats) of Hubei,
Chegu (Rickshaw Drum) of Fujian and Taiwan, and possibly Taiping’gu (Peaceful
Drum) of Han, Mongolian and Manchu peoples in the north. It is best to approach this
topic through analysis of Flower Drum Dance of Fengyang.
1. Origin of Flower Drum Dance
Flower Drum Dance of Fengyang has a long history; there is evidence that during
the Song Dynasty (960–1279), it was performed at Goulan Wazi (Fenced Stage),
performance venue attended by literati during festive gatherings in the capital city
of Lin’an. There is also iconographic evidence from a painting by Gu Jianlong
in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644): two peasants seem to be performing a kind of
Flower Drum Dance, with the man striking a gong and carrying a child on his back,
while the woman (his wife) playing the drum, and a bystander dressed in official
regalia watching. Hence, at least since then, street artists have been making a living
by performing drum dances. During this period, the Ming court had been accused
of relocating 200,000 people from Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanxi to Fengyang, but
soon there was famine for years. The immigrants had to put up with such adverse
conditions, singing and begging in order to survive; this sad episode was supposed to
be the beginning of the genre Flower Drum Dance of Fengyang (Fengyang Huagu, as
a dance genre title). The lyrics of the song Flower Drum of Fengyang (also Fengyanjg
Huagu, but as a song title) reads, “Speaking of Fengyang, let me tell you about the
place. Famine has struck nine out of ten years since Emperor Zhu ascended to the
throne. The rich had to change their trades, while the poor had to sell their sons. Since
I have no son to sell, I have to play the drum all along.” Such a sad scene was still
common in the Qing Dynasty, and Flower Drum Dance was performed throughout the
country: it was seen in many urban and rural areas, and it was eventually amalgamated
with northern Yangge (Field Dance). This is testified in Yuan Qixu’s Yanjiu Zhuzhi’ci
(Yanjiu Bamboo Branch Verses) of the Qing Dynasty, “Besides Yangge Dance, Flower
Drum Dance of Fengyang is popular. Spectators like ants cannot be stopped, and they
pushed through the performing site.” After Flower Drum Dance had been incorporated
into local folk genre, it lost the original primitive folk character, as well as the
unadorned style of street performance, becoming part of an existing genre. Another
Qing Dynasty source, Tianjin Huanghui’kao (Historical Study of Emperor Approved
Festivals in Tianjin) refers to the grand Zouhui (Folk Festival), the Huanghui (Emperor
Approved Festival) in Tianjin included a famous Flower Drum Dance from Xigu
Village, which was believed to be handed down from Fengyang street artists. Indeed,
this was not an isolated case, as Fengyang Flower Drum Dance had widespread
influence on other folk genres. Even so, there are some genres with the name “Flower
Drum” which have no connection with Fengyang.
2. Modes of Performance
The dance is usually performed by two dancers, male and female, with the former
holding a gong while the latter carrying a drum, singing, playing instruments and
dancing; they face one another. In early days, female dancers were homeless, and they
were known as “Flower-drum Girls”. There are more details concerning the postures
of the performers: the female dancer holds a drum in her left hand, and two bamboo
sticks are nipped between the index and middle fingers, as well as between the ring
and little fingers of the right hand, singing, dancing and beating the drum in different
poses; the male dancer plays the gong, and dances face to face with his partner. This
dance is known as Shuangtiao’gu (Two-stick Drum). Dance, song and percussion in
Flower Drum Dance performances are crude and simple, often including elements of
improvisation. Travelling dancers are sometimes involved, performing from door to
door, a style known as Chang Mentou (Singing in the Front of Door). Another mode
of performance is Zuochang (Seated Singing), with performers singing while seated
on stools provided by their hosts; these shows tend to have fixed programmes, with a
small audience, and with artists duly remunerated.
Melodies of Flower Drum Dance of Fengyang (Fengyang Huagu) are developed
from folk songs based on mountain songs and ballads; they are characterized by
smooth melodic patterns and distinctive rhythms suitable for singing and dancing,
even though there are differences between Huagu melodies in different locations.
Their lyrics, however, remain similar. Other songs included in performances of
Flower Drum Dance of Fengyang include Wang Sanjie Ganji (Sister Wang Goes
to Market), Shibei’jiu (Ten Cups of Wine) and Wugeng’diao (Melody for Five
Watches of the Night). The small drums and gongs carried by the performers are both
props and musical instruments that can be part of the ensemble for interludes and
accompaniment; sometimes gongs and drums may be added, or may even involve the
melodic instrument Suona shawm.
3. Music of Flower-Drum Dance
(1) Fengyang Huagu (Flower Drum Dance of Fengyang)
The melody for the dance genre Fengyang Huagu (Flower Drum Dance of
Fengyang) is also known as Flower Drum of Fengyang (Fengyang Huagu) or
Fengyang Song (Fengyang’ge), which has many different versions, owing to the
broad influence of the genre. The melody comprises seven phrases, and is in Gong
(First Degree, or do in Solfege) mode. The first five phrases make up the main body
of the song, and can be divided into two periods: the first consists of two (upper
and lower) phrases as a pair, while the second an upper and two lower phrases. The
melodic shape of the first and third phrases is different, while that of the second and
fourth phrases are the same. The fifth phrase is an extension of the previous phrase,
and acts as supplement to the period. There is overlapping of beginning and final pitch
in each phrase, a technique known as Yuyao’wei (Fish Biting Its Tail, that is, the last
note of a phrase becomes the beginning of the next), a traditional means to maintain
an uninterrupted melodic flow. The melody is characterized by phrases beginning
with an upbeat, iambic rhythm, dotted notes and syncopations, as well as undulating
but fluent melodic flow, making it highly memorable to the audience and appropriate
for dancing. The ending draws on fragments of the melody, intertwined with motives
imitating percussion music, and leading to a series of small units of melodic and
rhythmic patterns, building up to a climax. The sixth and seventh phrases function as
a supplement to render an atmosphere to end a piece; they can also be regarded as a
complete unit. The beginning, interlude and ending of the melody can accommodate
percussion accompaniment; these features add colour to the main melody with padded
words supported by percussion. The lively melody is in contrast to the content of the
lyrics, which tells the unfortunate circumstances of the singers as entertainers, and
reflecting the unspeakable bitterness and afflictions of Flower Drum Dance artists who
have to sing joyfully amidst internal sorrows to make a living.
(2) Wang Sanjie Ganji (Sister Wang Goes to Market)
Example 2-4. Song of Wang Sanjie Ganji (Sister Wang Goes to Market)
English translation of the lyric:

I am Wang Erjie, who will be 21 next year (ai),
I am taking a bag to go to the market (ya),
Taking the socks and shoes (nage) I made to sell (ai),
(speech): Sister, what kind of shoe do you sell?
Wang Sanjie Ganji is a simple song in strophic form with a melody based on paired
phrases, stylistically allowing it to be sung with main melodies of Fengyang Huagu.
The first phrase is in do mode of Bb, while the second ends on F, the dominant. The
implied modulation, playful ornamentation and downward melodic leaps have added
vitality to the repetitive motives. The lyrics tell of a young female pedlar expressing
her resentment on her unfortunate marriage and her desire to pursue real love, as a
young man appears to buy shoes. The female sings the main part, with a male voice
providing a kind of support in form of dialogue.
C. Erren’tai (Two-narrator Dance-drama)
Erren’tai (Two-narrator Dance-drama) is a kind of folk dance with features of opera
popular in western and central Inner Mongolia, northern Shaanxi, northern Shanxi
and some areas of Hebei. Like many Han folk dance genres, Erren’tai is related to
Yangge (Field Dance), which can be defined in specific or general terms. Yangge may
refer specifically to two kinds of performances, Di Yangge (Field Dance) and Gaoqiao
(Stilts). It may also encompass two general categories, the first being all dance
performances in folk festivals, which may include Yangge (Field Dance), Hanchuan
(Land Boat), Longdeng (Dragon Lantern), Xiaoche (Small Rickshaw), Dalian’xiang
(Beating Lotus Bulbs), Dahua’gun (Beating Colourful Sticks) and Lianhua’lao (The
Lotus Flower Tune), and these genres have some historic or stylistic connections
with Yangge. The other general category of Yangge refers to the more artistic genres
combining dance, singing and acting, or some kind of hybrids leading to formation of
Xiqu opera, while retaining some original features, such as Erren’zhuan (Swirls for
Two Actors) and Erren’tai (Two-narrator Dance-drama). Hence, the last two genres
of dramatic performance in small scale - as the titles suggest, involving two actors–
are the results of development and evolution, a process involving new approach to
handling of original music materials in a new context. In any case, the new genres still
has opportunities to perform at the same venues with the crude dance forms, hence
can still benefit from cross fertilization between genres. Dance forms of Han people in
north China therefore benefit from Yangge dances directly and indirectly.
1. Origin of Erren’tai (Two-narrator Dance-drama)
In the late Qing Dynasty, owing to continuous human and natural disasters along
the Yellow River Basin, farmers mainly from Shanxi, Hebei, Shandong and Shaanxi
migrated north to Hohhot, Baotou, Wuchuan and other areas in Inner Mongolia,
joining Mongolians who had just settled down from their nomadic lives in farming,
handicrafts and commerce. This mixing of cultures had led to the emergence of
Erren’tai, a form of small-scale drama based on combining Mongolian and Han
folk songs, as well as small ensemble of songs with strings Dazuo’qiang (Seated
Singing) of northern Shanxi. The dancing element of Erren’tai has roots in the Han
Yangge dance Running in Circles19, stilts and other folk genres. Erren’tai was initially
performed in the style of Zuochang (Seated Singing), but it developed as a genre of
folk song and dance in Shehuo (“Community Fire”, Folk Festival) before becoming a
form of folk opera. At present, there are matured operatic genres based on Erren’tai,
yet the more authentic form of song and dance is still widely performed. Traditional
Erren’tai are in two styles, according to locations, known as East and West Routes,
with the former referring to genres popular in Wulanchabu League of Inner Mongolia,
as well as Yanbei and Zhangjiakou; the latter encompasses performances in Hohhot,
Baotou, Bayannur League and Yike Zhao League of Inner Mongolia, as well as some
areas in Shanxi and Shaanxi.
In the early days of Erren’tai, there were only two performers, a Dan (Female
Role) and Chou (Clown). The former holds a handkerchief in one hand and a folding
fan in the other, dressed in red top and green skirt, wearing a phoenix coronet on the
head; the latter holds a rattle stick in one hand and a folding fan in the other, wearing
a felt cap and a black robe. The two performers on the same stage accounts for the
name of the genre Erren’tai. The music mostly comprises folk ditties, which are
terse and forceful; these are called Mongolian songs, as the style is plain and robust,
with Mongolian flavour. As there was an inclination towards drama, the original
folk songs were re-arranged to accommodate newly added operatic repertoire. The
traditional folk style of singing as a pair gradually gave way to two actors playing
several roles, or several of them playing several roles. At present, there are two
styles of performance: one is a mini opera performed with a rattle stick Huopao
Quzi (Fire Cannon Music) characterized by gentle singing and dancing with simple
roles and plots, taken by Dan and Chou. The atmosphere of performance usually
begins calmly, gradually becoming more agitated, as the speed increases, leading to
a climax and an abrupt end. The dance props include folding fan, handkerchief or
rattle sticks: the dance begins with waving folding fan and handkerchief, leading to
the blazing, jubilant gimmicks of rattle sticks as it leads to the climax. Since Erren’tai
combines singing, dancing and acting, and possesses the qualities to generate a joyous
atmosphere, the performance is scheduled as an opening piece for other shows, hence
its names Mao’er Xi (Drama Featuring Hats); pieces performed include Dajin’qian
(Beating Golden Coins), Wuge Fangyang (Wuge Herding Sheep), Shidui’hua (Ten
Passages of Flower Song) and Guanhua (Watching Flowers). The second type of
Erren’tai is Yingma’xi (Hard Opera), characterized by its complete plot with features
of opera which can be both narrative and dramatic, and roles taken by many actors.
The repertoire includes Zou’xikou (Going to the West), Xiaoguafu Shangfen (Young
Window Visiting Grave), Xiashan (Descending the Mountain), Ju’dagang (Sawing
Big Jar), Xiao’fangniu (A Little Cowherd) and Xiazi Guandeng (The Blind Watching
Lanterns).
19 跑圈子秧歌
3. Melodies of Erren’tai
It is possible to distinguish melodies of Erren’tai as pure vocal or melodies based
on instrumental Paizi’qu (Labelled Pieces). The former is used for drama, dance and
ditty singing, and it will be analyzed.
(1) Xiqiang (Operatic Melodies). Xiqiang refers to operatic melodies such as
Liangdiao (Opening Tune), Man’er Liushui (Slow Double Flowing Water Metre),
Kuai’er Liushui (Fast Double Flowing Water Metre), Niezi’ban (Agitated Beat,1/4), as
well as other complete sets of Banqiang’ti (Melodies Based on Metre Change), such
as Zou’xikou (Going to the West), Luoyang’qiao (Luoyang Bridge) and Daying’tao
(Picking Cherries), which focus on display of vocal virtuosity. Melodies such as
Dajin’qian (Beating Golden Coins) and Wuge Fangyang (Wuge Herding Sheep) are
based on metre change, and possess typical characteristics of Erren’tai (Two-narrator
Dance-drama). Dajin’qian (Beating Golden Coins) is analyzed as follows:
Dajin’qian is a set of melodies conceived in Banqiang’ti (Melodies Based on
Metre Change), and they comprise an Interlude, Liangdiao (Opening Tune), Manban
(Slow Beat), Man’er Liushui (Slow Double Flowing Water Metre), Kuai’er Liushui
(Fast Double Flowing Water Metre), Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4), Niezi’ban (Agitated
Beat,1/4) and Duoban (Piled Beat, very lively beat). In addition to changes in speed,
different guises of the melody have their own dynamics, melodic contour and rhythm
that are closely related to the content of dance and drama; various sections are such
linked that a coherent structure is attained, allowing the drama to unfold without
interruption. The phrase structure tends to be irregular, often alternating long and short
phrases, while melodic progression is somewhat erratic, with sudden leaps and falls,
giving rise to wits and surprises. There is stark contrast between the main melodies
and supplementary phrases Chenqiang (Padding Melody), and there are opportunities
for display of virtuosity through the interludes. Contrast is also achieved by switching
between real voice and falsetto, as well as between Gong (first degree) and Yu (sixth
degree) modes. The atmosphere becomes more intense with the use of various musical
techniques, such as increase in speed, growing rhythmic intensity and simplification
of melodic embellishments. The dancing involves props such as fan, handkerchief
and rattle stick, and their manipulations are carefully coordinated with the rhythms
of the music. It begins with flexible “starting steps” of foot skills and appearance,
and it moves in steps that are small yet firm. This is followed by slow and graceful
contra-dance with hands playing the fan and handkerchief to form a “half-moon” and
Shuangdiao’chang (Double Grouped Dance Pattern), and other stage poises. After
some development, it progresses to the “rattle stick” dancing part. The female dancer
then applies combined fan skills of inward shaking and outward turning, creating the
scene of flying butterflies. The clown makes somersaults with each hand holding a
rattle stick, bringing the performance to a climax. As a famous Wuxi (Martial Dance)
repertoire of Erren’tai, Dajin’qian gives equal attention to singing, dancing and acting,
hence it is different from Wenxi (Civil Play) like Zou’xikou (Going to the West), which
emphasizes singing. In any case, there is a saying among Erren’tai artists, “Dajin’qian
is a hallmark of your martial arts skills, while Zou’xikou is a touchstone of your
singing skills.”
(2) Dance Songs
Some melodies are built on rhythmic patterns which can be synchronized with
dance steps, hence are ideal for shows highlighting dance and songs by the same
performers. Such songs share the following characteristics: first, the same tune often
has variants of different regional styles, and they can be further differentiated as songs
with rich folk song characteristics (majority), or possessing early traces of Banqiang’ti
(Melodies Based on Metre Change) often used in operas (minority). Second,
compared with melodies of Dajin’qian, dance songs are less sophisticated, and still
have a strong “folk” flavour. Third, dance songs are imbedded with rich ornaments and
Chenqiang (Padding Melodies) that are equally important for expression, highlighting
the aesthetic style of the music. The dance song Shidui’hua (Ten Passages of Flower
Song) is a typical example:
Example 2-5. The dance song Shidui’hua (Ten Passages of Flower Song)
English translation of the lyrics (words in brackets are meaningless syllables):

What flower blossom in the first month?
We get the winter jasmine!
What is the size of winter jasmine flower?
Old sister, let’s go together to see the flower.
Seven (longdong longdong, Saide Yadesai),
Eight (deer Longdong zaisai),

(Deersai, de’ersai, deer yadeyade, saidesaide sai),
(Yadeyade, saideyade, saideyade, yadeyade, deer deer yader sai).
The above dance song Shidui’hua (Ten Passages of Flower Song) is often
incorporated into Daibian’xi (Opera with Rattle Stick), and it possesses many typical
features of the singing style. First, the song demonstrates effective application of
the technique of “tiered reduction” by simplifying embellishments in a short span,
allowing the melody to progress in three logical “layers”, progressing from the
opening section comprising repeated simple “question and answer” sections, to a
condensed ending section. The “reduction” or tightening of melodic materials is
achieved in an orderly manner, by reducing phrase lengths, until the basic unit is
down to one measure. The very abrupt ending is preceded by three measures of
almost stagnant melodic progression, hence allowing the melody to conclude in a
most agitated manner. At times, this dance melody is used as a Manban (Slow Beat)
or Liushui (Flowing Water) of Banqiang’ti (Melodies Based on Metre Change)
composite structure. Secondly, the musical thought unfolds in “terraced” changes:
the first level is in typical folk song style with symmetrical phrases, moderate tempo
and simple rhythm, coupled with perfect use of dotted notes, syncopated rhythm and
beginning in upbeats, hence highlighting its dance characteristics; the second level is
the short phrases of two females in antiphonal singing, and the accompanied padding
words imitate the acoustic effects of gong and drum, creating an ingenious and natural
effect; the third level highlights shortened phrases, the “delayed” effect of choral
part, and the adoption of Percussion Words (Luogu Ci), intensifying the atmosphere,
leading to a climax. The lyrics use traditional literary techniques of Bi (Metaphor) and
Xing (Expression), unfolding hidden ideas and emotions through flowers and natural
scenery. The conception of village life is portrayed by girls appreciating flowers in
the first lunar month, amidst vivid simulation of robust sounds. The strophic song at
the beginning is in contrast to later passages imitating the sound of percussion and the
rattle stick De’ersai. These factors all account for the make-up of music for dance,
song and drama.
D. Wandiao (Playful Tunes) of the Wa Ethnic Group
Most Wa people inhabit in Ximeng and Cangyuan, areas in southwestern Yunnan
Province, but they have also made their homes in Gengma, Lancang and Menglian,
as well as ten other counties, with a population of 351,974 (in 1990). Its language
belongs to the Wade branch of Mon-Khmer system, with connection with south Asia,
and their beliefs include nature religion, Southern Buddhism (Theravada Hinayana)
and Christianity.
1. Characteristics and Modes of Performance of Wa Dance
The dance song of Wa people is called Wandiao (Playful Melodies), which is sung
(usually canonically) in parts, and widely performed in Cangyuan County. The song
is also known as Wanshua’diao (Playful Tune), and it can be divided into Tiaodiao
(Dancing Tune) and Changdiao (Vocal Tune), referring to their functions. The dance
genre is rather developed, as there are established rules for performance, for example,
conditions may apply to certain performing groups, repertoire or lyrics; hence it
cannot be performed casually, that is, as free as mountain songs or love songs.
Wandiao is usually sung from August to March, during the so-called “idle season” of
the fields, even though it is the period for courtship. In the mountain stockades of the
Wa people, young women and children have a habit of gathering to sing and dance
Wanshuadiao in open areas of the village. There are two main modes of performance:
(i) Singing and dancing in separate lines. Performers are divided into two or three
rows, and they sing and dance face to face, either hand in hand or shoulder to
shoulder. The dance movements are relatively simple, either back and forth, or left to
right, occasionally marking time or making vertical jumps, with some split kicking,
clapping, arm swinging, stamping and other movements at the right moments. (ii)
Singing in circle. Dance movements can be very varied; sometimes they dance hand-
in-hand, usually in two groups of four, facing the centre of the circle. Group A lies
flat, feet to feet; Group B stands and rotates counter-clockwise by holding hands of
dancers in Group A. Some dances involve girls swinging their long hair, as they form
a circle hand-in-hand, moving forward bending 90 degrees, and making motions with
their platted hair. Women dancers may be involved in an element of courtship, while
children dancers perform purely for joy. Other than Wa people, other ethnic minorities
in Yunnan have similar folk customs, hence the folk dances are in the same style.
2. Musical Characteristics
There are different modes of singing Wandiao among Wa people, which may
include canon, solo singing and response, as well as choral singing. The first two
modes are often adopted in lined singing. When singing canonic songs, the first
row usually starts, with the second and third rows entering at appropriate intervals;
continued singing in this manner leads to heterophony or some kind of polyphony.
The singing may also be based on contrasts between soloist and chorus, and the speed
usually increases as the atmosphere builds up. Singing in circle is mostly in choral
style, and with features of heterophony or polyphony. The following is an excerpt
from the three-voice canon Badou Kaihua (Croton is Blossoming) (Example 2-6):

Where is the croton blossoming?
The croton is blossoming on the vines.
I want to pick it up, but I didn’t,
Love has barred me from doing so.
My father asks me to pick it up as soon as possible,
I love it so much,
Love has stopped me picking it up.
Capon is crying by the side of hen;
White capon and black hen
Stay at the confined nest.
Example 2-6. Badou Kaihua (Croton is Blossoming, also called “Laoninglang”). Sung by female
chorus, Cangyuan County, Yunnan. Transcribed by Li Shixiao
14
21
(to be
continued
on next
page)
Badou Kaihua (Croton is Blossoming) is in strict canonic form (with the same
melody appearing in three-voice sequence), and it can be divided into three sections,
according to how music materials are treated. Section A comprises three phrases–
in form of one question and two answering phrases–with beginning of the melody
repeated, while the rear portion varied. The song begins with Voice I, while Voices
II and III enter in sequence at the space of five crotchets, and then with imitation
shortened to four crotchets. The second and third phrases enter in four-crotchet
spaces until measure 19 of Voice III, ending of opening melody. Section B begins in
measure 17 by presenting the second half of the melody, and is followed by imitative
Example 2-6 (continued). Badou Kaihua (Croton is Blossoming, also called “Laoninglang”). Sung
by female chorus, Cangyuan County, Yunnan and transcribed by Li Shixiao
28
34
40
46
entries of Voices I and II. As the music speeds up, the atmosphere becomes more
intense, leading to presentation of more condensed music materials, as well as closer
imitations, creating a climax. This is when Voices II and III enter in short span of two
crotchets. Section C begins in measure 40, as the three voices enter in sequence for
the last time. Voices I and II repeat some previous melodic fragments while Voice
III presents the melody in full; the song concludes in homophonic style. One would
describe the song adopts rather advanced techniques of counterpoint, heterophony and
homophony, and is a good example how certain “academic” compositional devices
can be unwittingly used by seemingly primitive people who have retained their folk
music aurally for generations.
E. Musical Characteristics of Dance Songs

Dance songs share many musical features with folk songs, owing to their
similarities in distribution, genre classification and musical characteristics. There is an
established practice of viewing dance songs as a branch of folk songs, owing to their
proximity in structure. Careful analyses show that these genres are different in their
relationships with other folk genres, and there are musical differences too; needless to
say they have their own social functions and contexts of performance. It is therefore
desirable to approach dance songs by considering their close relationship with folk
songs, at the same time take into account the genre as a component of folk dance, in
order to highlight its unique artistic and cultural qualities.
1. Genre Classification
There are many ways of classifying dance songs, the most common being
according to the division of Han folk songs into three categories, namely Haozi (Work
Songs), Shange (Mountain Songs) and Xiaodiao (Ditties)20. It is also possible to view
folk songs of Han and ethnic minorities as a complete entity, hence encompassing,
in addition, Changge (Long Songs) and songs sung in parts. Other methods of
classification involve dividing dance songs into seven or even eleven genres.
However, it is most desirable to adopt the approach of differentiating dance songs
according to their musical characteristics, hence into five categories, namely Xiaodiao
(Ditties), Yinsong’diao (Recital Songs), children’s songs, songs sung in Parts and
Xiqiang (Operatic Melodies)21.
(1) The great expressive power of Xiaodiao (Ditties) allows these to be frequently
used as Dance Songs for performances as entertainment.
These melodies have been in circulation for generations, and hence very developed
in form, melodic design and means of expression. These melodies can support
different demands for expression, as they are varied in style, ranging from heroic to
fragile sentiments. These melodies may have different origins, ranging from authentic
folk songs, dance music, rearranged melodies or materials from sister genres (such
as opera, narrative singing and instrumental music). Dance Xiaodiao can be further
divided into several types:
a. Xiaodiao (Ditties)
This form of melody is developed from regional folk songs, dance music, operas
and narrative singing; the style generally retains the simplicity, originality and
unadorned state of indigenous folk songs. These songs have been processed by folk
artists, and are widely sung, and the music has certain degrees of uniformity, especially
in rhythm, hence ready for dance accompaniment. These melodies are used in dance
performances for both Han and ethnic minorities. Han dance songs include folk ditties
based on Tea-picking dance melody (Chaqiang), Huadeng (Lantern Dance) song
Yanglao’qu (Male Harvest Song), as well as Yangge (Field Dance) tunes, melodies
from Xiaoche (Small Rickshaw), Hanchuan (Land Boat), Huagu (Flower Drum) and
20 Jiang Mingdun, Introduction to Han Etnic Folk Songs. Shanghai: Shanghai Literature and Art Press, 1982.
21 Dictionary of Chinese Music, item: Folk Song. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1984.
Lianxiang (Lutus Bulbs, a kind of folk dance which dancers hold a stick with inserted
small bells); folk songs of ethnic minorities include Nangma (a kind of Tibetan court
dance), Duixie (a kind of Tibetan folk dance), Dage (a kind of Wa people folk dance),
Elephant-foot Drum Dance (Xiangjiao Guwu), Banquet Song (Yanxi’qu), Shigong
Dance (Taoist Dance) and Shangu (Drum for Dance of Shamanism). The dance songs
have a strong heritage, and they have relatively established melodies and lyrics.
b. Shidiao Ditties
These are popular folk songs dated back to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, but
they have been reworked by literati and professional folk artists, hence have become
more standardized and developed. After incorporation into folk dance genres, these
melodies became popular in communities of Han people, especially in small-scale
dance performances, or dances with plots. Examples of this category of ditties include
Shanpo’yang (Sheep on Hill) of Shandong Yangge, which is evolved from the Ming
and Qing ditty Jian’dianhua (Cutting Blue Paper Flowers); Chaocha (Frying Teas) in
southern Guangxi Lotus-picking genre is also derived from Jian’dianhua; almost all
melodies of Yunnan Lantern Play Dayu (Fishing) are based on Ming and Qing ditties,
such as Guizhi’er (Hanging Tree Branches), Dazao’gan (Beating Stem of Dates) and
Yinniu’si (Silver Thread).
c. Yaoqu (Ballad)
These are simple and unpolished ditties often found in dance genres of ethnic
minorities, such as Guoxie (a kind of Tibetan folk dance), Guozhuo (a kind of Tibetan
folk dance), Dage (a kind of Wa people folk dance), Shaman dance, hunting and
pastoral dance genres. Some of these songs have improvisatory features, such as free
melodic structure and flexible lyrics, and possess qualities of ballad. Examples of this
genre include Santou Yangge (Leading Field Dance) of Shandong Yangge, as well as
the introductory song of the leader of Yangge, and Impromptu of the genre.
(2) Yinsong’diao (Recital Songs)
These refer to songs concerned with customs or epics; sometimes the term is
synonymous with “custom song”, while some classify the latter as Guge (Ancient
Song). It is best to distinguish two kinds of Yinsong’diao, namely Shenge (Spiritual
Songs) and Guge, both relating to ritual song and dance. The former refers to the
Yinsong’diao chanted at folk rituals by witches when communicating with gods,
expelling evil spirits and healing diseases. The melodic flow, rhythm and tempo
are relatively free, and the melodies can be chanted, since their phrase lengths can
vary. These melodies are sung throughout China, including areas inhabited by ethnic
minorities. Typical examples of Yinsong’diao include Shamanism music of northeast
ethnic minorities, Shigong’diao (Taoist Song) and Nuoge (Nuo Song) of southern
ethnic minorities, Bimo’diao (Bimo Song) of Loloish people, Dongba’diao (Dongba
Song) of Naxi people, Tibetan religious dance Cham and Shenge (Spiritual Songs) of
Han people. Guge (Ancient Song) is a narrative genre of community song and dance
led by sorcerers or chieftains at folk rituals. Its musical characteristics are similar to
those of Shenge, but it is more extended, and performed widely among southern ethnic
minorities. Examples include the narrative Dage’diao: Kaitian Pidi (The Creation of
the World) and Dilide Erzi (The Son of Dili) of Bai and Yi peoples.
(3) Children’s Songs
These are dance songs sung in all areas in China, including those inhabited by
ethnic minorities, and they are brief, simple, unadorned, natural and lively, and
possess an air naivety, owing to their somewhat casual rhythm. The scope is broad,
and includes songs related to games, riddles, collection and education. In mountainous
villages of ethnic minorities such as Wa, Bulang and Hani peoples, Wandiao (Playful
Melodies) are sung and danced by women and children, hence can be performances of
a grand scale.
(4) Multi-voiced Songs
These songs are sung by many ethnic minorities in China, some of which are
preserved as dance songs, for example, Badou Kaihua (Croton is Blossoming), a piece
of Wandiao (Playful Melodies), performed by women and children of Wa people,
Shigong’diao Gulao Mange (Ancient Ethnic Celebration) of Zhuang people and some
Dance Songs of Gaoshan people.
(5) Xiqiang (Operatic Melodies)
These refer to dance songs possessing characteristics of opera, especially those of
theatrical Changqiang (Vocal Melodies) with some features of Banqiang’ti (Melodies
Based on Metre Change). Examples include northern genres Erren’zhuan piece
Da’xixiang (The Great West Chamber) and Erren’tai piece Dajin’qian (Beating Gold
Coins), the Haiyang Field Dance (Haiyang Yangge) Erhuang Liantan Yangge (Linked
Field Dance Melodies of Erhuang), and the Hancheng Field Dance (HanchengYangge),
Guowang’shen (Past Spirituals). There are also melodies belonging to the operatic
structure Lianqu’ti (Connected Labelled Tunes), such as Shibajie dou Wangpi (Eighteen
Yeras Old Girl Fighting with Wangpi) of Shandong Field Dance, a work based on
arranging a series of folk songs in form of group singing and dancing skits.
2. Musical Structure
There are two categories of music structure–simple and complex–the former being
more common.
(1) Simple Structure
This refers to songs based on a single melody or repetition of single melody, or in
simple binary form (ternary form is rarely found). Four categories of these songs will
be analyzed as follows:
a. Repetition of a Single Phrase
This is based on continued repetitions of a single phrase, with flexibility in phrase
lengths and melodic complexity. When there is only a slight change, the basic melodic
and rhythmic patterns will be retained; conversely, big changes to the melody will
only lead to retention of skeletal notes and cadence. Features of this structure include
the tendency to improvise in order to achieve liberty in accommodating Shuochang
(Narrative Singing) style in vernacular language, as the weakening of dance rhythm
is not a concern. When such a structure is applied to music of ethnic minorities, traces
of narrative Guge (Ancient Songs) can still be seen, and the style is between Xiaodiao
ditties and Yinsongdiao speech songs. Examples in this category include Gongxi’ge
(Congratulatory Song) popular in Zhongning areas of Ningxia, Kongque’diao (Peacock

Tune) of Dai people entitled Danyuan Baihua Duoduo Kaifang (Hoping a Hundred
Flowers Blossom), and Xiao’huolang (A Young Pedlar, Shandong field dance).
b. Question and Answer Phrases
This refers to songs based on two phrases–upper and lower phrases–sung as a pair,
which are in form of “question and answer”, or with each phrase complementing one
another, with the answering phrase ending on a cadence. These paired phrases may be
repeated as many times as needed, in order to accommodate the dance steps or lyrics
of the songs. When the number of phrases are fixed, together with more established
lyrics, this becomes a strophic structure, and examples include Tea-picking Ballad
(Caicha’yao) of Southern Jiangxi, Tea-picking in Twelve Months (Shieryue Caicha)
of Southern Guangxi, Yanggu’diao (Harvest Drum Tune) of Yunnan Lantern Dance,
Shier’ma Diao (Twelve-horse Tune) of Dai people, Mongolian Andai Dance Song
Benbu’lai and Oroqen hunting dance Yihe’ru. Some Dance Songs comprise many
repetitions of paired phrases–up to several dozens–and lyrics are often improvised.
Once the melody and the lyrics of the songs are less subject to change, the piece is a
kind of narrative strophic song, and examples include the Banquet Song Rangwode
Quer Tianhuanxi (Let My Song Add More Joy) and Bai narrative song Dage’diao
(Dancing Tunes) named Tiandi’de Qiyuan (Origin of the Sky and Earth). The paired
phrases are also subject to change, such as with the second phrase repeated–a kind
of A-B-B structure–as in the case of the Tibetan Xianzi (string instrument used for
accompaniment) Dance Song Songcha Mula; or the song Ai! Mosuo with each phrase
repeated, or in form of A-A-B-B.
c. Structure of Traditional Folk Music Qi (beginning), Cheng (continuation), Zhuan
(change) and He (ending). This refers to works based on traditional Han folk music
comprising four segments leading to a logical ending after some kind of development.
The structure can be further divided into two types: the first involves the introduction
of short percussion interludes, usually between the third and fourth phrases, or
between the breaks of each phrase; examples of the former include Shandong Yangge
“Lingchang Yangge” (Leading Field Dance) and Pao’zhuma Qu (Song of Riding on
Bamboo Horse) of Gansu; an example of the latter is Liang Shanbo Xiashan (Liang
Shanbo Descending the Mountain). The other kind is the four-phrase song without
percussion interludes: examples include Xiaoche (Small Rickshaw) dance, Zhuma
(Bamboo Horse) dance, Pao’hanchuan (Running Land Boat) and other Dance
Songs in small-scale performances; Dance Songs of some ethnic minorities are also
conceived in the same format, and these include the Mongolian Shamanism piece
Andai’ge (Calming Song) and narrative Dage of the Yi people. This four-phase
structure can be expanded to five, six or seven phrases according to circumstances,
and the expansion is achieved by techniques such as splitting, repetition and variation.
An example of five-phrase structure with percussion is the northern Shaanxi Field
Dance Tune Santou Yangge (Leading Field Dance); that of six-phrase structure is the
Field Dance Tune Xiu Huadeng (Embroidering Colourful Lantern) and Zhengyue
Shiwu Huadeng’le (Happiness of Colourful Lantern Festival in First Month); an
example of the seven-phrase song is Shandong Field Dance Tune Pao’sichuan (Going
to Sichuan).
d. Two-fold Structure
This relatively matured structure is found in dance music of both Han and ethnic
minorities; examples include some Tibetan dance genres with suffix Xie, such as
Guoxie, Guozhuo and Duixie. Many pieces are based on the principle of “slow singing
and fast dancing”, or the layout of Manban (Slow Beat) followed by Kuaiban (Fast
Beat, or 1/4).
(2) Complex Structure
Dance songs may also adopt Lianqu’ti (Connected Labelled Tunes) or Banqiang’ti
(Melodies Based on Metre Change), or indeed, other more complicated music
structures. (i) Lianqu’ti (Connected Labelled Tunes) refers to dance songs based on
connected sequence of two or more tunes according to the content of the performance
or an established convention. Examples adopting this mode of organization include
Nisu of the Yi People’s dance song suite, Uyghur Twelve Muqam suite, Dorang Muqam
suite and Wucai Daoban’jiang (Colourful Turning the Oar Upside Down) of Yunnan
Han Lantern Suite. (ii) Banqiang’ti is a structure based on changes made to the same
melody according to the needs of performance, particularly in opera: this will involve
fundamental elements such as metre, rhythm, melodic contour, embellishments,
mode and tonality (applicable to each of the many paired phrases). Since some folk
dance genres have acquired features of opera, their music has rudimentary features
of Banqiang’ti structure. An example is Dajin’qian (Beating Gold Coins), a piece
conceived on large-scale Banqiang’ti, comprising melodies based on a full range
of metre types, such as Guomen (Interlude), Liangdiao (Opening Tune, usually in
Yuanban, or original metre, 2/4 time), Manban (Slow Beat, 4/4), Man’er Liushui (Slow
Double Flowing Water Metre) and Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4). Other examples of
dance songs in Banqiang’ti include Da’xixiang (The Great West Chamber) and Wang
Erijie Sifu (Wang Erjie Missing Her Husband) of Erren’zhuan. (iii) Complicated
music structures are found in dance music based on two or more cohesive principles,
such as Southern Guangxi Tea-picking genre, which takes Chaqiang (Tea-picking
Melody) as basis, and develops a set of variations, interspersed with Chacha (Inserted
Melodies) comprising different folk ditties, Shuochang (Narrative Singing) and opera
Qupai (Labelled Pieces). The last allows performers to choose two to four melodies
according to the artistic taste and the needs of the plot. The piece is a kind of rondo in
grand scale, with Chaqiang setting an overall atmosphere with its variations (hence
Qupai features), and Chacha as inserted melodies (hence features of Lianqu’ti). In
short, the dance music has a composite structure.
3. Scales and Modes
Dance music in China, including genres of ethnic minorities, mainly adopts
the pentatonic mode, but sometimes the songs may be in hexatonic or heptatonic
modes (even though the last two may refer to degrees of different relationship). The
pentatonic mode of dance music of Han people can be based on different degrees as
finals, and the number and nature of degrees in a piece can vary (from two to seven);
for example, two auxiliary degrees (usually the fourth and seventh) may be added to
the pentatonic mode to form a heptatonic mode. While most dance music of ethnic
minorities uses similar modes as Han folk music, some genres limit the use to certain
modes, and demonstrate indigenous features, such as the nature of degrees and finals, in
order to adapt to their language, cultural habits and style of singing. The following are
some of the special features of scales and modes of dance music of ethnic minorities:
(1) Three-Degree or Four-Degree Modes
Dance music in these modes usually belongs to authentic genres of traditional
melodies, and has simple form, embellishment and function, usually performed in
regions with poor access. These somewhat “primitive” melodies have the advantage
of preserving the original flavour of dance music, and many pieces are based on
three or four basic degrees forming melodies, with tonalities set by final notes, hence
leading to some ambiguity of the modes used. There are certain ways governing
the application of these modes. First, the dance song genre has a strong inclination
towards Yinsong’diao (Recital Songs) or vernacular language: the focus is not on
the expressive power of music, but the semantic content, hence its speech-like
characteristics. Second, the music belongs to the category of children’s songs: the use
of simplified modes matches the simplicity and naivety needed for the lyrics. Third,
these simple modes are used for relative simple dance songs such as Mongolian Andai.
Fourth, these modes are used for music highlighting percussion instruments, which
may have limited pitches, such as Bianmang (Set of Mang Gongs) of Elephant-foot
Drum Dance and Fenggu (Bee Drum) drum of Zhuang Bee-drum Dance. Fifth, certain
wind instruments and plucked strings of southern ethnic groups use these modes when
playing dance songs conveying “secret messages of love” with strong semantic content.
Modulations are rarely found in music based on these “incomplete” modes.
(2) Pentatonic Mode
The use of pentatonic mode has become a kind of pre-requisite for a matured
dance music genre, owing to the established Han values of the perceived full musical
functions of description, expression and embellishment. Dance music in this mode
can fulfill the function of self-entertainment or professional performances. Modes
commonly used include Gong (first degree), Shang (second degree), Zhi (fifth degree)
and Yu (sixth degree); Jue (third degree) mode is rarely used. While dance music in
pentatonic mode is often based on a particular degree as final, switching between
different degrees as principals is possible, and sometimes it is implied in the melody.
(3) Hexatonic or Heptatonic Modes
These modes are commonly found in dance songs of ethnic minorities. For
example, the Uyghur Twelve Muqam adopts the heptatonic mode as well as pentatonic
or hexatonic modes, in addition to modes containing augmented second and quarter
tone. Modes comprising five, six or seven degrees are also used in Han dance songs,
such as Jizhong Yangge (Field Dance of Central Shanxi) and Pingfeng Yangge (Field
Dance of Pingfeng), which may contain the degrees Bianzhi (fa in Solfege) and
Biangong (si in Solfege).
4. Rhythm and Metre

(1) Rhythm
The rhythms of dance songs are based on the style and characteristics of different
cultures and regions. Rhythms of Han genres tend to be relatively stable, orderly
and standardized, capable of expressing a wide range of emotions; rhythms for
counterparts of ethnic minorities possess regional characteristics of folk music. For
instance, Tibetan dance songs are based on small units of one measure, highlighting
iambic rhythms, in the style of long breaths; Lisu dance songs often adopt the
rhythmic pattern of seven-character verses, with a series of short notes leading to a
long note, represented by ; Bai dance songs often use a rhythmic pattern
corresponding to its poetry genre, Shanhua’ti (Mountain Flower Form), in form of
. These rhythmic patterns are based on the iambic motive found in
folk music of descendants of the ancient Diqiang people in southwest China; similar
phenomena are found among ethnic minorities of the north, such as Ewenki, Oroqen
and Manchu peoples, who speak Altaic and Manchu-Tungusic languages, owing to
the linguistic characteristics of putting accents at the rear syllable of a word.
(2) Metre
The most common metres of dance songs of ethnic minorities are 4/4, 3/4 and
2/4, while less conventional composite metres such as 7/8 or 5/4 are used in Uyghur
Muqam genre. The metre 5/4 is used in the A’xi dance Gaosibi of the Yi people;
metres such as 6/8, 3/4, 12/8 and 9/8 (largely based on triple division of the beat) are
frequently used in Korean dance genres. Of course, these metres apply to the above
genres of dance music in general terms; there are other combinations of metres used
in “injected” phrases or passages preceding the dance proper.
5. Texture
Textures may be divided into two categories–single voice and multi-voice–with
most genres of dance music belonging to the former:
(1) Single-voice Texture
Four Types of Single-voice Texture: (i) Chorus in Unison or Solo—the former
is divided according to differences of timbres between female, male and children’s
voices. Most Han dance songs for professional performances are sung by solo
voice; unison chorus is usually involved in self entertainment dance genres of ethnic
minorities. (ii) Chorus of Mixed Voices—this involves voices of male, female and
children singing in unison (or octaves), and usually performed in group dancing for
pleasure. (iii) Antiphonal Singing—usually refers to a duet between male and female
singers; this is commonly found in Yangge (Field Dance) of the Han people, dance
songs of ethnic minorities involve antiphonal singing between men and women, as
well as soloist versus chorus. (iv) One Lead Singer and Choral Echoes—this mode
of singing is common in self-entertaining group dances of ethnic minorities, and the
choral echoes may involve singing in parts.
(2) Multi-voice Texture
Multi-voice texture, or singing in parts, is a common practice of ethnic minorities
in southern China, as in Wandiao (Playful Melodies) Badou Kaihua (Croton is
Instrumental Dance Music 121
Blossoming) of the Wa people, where the song is sung in canon. A similar style of singing
is found in the wedding dance songs of Atayal tribe of Gaoshan people in Taiwan.
II. Instrumental Dance Music

A. Huagu’deng (Flower-drum Lantern)
Huagu’deng (Flower-drum Lantern) is popular along the west bank of the Huaihe
River in Anhui Province, particularly in Huaiyuan, Fengtai and other counties. During
the period spanning from Lunar New Year Day to Lantern Festival, Flower-drum
Lantern is performed, even though the origin of the genre is not documented. It is
believed that in the Tang Dynasty, Xue Gang intended to revolt against the authorities,
and trained his army under the disguise of playing the games of lanterns, hence the
beginning of the genre. Another saying refers to the Song Dynasty, when Bao Zheng
(famous Magistrate with a black face and a crescent icon on forehead) offered grains
to famine-stricken Chenzhou County. The inhabitants there performed Red Lantern
(Hongdeng) dance to welcome the magistrate, and Flower-drum Lantern Dance
(Huagu’deng) was part of the programme. There is yet another story concerning
Emperor Chengzu of the Ming Dynasty performing Flower-drum Lantern in the
palace, referring to its popularity then. In spite of its uncertain origin, Flower-Drum
Lantern enjoys great popularity in regions south of the Yangtze River, and it should
have a rather long history. Reliable folk and oral historical records show that the genre
was fully established around mid-nineteenth century, with an established programme
and convention of performance of dance and music.
1. Organizations of Troupes for Huagu’deng (Flower-drum Lantern)
Most Huagu’deng (Flower-drum Lantern) dance troupes are amateur organizations.
On festive occasions, the Dengtou (Head Lantern, or Dengzhu, Chief Lantern)
will volunteer and organize fellow villagers interested in the genre to rehearse and
perform, and the troupes will be disbanded after the festivals, with members returning
to their roles as peasants. The male roles are collectively known as Gu’jiazi (Drum
Rack): each performer wears a front-opened shirt, a scarf tied into a heroic knot on the
head, a strip of cloth at the waist and cloth shoes. The female roles are called Lanhua
(Orchid) or Baotou (Covered Head), and each wears a dress with buttons on the left,
long braided hair and holds a handkerchief in the left hand and a folding fan in her
right hand. Gu’jiazi can be divided into four different roles: (i) Xiaogu Jiazi (Small
Drum Rack), specializing in dance and acrobatic gimmicks at Dachang (Big Dancing
Scene) and Xiaochang (Small Dancing Scene); (ii) Dagujia’zi (Big Drum Rack),
also known as Dizuo (Foundation), acting as the base of pyramid of Shangpan’gu
(acrobatics involving staggering bodies); (iii) Sanba’zi (Lead Dancer), who holds a
Chasan (Signal Umbrella), also known as Lingsan (Lead Umbrella), in the right hand,
and the role can be further divided into Wusan (Martial Umbrella, excels in dance/
acrobatics) and Wensan (Civil Umbrella, excels in singing and improvisation); and (iv)
Chougu (Clown Drum), specializes in ad lib of comic gestures and remarks, acting
humorous and witty character, singing and dancing, or even improvising like Wensan.
A basic Huagu’deng troupe usually comprises at least one Sanba’zi (Lead Dancer),
three Gu’jiazi and three to four Lanhua, totaling ten to twenty performers. In the
olden days, some performers of the all-male cast had to play Lanhua (female) roles,
but now the troupes (as in Xiqu opera) include females. Each dance troupe has its own
accompanying percussion ensemble.
According to Yizheng Suishi’ji (Seasonal Records of Yizheng)22,
“At Lantern Festival, Huagu’deng (Flower-drum Lantern) is enthusiastically

received by the public, in addition to Dragon Dance. Eight dancers in front
have painted faces and foreheads, and they hold two short rods in their hands,
and these dancers are known as ‘Big-head Monks’. They dance with clowns
pretending to be youngsters who are mentally retarded, and they wear scarves,
and are dressed in red and green. Dancers at rear are called Lianxiang (Lutus
Bulbs, a kind of folk dance which dancers hold a stick with inserted small bells),
Huagu (Flower-drum), First Aunt Hou, Second Aunt Wang, Fisherwoman,
Dressmaker and Mad Woman. These dancers in female attire are called Baotou
(Head-Wrappers), while those in male attire are Limp Monk, Blind Taoist,
Fisherman, Jug Fixer and Flower-drum Senior. The dancers unfold the story of
the opera. Those with clear throats and good voices will sing Rolling Lantern
to a local popular melody Jianjian’hua (Cutting Flowers). They hold lotus
lanterns and wear small red hats, and are known as ‘Monkey-head Singers’.
This role is played by the majority of performers, and their singing is echoed
by Houchang (Backstage Singers, who accompany themselves with plucked
strings). After the show, the host would hold a feast for the troupe, and reward
each performer a string of coins. By then, all involved are eating and drinking
in the courtyard except one at the back. He wears a white top felt hat, a sheep
skin jacket inside out, shaking a bell in one hand and holding a lantern in
the other saying, ‘I’m Wang Kuazi selling sticking plaster’. The host keeps
him out and closes the door believing that what he is selling is ominous. The
performance was called Shehuo (Folk Festival, ‘Community Fire’) in the olden
days; it has been a tradition for a long time.”
Performance of Huagu’deng has a fixed programme, which comprises: (i) Opening

show, which includes Shang Dengchang (Entering Lantern Show) and Wu Chasan
(Umbrella Dance); (ii) Dachang (Big Dancing Scene), also known as Luanchang
(Mixed Show), the main body of the Flower-Drum Lantern Dance (Huadeng); (iii)
Zhuanchang (Interlude), the transition between Dachang and the ensuing Xiaochang;
(iv) Xiaochang (Small Dancing Scene), including Xiao’huachang (Little Flower
Show), Shuanghua’chang (Double Flower Show) and other items, involving two
to three performers; (v) Pan’gu (Basin Drum), which can be divided into Di Pan’gu
22 See Hu Puan: Customs Ethnography of China (Zhonghua Quanguo Fengsuzhi), Second volume.
Shijiazhuang: People’s Publishing House of Hebei, 1986.
(Ground Drum), Zhongpan’gu (Middle Drum) and Shangpan’gu (acrobatics involving

staggering bodies); and, (vi) Houchang (Final Show), which is a small-scale dance
drama based on Flower-drums Songs developed from mountain songs and local ditties.
3. Instrumental Music of Huagu’deng
The music of Huagu’deng includes Flower-drum Songs and instrumental music;
the following discussion focuses on the latter category.
Instrumental music of Huagu’deng mainly comprises Luogu (percussion music),
and it is supplemented by wind music. Known as Changmian’luo (Scene Gongs),
the Luogu ensemble can perform music independently, in addition to being an
accompaniment. The ensemble comprises six to nine players, and instruments include
Three Big Pieces–drum, big gong, Daqian (Big Coin, big cymbals)–plus small
cymbals, Gouluo (Dog Gong) and Xiaoluo small gong; wind instruments include
Guan pipe, Di flute, Sheng mouth organ, Suona shawm, and a brass trumpet (similar
to Suona). Repertoire of independent Luogu music includes Shiba’fan (Eighteen
Variations), Shifan (Ten Variations), Xiaowu’fan (Small Five Variations), Lao’sanfan
(Old Three Variations) and Hama Tiaojing (Frog Jumping into Well).
Percussion music of Huagu’deng has complex metrical and rhythmic patterns,
and it displays many forms of virtuoso techniques, rich timbres and ever-changing
aesthetic effects. When a percussion ensemble is involved in large-scale performances
of Huagu’deng, it can generate rich artistic tone-colours, and strong characteristics of
indigenous music. Its expressive techniques includes the following features: (i) Often
use of iambic Shanban (Off Beat, rhythmic pattern starting on the second half of the
down beat), and alternating with the rests; (ii) Frequent unexpected metre changes; the
basic metre is 2/4, but often interspersed with 1/4 or 3/4 or other metres; (iii) Frequent
appearance of antitheses of Luogu phrases, with the playing of gongs against drums
like a dialogue, generating a lively and joyous atmosphere. A detailed analysis of the
piece Hama Tiaojing (Frog Jumping into Well) will illustrate the full characteristics of
the genre.
Hama Tiaojing is a piece popular in Changjiakan of Huaiyuan area in Anhui
Province. The Chang Family Percussion Troupe founded by the famous folk artist
Chang Chunli is recognized as an outstanding ensemble for the genre, and Chang is
nicknamed Lao Hama (Master of the Frog Dance). The melody of Hama Tiaojing
is originally a Qupai (Labelled Piece) used as accompaniment for male dance and
acrobatics, including the song Hama Tiao (Frog Jumps), and it later evolved into
an independent percussion piece. Folk artists have, over the years, endowed this
percussion piece with rich timbres and imaginative rhythms, by means of various
Huagu techniques to vividly simulate the sounds of frogs, such as crying, jumping,
stretching legs and eating.
Hama Tiaojing is conceived in great dimension; the performance is based on a
Huagu (Flower-drum) ensemble involving big gongs, big cymbals, small cymbals
and Gouluo gongs to play the basic rhythmic patterns, while Huagu drums are
deployed to deliver the role of Jiahua (embellishment) on this basis. While the piece
comprises several hundred measures, rhythmic patterns progress logically, without
much repetition. The rhythmic structure is ingenious and subtle, and the performing
techniques are delicate and unique, highlighting the supreme position of Huagu
music in the dance genre. It fully reflects the rich and profound artistic imagination of
Huagu’deng artists. The piece is long, yet the audience will not be bored; the sound
is rich, yet not noisy. The most conspicuous technique of performance is the unique
timbre of performing the drum with “pressing and beating” in the styles of “single”
or “double” strokes: the former refers to pressing the drum face with one hand while
striking it with the other; the latter is to press the drum face after beating it with two
drumsticks to produce a muffled sound. Through alternating “open” and “pressed”
beatings, many kinds of timbres are generated, providing an apt acoustic environment
for the frog dance.
B. Yangge (Field Dance)
1. Origin of Yangge
The earliest records of the Yangge date back to the Qing Dynasty. According to
Xinnian Zhayong Chao (Records of Miscellaneous Poems on Spring Festival) by
Wu Xiqi, “Yangge was a rural entertainment in Lantern Festival during the Southern
Song Dynasty (1127–1279). Performers have to act as a monk, son of the aristocracy,
drummer, girls pulling flowers, farmers, fisherwomen, pedlars and acrobat to amuse
the audience.” As a result of this written source, scholars believe that the Southern
Song Dynasty dance genre Cuntian’le (Rural Entertainment) is an early form of
Yangge dance. However, Cuntian’le can be dated back further, as testified by the Ming
theorist Zhu Zaiyu’s Lingxing’dui Fu (Ode to Lingxing Team),
“Lingxing Yayue (Elegant Music of Lingxing) was created during the Han Dynasty.
The dance portrays farming and harvests, with musicians playing Tugu (Clay Drum)
and Yue (vertical flute). People now have not heard of this dance and call it Cuntian’le
(Rural Entertainment).”
Hence Lingxing Dance of the Han Dynasty (or later Cuntian’le) is similar to the
present Haocao Luogu (Percussion for Weeding) widely performed in the country;
the latter is a kind of percussion and wind music called Zaiyang Haozi (Transplanting
Work Songs), which has more primitive music elements than Cuntian’le of the Song
Dynasty, functioning to elevate work spirit as well as music for agricultural rituals.
Before the 1950s, Yangge dance was still closely associated with temple fairs as well
as rituals controlling evil spirits, welcoming gods, and other farming sacrificial rites,
reflecting the functional properties of the genre (especially narrow definition of Yangge
dance) in agricultural societies. The preservation of Yangge has led to its integration
with other art forms, such as opera and professional genres of singing and dancing.
Yangge performances are widely organized in cities and towns, in addition to their
roots in Han rural areas. Since the Qing Dynasty, Yangge of the Han people performed
in urban areas have been mostly related to Zouhui or Chuhui (both meaning “joining
the festival”) during festivities or major sacrificial rituals. Such activities in folk rituals
can be traced back to Baixi (Variety Shows) of the Han and Jin Dynasties, which had
led to folk Duiwu (Group Dance) of the Tang and Song Dynasties. These are shows
in grand scale, referring more to their functions than specific contents; one has to bear
in mind that Yangge has a more specific meaning, with established programmes and
convention of performance.
2. Yangge Music
The music of Yangge comprises two independent components–instrumental and
vocal–the former is mainly used in Dachang (Big Dancing Scene), while vocal music
in Xiaochang (Small Dancing Scene) focuses on folk songs and skit singing. The
following discussion refers to the genre of wind and percussion music in Dachang.
There are two forms of Yangge instrumental music, namely pure percussion music
and music for wind and percussion. The old Han tradition of accompanying Yangge
involved only percussion instruments, and the Suona shawm was rarely used, an
example being Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field Dance of Shandong). Performance
practice has changed over the years, and the recent trend in areas such as Eastern
Hebei, Southern Liaoning, Jiaozhou and Northern Shaanxi allows the Suona shawm
to be featured in the accompaniment, with its piercing timbre being conspicuous when
being assigned the main melody, while supported by drums, cymbals and gongs.
Obviously, there is a close connection between Yangge ensemble and folk wind and
percussion music. The latter usually assigns melodies to two eight-hole Suona of the
same key, against rhythms generated by a drum and several pieces of cymbals and
gongs. Musical styles of Yangge vary according to the regional characteristics of wind
and percussion music adopted, and since the Suona is the main instrument, its melodic
style will dictate that of the dance genre. One needs to note that all regional Yangge
share some common features of musical structure, performance technique, ensemble
composition, as well as the performance style in dancing and singing. Analyses of two
regional Yangge styles will further elucidate their different music characteristics:
(1) Jidong Diyangge (Field Dance of Eastern Hebei)
Located at the Bohai Sea, Eastern Hebei is the thoroughfare to the regions
beyond the Great Wall known for fertile soil, developed culture, liberal folk style
and flourishing arts. Most Eastern Hebei Yangge songs are associated with courtship,
and hence humorous and expressive. The music is often based on a single melody or
in form of variations; the latter is more common, allowing the display of distinctive
features of melodic development and structural principles of Han folk instrumental
music. Three specific technical devices of treating the melody are employed: (i) Tianzi
(adding pitches), also known as Jiahua (embellishment), a simple means of adding
colour to a melody while keeping its outline. There will be changes in tempo of each
section of the music, usually in the progression of slow-medium-fast. The section
in Manban (Slow Beat) is usually the longest and regarded as the main section. The
structure is expanded by repeating the main melody in different guises (variations);
Tianzi technique is a simple technique of variation by filling in gaps between notes,
hence decorating the melody, often adding charm to the music, as well as allowing
performers to display their techniques. The following excerpt from Liu Qingniang
(Slender Lady) shows how the technique can be applied23:
23 For the complete music score, see Xue Yibing: Analysis and Comparison of Yangke Dance Music in Four
Different Regions. China Musicology, 1990, Vol. 1.
Example 2-7. Melodic variation of Liu Qingniang (Slender Lady)
Parent melody:
Variation:
Parent melody:
Variation:
The theme of the piece is derived from a simple folk melody. This is a typical
example of augmentation: while the metre 2/4 remains unchanged, the number of
measures is doubled, as the note values are doubled (for example, quaver becoming
crotchet). The new version of the melody has characteristics of Chinese folk music,
as the front portion is relatively simple, compared with the complexity of the rear
section. In any case, the adding of ornamentation makes the atmosphere more lively
and playful, and synchronizes well with the accompaniment of percussion, according
to the convention of playing fast while singing slowly.
(ii) Jianzi (reducing several pitches), or Jianhua (reducing embellishments). This
is also a basic way to extend melodies, while adhering to the format of differentiating
music sections according to the scheme of slow-medium-fast. Jianzi is particularly
effective in treating the rear part of a piece, as in the Suona piece of the Yangge
Daguniang ‘ai (The Love of a Young Girl): the ending comprises three variations
based on the theme, with melodies reducing in decorations in gradation, leading to
simplification, compression (reduction in phrase length) and increase in speed. The
melodic line becomes simple, fluent and lively, leading to a joyous ending.
(iii) Mochui (imitating). Jidong Guanyue (Wind Music of Eastern Hebei) is also
famous for the genre Chuige (Wind Songs), and Suona music for Yangge also shares
similar features. Since Jidong Yangge (Field Dance in Eastern Hebei) is influenced by
operatic music, the Suona has become a channel for linking vocal and instrumental
genres, owing to its use in imitating human voice, with techniques such as glissando
and various decorative devices to simulate speech tone, dialects and accents, creating
vastly contrasting atmospheres of joy and sadness. In any case, the audience will be
used to the idioms of original vocal music, and it will be fair to conclude that they can
associate Suona melodies with the semantic content. Aesthetically, it is possible to
appreciate different art forms–opera, folk song, instrumental music, dance–if they can
be linked by a viable medium.

(2) Jiaozhou Yangge (Field Dance in Jiaozhou of Shandong)
Jiaozhou Yangge is popular in the Jiaozhou area of Shandong Province, and it is a
stylized dance genre involving a large group of dancers for performance. Five pairs
of dancers of opposite sex are usually involved, and dance steps and body movements
are fixed according to its convention, displaying the somewhat direct and robust
characteristics of art in the northeast, hence in contrast to the femininity or gentleness
of similar genres in the south. The music of Jiaozhou Yangge is mainly in form of
Lianqu’ti (Connected Labelled Tunes), an example is the Suona suite Desheng’ling
(The Song of Victory), which comprises a sequence of melodies including
Desheng’ling (The Song of Victory), Gezhi’qu (Etude for Fingers), Shuilang’yin
(Song of Waves), Xiao Baima (A Small White Horse) and Dou Anchun (Playing
with Quails)24. The melody Desheng’ling can be played once or repeated three times,
according to the circumstances of performance; likewise, other melodies are treated
as independent entities, and each piece may be repeated if needed. The entire suite
usually has seven sections, each connected with Bianchang drumbeats (percussion
music as interlude). The musical style of the suite is simple and unadorned, and the
mode of expression is direct and natural. The most attractive feature of the piece
is the change of mode and key: the key will be different as a melody switches to
the next, but in some cases, there may be changes of mode within a piece, as in
the Labelled Tune Desheng’ling. One may associate the music with folk paintings
in Chinese New Year, owing to its modal changes, simple melodic lines, bright
timbre of the Suona and busy rhythms of gongs and drums. There are two methods
of modulation: (i) Modulation between two Adjacent Melodies. It is achieved by
subtle changes in the interlude; the transposition is usually a major second below
the preceding melody, or to its dominant or subdominant. The overall modal scheme
is as follows:
Desheng’ling (I) do = D → Desheng’ling (II) do = G → (tail phrase do =

D) → Desheng’ling (III) do = A (later transposing to G, end phrase do = D)
→ Gezhi’qu do = C → Shuilang’yin do = G → Xiao Baima do = D → (Dou
Anchun) do = C.
Hence, modulation of a major second is most common, as this relates to the

fingerings of folk wind instruments. This sudden shift of tonality provides a sense
of freshness to the audience, as well as highlighting indigenous characteristics of
the piece, helping create a sense of direct expression. (ii) Modulation within a piece.
For example, Desheng’ling (I) comprises 88 measures, and there are eleven changes
of modes, many being changes in finals while retaining the same principal note (for
example, do=D, but finals can be G, its subdominant, or A, its dominant). Owing to
24 For the complete music score, see Xue Yibing: Analysis and Comparison of Yangke Dance Music in Four
Diflerent Regions. China Musicology, 1990, Vol.1.
the ease in introducing melody as well as the simple, flexible and accommodating
characteristics of the pentatonic scale, modulation is effected naturally, with new
melodic materials added almost unnoticed. In short, variety is achieved within the
context of a stable music background.
C. Lusheng Dance (Dance of Bamboo Mouth Organ)
Lusheng Dance is performed in some areas inhabited by ethnic minorities in
southwest, central and south China, and the genre can be further divided into Lusheng
Dance and Hulu’sheng (Gourd Mouth Organ)Dance. The former is mainly popular
in areas of Miao-Yao and Zhuang-Dong languages in Guizhou, Guangxi and Hunan,
while the latter in areas of Tibeto-Burman and Loloish languages in Yunnan and
Sichuan.
1. Origin of Lusheng Dance
The two bronze Hulu’sheng (Gourd Mouth Organ) excavated at Tomb 24 of
Lijiashan Tombs (BC 4th century) in Jiangchuan are instruments of five and seven
pipes, the earliest known archaeological findings of musical instruments in southwest
China. Other bronze Hulu’sheng were discovered at archaeological sites in Yunnan,
including the Bronze Coffin Tomb (BC 4th century) in Dabona, Xiangyun, and tomb
of the Dian King (before the Western Han Dynasty, BC221) in Shizhaishan, Jinning.
Historical records of the Tang Dynasty Chronicles of Barbarians (Manshu) by Fan
Chuo refers to Nanzhao Kingdom where the Yunnan minorities lived, “After dusk,
young men wander in the streets blowing Hulu’sheng or leaves (as instruments) to
convey their love in the melodies to attract their beloved girls.”
The modern Lusheng is developed from the ancient Yao instrument Lusha. Fan
Chengda of the Song Dynasty refers to the instrument in his Guihai Yuheng’zhi
(Ethnography of Guihai Yuheng), “The musical instrument Lusha is shaped like Xiao
(flute) with eight vertical pipes connected by a horizontal pipe.” Hence Lusha and
Hulu’sheng were played by Yao people. It is possible that improvements were made to
Lusha by drawing on Hulu’sheng, leading to the construction of the present Lusheng,
which gradually replaced the traditional position of Hulu’sheng there. There exist two
branches of ancient dance genre based on different specifications of the mouth organ,
namely Lusheng Dance in Guizhou and Guangxi, and Hulu’sheng Dance in Yunnan.
After the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there are more written sources on Lusheng and
Hulu’sheng. Miao Folk Customs (Miaosu’ji) of the Qing Dynasty describes, “In early
spring each year, both men and women dress up in new costumes. Men construct
bamboo Lusheng and play the instruments while walking in front, while women beat
the bells, following the men, singing and dancing along, with melodies resounding,
and are happy all day long.” Lusheng Dance has gradually developed its indigenous
style in different ethnic minorities in Guizhou and Guangxi Provinces. Lusheng as a
family of instruments have pretty well completed the process of development, so are
their repertoire and performing techniques. The following is an introduction to the
instrument and its music:
2. Structure, Ensemble and Modes of Performance of Lusheng
Lusheng can either be made of bamboo or wood, and its components include wind
chest, pipes, reeds and resonators. A family of Lusheng includes ten instruments (or
“numbers”, in local vocabulary), differentiated according to the number of pipes and
pitches generated. The most common Lusheng include: (i) six pipes producing six
pitches, based on the pentatonic scale, and usually in the modes of Yu (sixth degree),
Zhi (fifth degree) and Shang (second degree); (ii) Eight pipes producing eight pitches,
based on the pentatonic scale, and usually in the modes of Zhi (fifth degree) and
Yu (sixth degree); (iii) Six pipes producing seven pitches, based on pentatonic or
hexatonic scales, usually in the modes of Yu and Zhi; (iv) Six pipes producing five
pitches, based on tri-tonic or quad-tonic scales, usually in Zhi and Yu modes; (v) Six
pipes producing four pitches, based on tri-tonic or quad-tonic scales, usually in Yu
mode. These Lusheng are made to different sizes, generating high, medium and low
ranges of pitches; each type of instrument is an octave apart from the next.
Music and dance performances involving Lusheng can be affected by the instrument
used, owing to differences in shape, structure, size, air consumption and weight. The
following observations will apply to the use of Lusheng of sizes from big to small:
(i) reduction of harmonic capabilities; (ii) enhanced melodic qualities; (iii) easier tempo
change; (iv) inclination towards polyphony; (v) more flexible dance postures, such as
extending from legs and hips to whole body; (vi) dancing style becoming more lively;
(vii) evolving from group to solo dance; (viii) evolving from religious and sacrificial
dances to self-entertaining, public performance and athletic dances.
Four Modes of Performing Lusheng: (i) Solo, with high pitched Lusheng; (ii)
Paired Lusheng, played in unison with two Lusheng of the same key emitting same
pitches, often at men’s athletic dances involving complex dance movements; (iii) Set
of Lusheng played as ensemble with instruments in high, medium and low ranges,
nicknamed Sandi’shui (Three Drops of Water). In the event a double-bass Lusheng is
added, the consort becomes Sidi Shui (Four Drops of Water); (iv) Mangtong Lusheng,
Lusheng in high, medium and low ranges are involved, together with three or four
Mangtong (bamboo pipes of different sizes), known as “Half Set”; if the number of
Lusheng is doubled, together with 26 Mangtong, the ensemble becomes a “Full Set”.
Sometimes the number of instrumentalists can be increased to over a hundred, and
players of medium and high Lusheng can dance as well, either as leaders or as chorus
(rank and file). Low pitched Lusheng can only be played resting on ground.
There are various ways of performing Lusheng Dance, owing to ethnic and
regional differences. Miao Lusheng Dance, for example, can be divided into four
categories: (i) Lined Lusheng Dance, in which “Set of Lusheng” is involved, meaning
that the performer of the largest instrument leads the dance with other Lusheng players
lining up in a straight line, playing instruments and dancing, while girls sing and
dance in circle around them; (ii) Lusheng Group Dance, in which Mangtong Lusheng
is involved, with bass Mangtang (or called Ditong, Land Bamboo Pipes), Mangtong
and bass Lusheng playing at the centre, encircled by other performers of the ensemble
who play instruments and dance, according to the nature of instruments and roles;
(iii) Cai Lusheng (Trampling or Dancing Lusheng) in which “Paired Lusheng” or
“Set of Lusheng” are involved in playing a variety of single pieces, series of joined
pieces or suite; (iv) Duet or Solo Dance, which is very demanding on performers as
they have to play instruments while dancing, handling complex body movements such
as spinning, hand stand, balancing a stack of bowls on head, somersaults, and other
gimmicks. “Paired Lusheng” are involved for dance in duet.
3. Dance Music for Lusheng
(1) Genre and Classification
Music for Lusheng can be divided into four genres according to function, including
music for dance, rituals, narratives and song accompaniment (Chuige); all of these can
be used to accompany dance according to needs.
(2) Texture
There are three kinds of texture of music for Lusheng: (i) Single melody. This
mainly refers to Lusheng Chuige (Songs Accompanied by Bamboo Mouth Organ),
most of which are monophonic, except the beginnings or ends, which may have
added harmonic notes. Some Chuige are performed to accompany dances, such as
Miao Chuige Guoqi (Song of Fruit) in Leigong Mountain of Guizhou, which have
mixed duple and triple metres. There are about three hundred songs in this category,
which are sung by young male courting partners on festive occasions after dancing till
midnight. The music matches well with the dance steps, with idioms corresponding to
the tones, pulses, rhythms and moods of the language of courtship; (ii) Homophonic
style. Songs are accompanied harmonically, either chordally or in form of added notes;
most are dance melodies, an example being the Miao Lusheng songs in Guiyang,
which are divided songs accompanied by chords, notes or tonic; (iii) Polyphonic style.
Examples include Miao Lusheng songs of Guiyang with the main sections and endings
in two-part polyphony (in spite of short harmonic accompaniment in opening). As
the contrapuntal melodies have to be delivered by one Lusheng performer, a high
command of techniques is needed.
Sectional Forms: There are three kinds structures based on the nature of music
sections: (i) Songs in three sections. The beginning and end of the melody are based
Example 2-8. The main section of dance music for Lusheng

Example 2-9. Melodic development of dance music for Lusheng
on fixed motives which may be changed to accommodate different dance steps, with
the main section based on repetitions or variations (see Example 2-8); (ii) Songs
based on development. There is no fixed introduction or cadence, nor any fixed rules
on phrasing, and dancers have to adjust their dance steps according to how the melody
develops (see Example 2-9); (iii) Repetitions with variations. This applies to extended
pieces with changes made to speed, dynamics and melodic contour, according to the
characteristics of different dance steps.
Suites: Based on the concept of sectional forms, it is possible to distinguish two
kinds of suites for Lusheng: (i) Variation suite. It is an extended piece based on the
techniques of variation on a theme called Laomu (Old Mother), combining its original
form with melodies derived from its rhythm and melody (even though these factors
can be rather independent); an example is the Miao Lusheng Dance of the three
districts of Duyun in Guizhou25. The music is made up of fifteen melodies, each with the
recurring motive based on the rhythm of the Laomu theme, demonstrating
a close relationship between the sections; (ii) Cyclic suite. It is a kind of rondo form
based on recurring appearances of a theme interspersed with at least two independent
melodies, as in the Gaozhai Miao Lusheng Dance of Wangsi District, Duyun County,
Guizhou, which comprises Theme (A) and six melodies inserted between appearances
of the theme, highlighting contrast in music of a cyclic structure26.
D. General Features of Dance Music
Dance music usually refers to instrumental accompaniment of folk dances: when
the term is associated with Han dances, it is almost synonymous with operatic and
instrumental music. Labelled tunes for drawing attention of the audience are hardly
distinguishable from independent instrumental pieces. Most genres of instrumental
25 For the music score, see Mass Cultural Centre of Guizhou (Guizhou Qunzhong Yishuguan, compiled):
Guizhou Miao Ethnic Group Lusheng (Internal Fnformation); or Yang Minkang: Chinese Folk Singing and
Dancing Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1996, p522.
26 For the music score, see Mass Cultural Centre of Guizhou, Ibid; or Yang Minkang, Ibid, p530.
music of ethnic minorities relate to dance; only a fraction are performed and
appreciated as pure instrumental music of Han people. The following is a discussion
according to types:
1. Genre Classification
(1) Percussion Music
It is the most important genre of dance music, owing to the great variety of
percussion instruments and their extended repertoire. The delicate and artistic playing
techniques of flower-drums and waist-drums can be found in the gong and drum piece
Hama Tiaojing (Frog Jumping into Well) of Flower-drum Lantern; the ever-changing
rhythms of hand drums and elephant-foot drums can be fully appreciated in Muqam
dance and Elephant-foot Drum Dance; the magnificent and quaint style of bronze
drums, wooden drums and bass drums can be fully displayed in dances of southern
ethnic minorities. Besides, the tuning system of bee drums, the delightful timbres of
water drums, and magical tone-colours of single drums and hand drums are arresting
to the audience. Most percussion ensembles for dances highlight drums as leading
instruments, but apart from genres of a few ethnic minorities, most ensembles pay
equal attention to three essential pieces, namely drums, gongs and cymbals. There
is hardly any exception in the supremacy of these instruments, as seen in Han opera,
song and dance to Tibetan Cham, Elephant-foot Drum Dance of Dai people, Bee-
drum Dance of Zhuang people, or Wooden Drum Dance, Bass Drum Dance and
Water Drum Dance in remote mountainous areas. In addition, south and central ethnic
minorities often combine the timbres of bronze drum with big drum or wooden drum
in a manner similar to the ensembles mentioned.
(2) Wind Music, and Music for Wind and Percussion
Dance music accompanied by wind instruments is mainly found in genres
of southern ethnic minorities. Some genres of dance music only involve a few
instruments, such as Dage’diao (Dancing Tunes) only uses a bamboo flute or a
Lusheng for accompaniment and directing dozens of dancers in group dance. Another
genre Miao Lusheng Dance can involve a larger instrumental ensemble, comprising
instruments such as large, medium and small Lusheng and Mangtong Lusheng, with
several dozens of musicians. Many Han dance genres are accompanied by ensembles
comprising percussion and wind instruments, examples being Northeast and Central
Hebei Yangge. Dance genres for ethnic minorities such as Lusheng Bronze-drum
Dances of the Miao and Shui people are accompanied by ensembles of Wa people
comprising Wooden Drums, Mang Gongs (brass gongs hanged on a frame), cymbals
and Hulu’sheng.
(3) Music for Plucked and Bowed Strings
Dance music with accompaniment of plucked strings is common in genres of
southern ethnic minorities; examples include Sanxian (Three-string lute) Dance
of Lisu people and Xie Dance of Tibetan people. In the narrative genre Dage,
performances often involve one or two players of Sanxian or Yueqin (Moon lute)
leading the rest of the dancers. Dage can also be accompanied by Xiao Sanxian
(Small three-string lute) and Yueqin (Moon lute) in combination with a bamboo
flute and Hulu’sheng; the Yi dance genre in Dieshile Honghe Prefecture, Yunnan is
accompanied by Bawu flute, straw, leaves (as instruments) and Yueqin lute, producing
very charming timbres. Dance music performed by bowed strings is less common:
an example is Xuanzi’wu (String Dance) in areas inhabited by Tibetans in Sichuan
and Yunnan. Han dance genre Flower Lantern of Yinjiang, Guizhou developed
Sixian’deng (Silk String Dance) accompanied by Datong (Big Fiddle) and Dizi flute
on the basis of gong and drum music.
(4) Ensemble Music
Many genres of dances involve accompaniment by instrumental ensemble;
examples include Tibetan Nangma (a kind of Tibentan court dance), Bee-drum Dance
of Zhuang ethnic group, Naxi Boshi’xili (a kind of Naxi ethnic group instrumental
ensemble popular in the area Boshi’xili), most of which comprise national instruments
on the foundation of percussion and strings (or wind instruments). Some genres have
very unique cultural characteristics, such as the Uyghur Twelve Muqam ensemble
comprising national instruments; A’xi Dance Gaosibi of the Yi people is accompanied
by an ensemble of bamboo flute, Sanhu (Three-string fiddle), Yueqin (Moon lute)
and Sanxian (Three-string lute). Among these instruments, the bamboo flute can be
divided according to their ranges–high, medium and low–while the Sanxian as small,
medium, large, and bass. Since instruments in a particular range have characteristic
timbres, their combined effect allows different parts to be distinguished.
2. Musical Structure
(1) Variations
Like Western music, it comprises a theme and a number of variations, but mostly in
form of stylized dance music. There are two kinds of such structure. First, the theme
and variations are played without interruption, giving an impression of an independent
piece, an example being the Suona shawm piece Daguniang’ai (Love of a Young Girl)
in Jidong Diyangge (Field Dance of Eastern Hebei), which includes a theme and three
variations. Second, there is melodic relationship between the theme and its variations,
but they retain a higher degree of independence, and the passages can be played in
succession, or independently, as in the Miao Lusheng Dance in the three districts of
Duyun, Guizhou, with a theme (Laomu, Old Mother) and thirteen variations.
(2) Rondo
Like Western music, it is a structure based on a recurring theme with over two
episodes of different characters inserted; each section usually comprises a single
melody, as in the example Gaozhai Miao Lusheng Dance of Wangsi District, Duyun
County, Guizhou, comprising a recurring theme and six episodes. Fragments of the
theme are attached to the end of episodes to achieve a sense of unity.
(3) Connected Tunes
It refers to a piece based on two or more melodies linked according to the needs
of the content of the dance or by convention, an example being the Suona shawm
suite Jiaozhou Yangge based on the sequence of Desheng’ling (The Song of Victory),
Gezhi’qu (Etude for Fingers), Shuilang’yin (Song of Waves), Xiao Baima (A Small
White Horse) and Dou Anchun (Playing with Quails).
3. Rhythms and Drumbeats

The rhythmic structure of dance music can be best illustrated through drum
patterns in the accompaniment. Owing to the vital role of drums in all genres of folk
dances, many rhythmic patterns have been developed, and are organized as suites,
in order to accommodate different scenes of dances. Percussion accompaniment can
evolve into independent instrumental pieces, an example being the extended piece
Hama Tiaojing (Frog Jumping into Well) in the dance genre Flower-drum Lantern.
Dance genres with their own drum patterns and drum suites include Shandong Guzi
Yangge (Drum Field Dance of Shandong) and Elephant-foot Drum Dance of Dai
people. Percussion of the former is divided into ensemble with big gongs and drums,
small gongs and drums, as well as “mixed” instruments of big and small; the first type
of ensemble accompanies male performers dancing with drums, rods or umbrella, or
as solo; the second is for female dancers (or “flowers”) in groups or as solo; the last
is for the chorus in the hectic Pao’changzi (Running Scene). Instruments involved in
the “big” percussion ensemble include big drum, big gong and big cymbals, with the
flexibility of augmenting its size according to needs. “Small” percussion ensemble
includes Tanggu (Barrel Drum), gongs, big cymbals, small cymbals and small gongs.
Drum patterns and suites are composed according to the specific atmosphere of the
circumstances, and they have to comply with certain rules and conventions. For
example, the big drum produces rhythmic patterns that are steady and solemn; its
three basic drumbeats are illustrated as follows: (i) Jiaoban’dian (Starting Rhythmic
Pattern), for introducing a dance or grand scene by means of double-dotted iambic
rhythm, indicating the pulse, and usually in slow tempo:
Example 2-10. Jiaoban’dian (Starting Rhythmic Pattern) of Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field
Dance of Shandong)
(ii) Proceeding Drumbeat: continuous rhythmic pattern in dance proper which can
be embellished, in medium or fast tempo:
Example 2-11. Proceeding drumbeat of Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field Dance of Shandong)
(iii) Ending Rhythmic Pattern: For ending a section or group movements and for
leading to new dance movements or a scene. It is usually linked to the Proceeding
Drumbeat in the same tempo, and may include fragments of new rhythmic pattern for
the new scene (if applicable):
Example 2-12. Ending rhythmic pattern of Shandong Guzi Yangge (Drum Field Dance of
Shandong)
Rhythmic patterns for “small” percussion ensemble are mainly for accompanying
“flowers” (female) dancers; they comprise concise motives which can be in great
details, so as to generate a facile and lively atmosphere. This is, of course, related
to their handiness. The atmosphere may change by varying the dynamics, while the
tempo will be adjusted according to the mood of dancing scenes. When it is combined
with “Big” percussion ensemble to form a “mixed” ensemble, the performers can join
in according to the established rhythmic patterns, achieving a kind of heterophony.
Rhythmic patterns of drums often have distinctive ethnic as well as regional
characteristics, in addition to unique timbral qualities of instruments. For example,
the Uyghur Muqam highlights the tambourine (Dabu), with trochaic pattern, as well
as dotted and syncopated motives, in the context of mixed metres such as 2/4, 8/2,
8/5 and 9/7. The Agricultural Dance of Koreans often uses instruments such as Suona
shawm, Changgo (rod drum), Dharma drum and small gong, featuring trochaic
rhythmic patterns, and assigning twelve types of melodies based on such motives. In
Yunnan, home of peacocks, it is natural that Dai people in Dehong of the Province
have many ways of depicting the colourful bird spreading its wings, somersaulting
or other happy gestures, and corresponding rhythmic patterns are performed by
Elephant-foot Drum according to conventions, leading to certain stylized structural
patterns of the instrument, including linking rhythms, short and long cadences. The
northeastern Manchurian Shaman Dance uses instruments such as Taigu Drum,
Zhuagu drum, waist bells, bronze mirrors and hand bells, with rhythms imbedded
with specific semantic content, such as Dandian (Single Pattern), Lao’sandian (Old
Three-beat Pattern), Kuai Sandian (Fast Three-beat Pattern), Lao’wudian (Old Five-
beat Pattern), Kuai Wudian (Fast Five-beat Pattern), Hua Qidian (Colourful Seven-
beat Pattern), Suidian (Broken Beats), Zheng Qidian (Original Seven-beat Pattern),
Jiudian (Nine-beat Pattern) and Shiyi’dian (Eleven-beat Pattern), with Lao Sandian as
basic pattern.
4. Textures
There are three kinds of textures in music of folk dance.
(1) Homophonic Texture

It is almost impossible to appreciate Chinese folk ensemble music from the
Western perspective of harmony and counterpoint, since there is an established
practice of creating contrast within a homogenous acoustic environment, the most
common being presenting a melody by a lead performer, and followed by a kind of
response. Indeed, there exists a similar contrasting relationship between the main
Huagu (Colourful Drum) melody and percussion passages in Flower-drum Lantern
of the Han people, or the Elephant-foot Drum and rhythms of Cymbals in Elephant-
foot Drum Dance of Dai people. In Han Wind and Percussion Music of Yangge’wu
dance, there is contrast between passages of wind (Suona shawm and Di flute) and
percussion instruments. When a mixed ensemble is involved, it is possible to detect
elementary use of harmony, in genres such as Tibetan Nangma, Axi Gaosibi of the
Yi people, and Labelled Tunes of Erren’tai of Han people. In addition, it will be
natural to find harmonic texture in dance music involving instruments capable of
playing chords, such as Lusheng bamboo organ in Lusheng dance music of Miao
people. Some genres of dance music are performed according to developed practices
of distinguishing instrumental timbres; in the ensemble for Lusheng dance, there are
fixed positions for large, medium, small and low pitched Mangtong Lusheng. There
are ten Lusheng ensembles in southeast Guizhou alone; these comprise instruments of
different sizes, with a range of three to four octaves (known as “Three or Four Drops
of Water”). In the dance genre Gaosibi of the Axi tribe of the Yi people, the bamboo
flutes are in forms of high, medium and low, while similar distinction is found in
the Sanxian (Three-string lute), in forms of large, medium and small; when these
instruments are involved in an ensemble piece, the differences in pitches will result in
distinct layers of texture. There are different ways of performing music in unison or
octaves: it may be in form of a consort such as Lusheng (akin to “Consort of Viols”
in early Baroque in Europe); or it may involve different families of instruments, such
as “Silk and Bamboo” ensembles of the Han. Finally, some performances highlight
one solo instrument playing against a group, in form of “Question and Answer”, an
example being Lusheng Dance.
(2) Polyphonic Texture
Pure polyphony is rarely found in Chinese folk music, but some genres may be
hybrids, mixing performances in unison or octaves infiltrated with some factors of
imitation. Some dance music of ethnic minorities, however, display good application
of contrapuntal techniques. Heterophony is by far the most common in all genres
of dance music, including Tibetan Duixie and Nangma, as well as Bosh Xili of Naxi
people and Dieshi (a place in Yunnan where the Yi people live, and the dance popular
in this area is called Dieshi Dance) of Yi people.
(3) Mixed Texture
When analyzing the texture of dance music, one vital factor–sound effects beyond
the scope of instruments–must not be overlooked. This includes, for example, the
sound of dance steps or paraphernalia associated with performance, which can
generate acoustic effects with contrasts in rhythm, timbre, register and dynamics.
Composite Dance Music 137
Typical examples include the combination of instrumental music with sounds of tap
dance steps in Tibetan Xie dance, accompanying music with the sound of prop rattle
stick in Bawang’bian (Rattle Stick Dance), Xiangba Dance (Bamboo Stick Dance) of
Zhuang people and Yanhe’wu (Tobacco Box Dance) of Yi people.
III. Composite Dance Music

Composite Dance Music refers to genres involving independent dance songs and
instrumental pieces in the same item, and performed in sequence or in cyclic form. In
other words, vocal and instrumental music plays a more or less equal part. Instruments
are, of course, involved in accompanying voices in most cases.
This form of dance music can be divided into two categories according to its
length and complexities: (i) Single Structure. An example is small-scale Han Yangge
of the north, involving alternation of dance songs and percussion music, meaning
that the two modes of performance are treated as independent entities. Similar
examples include dance genres Tibetan Nangma, Elephant-foot Drum, Gengu Dance
(Gengu’wu, also called Hanban’guang. “Han” meaning “sing”, “Ban” following, and
“Guang” drum. The word Gengu means “following the drum” to sing or to dance),
Peacock Dance and Shier’ma Diao (Twelve Horses) of Dai people. (ii) Complex
Structure. This is found in large-scale genres of ethnic minorities such as Uyghur
Twelve Muqam, with cyclic occurrence of vocal pieces of different moods, contents
and structures, contrasting with relatively coherent instrumental intermezzos. This
complex dance suite involves body movements, vocal and instrumental music, as well
as images of literature.
A. Tibetan Nangma
1. Origin of Nangma
Nangma is a genre of Tibetan folk dance which has been developed as an art
form by Tibetan intellectuals and artists, and introduced to the court by aristocrats,
but later becoming a popular genre. Owing to its complicated background, there are
two different views on its origin and development: First, Court Song and Dance27.
There is a belief that in the seventeenth century, Sangye Gyatso, disciple and heir
of the Fifth Lama, often invited dignitaries with titles of “Court Ministers”28 to
Langma Kang (Hall of Ministers) to sing, dance and write poetry; the song and dance
genre was called Nangma. During the Eighth Dalai period (1758–1840), the minster
Zhuren Dianzhenbanjiu in charge of Tibetan local government had opportunity to
visit different areas of China, where he was exposed to Kun and Beijing Operas,
as well as folk instrumental music involving the Yangqin dulcimer and Erhu fiddle
of Han people. He brought Chinese Gongche’pu (Gongche Notation, Chinese folk
music notation) and some folk instruments to Tibet, and enriched Nangma music
accordingly. The standardized form of Nangma music had to be performed by an
ensemble with seven instruments, including Dizi flute, Zhamnie (Six-stringed lute),
27 Chinese Music Dictionary, Item“Nangma”holds this saying.

28 “Court of Ministers”内大臣 .
Yangqin dulcimer, Jinghu (Fiddle used in Beijing opera) fiddle, Teqin zither, Genka
fiddle and Chuangling chain of bells; it cannot be called Nangma’xie (Nangma dance)
if the instrumentation is incomplete. When Nangma became a Tibetan folk genre,
such restrictions were lifted. This is another reference to Nangma as a form of Court
entertainment, as well as its role for integrating Chinese and Tibetan music cultures.
Second, some believe that Nangma was first conceived in the frontier region Ali of
Tibet: since the seventeenth century, Tibetan kings had been selecting musicians and
dancers from Ali to entertain nobles at Court, hence the dance genre Nangma had
opportunities to acquire elegant elements to suit the taste of the upper class, and folk
artists had contributed much to its development.
2. Nangma Music
The music of the dance genre Nangma is stylized with fixed content, consisting of
an instrumental prelude in medium speed, songs in slow tempo and fast instrumental
music for dance. Early Nangma were based on songs, and they were only performed
in the halls and courtyards of the ruling class. After it became a popular folk genre, it
developed into a bipartite structure, with sections differentiated as “songs” and “fats
dancing”, and the performance was preceded by a Prelude.
(1) Prelude
It is a fixed instrumental piece featuring a sedate, elegant and lyrical melody
introduced by the Zhamnie (Six-stringed lute) playing the notes sol, la and re (open
strings), while other instruments enter on the third note. There is no dancing in this
section; if there is any body movements at all, dancers will mark time by swinging
arms while moving gently in form of “three steps in four beats.”
(2) Songs in Slow Tempo
This is the most complicated musical section of Nangma, with songs of different
sentiments selected according to the needs of the occasions, sung by a chorus without
body movements. The melodic lines are sustained, and they flow in a meandering
manner, with an air of freedom. The music is organized by interlocking long and
short periods (comprising two or four phrases); the phrases (sung in pairs, or in Han
folk style of Qi beginning, Cheng continuation, Zhuan change and He ending) are
punctuated by short interludes. Modulations are effected with either fixed or changed
pitch of the principal note, and the songs are mainly in the modes of Gong (first
degree), Shang (second degree), Yu (sixth degree), Jue (third degree) and Qingjue
(raised third degree = fourth degree, or fa in Solfege). Nangma lyrics are mostly in
folk ballad style, especially the format of Xie songs comprising four six-word verses;
sometimes the phrasing of lyrics and music coincide, and as the phrases are organized
in pairs, a song can be sung with the repetition of a pair of phrases. The social content
of lyrics can be very broad, and many songs are based on lyrics written by the great
Tibetan poet and Sixth Dalai Lama Sangye Gyatso. These poetic lyrics show traces
of folk style and artistry of poets, as well as sophisticated and profound aristocratic
temperament of the literati.
(3) Fast Instrumental Music for Dance
This final part of Nangma mainly comprises dance and instrumental music (no
singing), and it demonstrates many features of an advanced genre, particularly in

structure and artistic content, compared with Guoxie dance and Duixie dance. Nangma
has three more developed technical aspects. First, the tempo of the fast dance of
Nangma doubles that of the preceding section of slow songs, while such specified
contrast is not present in Guoxie and Duixie. Second, fast melodies of Guoxie or
Duixie are usually simplified versions of the presented slow melodies, while the fast
dance section of Nangma is consciously worked out, demonstrating some techniques
of development of the slow melodies heard, and with instrumental idioms evolved
from vocal music. Third, the beginning and end of the fast dance section are stylized (as
in the Prelude), hence can be used in different repertoire of Nangma, further indicating
the maturity of its musical conception.
B. Elephant-foot Drum Dance (Xiangjiao Guwu)
1. Origin of Elephant-foot Drum Dance
Elephant-foot Drum Dance is performed by ethnic minorities who have long
been living near the borders between Southwest China and Southeast Asia, including
peoples of Yue (a branch of Dai), Bulang, De’ang, Wa and Pu. Inscriptions of Peacock
Dance and Elephant-foot Drum Dance are found on a bronze-drum shaped cowrie-
container (M.12.2) unearthed at Shizhaishan ancient Dian tombs in Jinning, Yunnan
in the 1950s. The dancing scene on this relic is presented in two concentric circles: in
the inner ring, there is a big bronze drum at the centre, surrounded by nine dancers;
the postures of the dancers–performer of small bronze drum and lead dancer with his
knees slightly bent, with a raised right hand and a bent elbow, as well as the left hand
in front of his chest–resemble movements of the Peacock Dance and Elephant-foot
Drum Dance. The principal percussion instrument Bianmang (Set of Mang gongs) of
Elephant-foot Drum Dance is clearly illustrated in the dance scene on the drum face
of the bronze-drum unearthed at Kaihua, Wenshan, Yunnan. There is a literary source
concerning a diplomatic mission headed by Li Sicong and Qian Guxun to Luchuan
(present Dehong), Burma in the Ming Dynasty to study folk customs, including songs
and dance of Dai, De’ang, Wa and Achang peoples. Their adventures were recorded in
Baiyi’zhuan (Biographies of a Hundred Barbarians),
“There are three categories of music. The first comprises Pipa lute, Huqin
fiddle, Xiao flute and Xiangzhan small gong, like instruments of the Central
Plain, belongs to the main genre of folk music; the second comprises Sheng
mouth organ, Ruan lute, Paixiao panpipes, Konghou harp and Pipa lute - a
genre involving dancers by clapping their hands while singing Burmese songs–
belongs to Burmese music; the third comprises bronze-cymbals, bronze –drum,
clappers, big and small long leather drums - with performers striking the
instruments with their hands, akin to music of the monks and Taoists - belongs
to Cheli (name of a place) music. In villages, people beat bass drum, play
Lusheng bamboo organ, and dance in grand mass of a thousand while enjoying
the feast”.
The passage provides some evidence on music for different social strata of the
ethnic minorities as well as the differing music and dance cultures between urban
and rural areas. The genre of Cheli Music refers to Elephant-foot Drum ensemble
disseminated from Xishuang Banna (Cheli). While the bronze-drum has not survived,
the percussion ensemble of Elephant-foot Drum Dance–comprising Elephant-foot
Drum (Long Leather Drum), Mang gong and cymbals, or Three Major Pieces–still
exist.
2. Music Characteristics
Elephant-foot Drum Dance is usually performed during the Songkran Festival,
Anju Settlement Festival or other religious events. The repertoire includes Dai
people’s Yilahui (a kind Dai people’s folk dance popular in Xishuang Banna),
Gengu’diao (Tune Following Drum), Hanzha Diao (The Tune for staged performance
Hanzha), Kongque’diao (Peacock Tune), Gayang’diao (Weeding Tune) and
percussion music Elephant-foot Drum Dance Music; Bulang people’s Zaibeng (a kind
of folk tune of Pulang people that can also be used for dance), Lazhu Binglang Wu
(Candle and Binglang Dance), Zaizhong (also a kind of Pulang people’s folk tune),
Fengtonggu Wu (Bee Drum Dance); De’ang people’s Elephant-foot Drum Dance and
Shuigu’wu (Water Drum Dance); Wa people’s Shuigu’wu (Water Drum Dance) and
Tiaobai music (Dance and Swing, a concept of dance used by many ethnic groups in
Yunnan); and Achang people’s Xiangmo (a kind of folk dance of Achang people) and
Elephant-foot Drum Dance.
Music characteristics of Elephant-foot Drum Dance can be illustrated by the
following three points: (i) dances are accompanied by drum ensemble and Elephant-
foot Drum Dance ensemble at Festivals of Songkran and Anju Settlement for different
nationalities in various regions, most of which are interspersed by performance of
folk songs. (ii) percussion ensemble serves mainly as accompaniment, even though
percussion music may take a more prominent role in some pieces of Elephant-foot
Drum Dance. Widely used rhythmic patterns of percussion music can be found in
Elephant-foot Drum Suite of Peacock Dance in Dehong Prefecture, as illustrated in
the following example:
Example 2-13. Rhythmic patterns of percussion music of Elephant-foot Drum Suite of Peacock
Dance in Dehong Prefecture
Note: a. Rhythmic pattern used for Peacock opens its wings;

b. Rhythmic pattern for peacock opening its wings;
c. Rhythmic pattern for peacock being happy;
d. Rhythmic pattern used for peacock turning its body;

e. Rhythmic pattern as linking passage;
f. Rhythmic pattern leading to coda;
g. Closing rhythmic pattern.
(iii) when percussion music functions as accompaniment, performers will cease

to dance when singing begins, or vice versa, meaning that songs are sung without
dance movements. This can be regarded as a kind of cyclic form contrasting singing
with dancing. Fourth, the percussion ensemble is based on three major instruments,
including Elephant-Foot Drum, Mang gong and cymbals; these are also main
instruments accompanying songs of the genre. The use of drum is flexible, for
example, Elephant-foot Drum can be replaced by Bass Drum or Barrel Drum. The
choice of drum has a direct effect on the nature of the dance, and various sub-genres
are generated as a result of the drums chosen, as in Elephant-foot Drum Dance, Bee-
drum Dance, Mang Gong Dance or Brass Drum Dance.
3. Gengu’diao (Tune Following Drum) of Dai Ethnic Group
Gengu’diao are songs sung by invited guests to congratulate their host at religious
events of Zuobai (Feasts), known to Dai people as Hanban’guang (Following the
Drum to Sing). In fact, Zuobai has been a generic name of religious ceremonies and
mass rallies for believers of Hinayana, but nowadays it may encompass occasions
such as National Day or other general festivities. Traditional religious Gongbai (Public
Feast) is held at Buddhist temples, while Sibai (Private Feast) is held at private
temples. The degree of devoutness is linked to the value of the offerings to religious
organizations.
Hanbang’guang is a ceremony involving a representative guest (singer)
performing a song of praise or blessing after a percussion piece, with complimentary
lyrics on the host, such as qualities of assiduity, erudite or the exemplary personal
character, while leading a frugal life yet being generous to Buddha and the poor. This
is followed by percussion music of gongs and drums, after which the crowds cheer
and dance according to the accompaniment of percussion; the process is repeated until
a climax is reached. This dance can be performed in conjunction with other genres,
such as Lion Dance, Elephant Dance and Peacock Dance, either simultaneously or
in sequence. The transcribed score of Gengu’diao (Example 2-14) comprises four
phrases of varying lengths preceded by an introduction in Zhi (fifth degree) mode. One
notices however, that the introduction and first two phrases end on Gong (first degree).
The assignment of 3/4 metre is only approximate, as the melody does not strictly
fit a triple dancing rhythm, owing to liberty in treating rhythmic patterns. Singing
only begins after the dance and percussion accompaniment have stopped, according
to the convention of performance. Even so, slight bodily swings during singing are
permitted, so long as there are no dancing steps. The musical range is narrow, within a
sixth, using the degrees of sol, la, do, re and mi of the pentatonic mode. The structure
of the song can be illustrated as follows:
Multi-phrase
Bar: 5 4 9 10 7
Ending degrees: Gong, tonic Gong, tonic Gong, tonic Zhi, fifth Zhi, fifth
Mode: Zhi
Illustration 2-2. The Structure of Gengu’diao
The last three phrases of the song are somehow expanded: a short phrase is only
four measures long, while a long phrase comprises ten measures, hence phrase lengths
are rather uneven. The song possesses quality of allowing melody to accommodate
lyrics, even though it is still rhythmic with good melodic contour. Hence it retains
the flexibility to give due consideration to the spoken language, accounting for
its characteristics of chanting. The long notes are embellished with on-beat trills,
showing typical stylistic features of Dai folk songs in Luxi City. The lyrics have
succinct religious content, such as references to Buddhist scriptures and pagodas,
a sign of piety of Buddhist followers, who long for a peace and happy life, and are
obsessed with offering a dance to honour Buddha.
Example 2-14. Gengu’diao (Hanban’guang), sung by Jing E; translated by Feng Shao and Feng
Zuo; recorded and transcribed by Yang Minkang

(huai hei luo),
In the village during the holiday,
Recitals of passages from Buddhist Scriptures echo.
It leads to the building of a thousand sand pagodas (hei luo);
Our wishes have been fulfilled (ai).
Women, men, old, and young, dance together (lie);
We believe Buddha will bring us good fortunes.
C. Uyghur Muqam Song and Dance

Muqam is a classical genre of Uyghur people developed in Xinjiang, and it
is conceived in a unified modal system, comprising elements of song, dance and
instrumental music. Muqam displays strong folk elements in all sections.
1. Origin of Muqam
Some scholars believe that Muqam originated from ancient Qiuci language,
meaning Daqu (Composite Music) 29; there is also a saying that the term is a
transliteration of the Arabic word Maqam. As a general musical term, Muqam
carries the meaning of “sound”; more specifically, it means “specific mode, melodic
format and improvisational singing (playing)”, as well as “a basic modal melody
Sanxu (Prelude in Free Rhythm) and standard musical structure of mode, period and
metre”30. The early history of Muqam has a close connection with Qiuci dance genres
in Western Regions of China. There is evidence that Qiuci Daqu (Composite Music of
Qiuci) is the basis of Twelve Muqam popular in the present Kashi and Yarkant areas
of Xinjiang. This is due to the striking similarities between the two genres, including
musical instruments, temperament, modal rules and musical structures. In any case,
Qiuci (present Kucha) has been a political, religious and military centre in Western
Regions; it is not surprising that Qiuci music and dance had a significant influence on
Central China, as well as vast regions of Asia and Africa. There used to be a saying,
“Qiuci music is popular in all countries.”
Muqam was performed in areas of south Tianshan Mountains and vicinity of
Lop Nor in eastern Xinjiang in the second century BC. From the fourth to seventh
centuries, Muqam’s predecessor Qiuci music became more developed, and was
introduced to Central China. In fact, Qiuci music has more opportunity to develop,
as a result of the increased popularity of Buddhism. The introduction of Islam to
Central Asia and Kashi area of Xinjiang in early tenth century had a great impact on
native culture, including the development of Uyghur Muqam under the auspices of
folk musicians and artists. According to literary sources such as History of Rexide
(Rexide’shi) and History of Musicians (Yueshi’shi, by Mullah Rsmuthulamjizi), the
concubine Amanissa Khan of the Yerqiang Kingdom made a systematic recovery of
29 Guan Yewei: The Formation and Development of Twelve Muqam, Silk Road Music and Dance Art. Urumqi:
Xinjiang People’s Publish House,1985, p53.
30 Wan Tongshu: On Twelve Muqam–The Concept of “Muqam”: Discussion on Uyghur Twelve Muqam.
Urumqi: Xinjiang People’s Publish House,1992, p63.
scattered and lost Muqam music by organizing team work involving folk musicians
and artists in early sixteenth century. In 1879, famous folk artists Elium Salam
from Kashi and Sativeldy from Yarkant made further changes to Muqam music
by combining Uyghur narrative folk songs Dastan and folk song and dance music
Mashrap (Song and Dance Party) with original Muqam (Naghma) music, forming
the large-scale song and dance suite comprising three parts - Naghma, Dastan and
Mashrap - Twelve Muqam, also known as Kashgar Muqam.
2. Muqam Music
There are two kinds of music structures in Muqam: first, as a part of the large
vocal and instrumental suite in the first part, as well as the third part of Mashrap that
comprises songs and dances; second, like Dorang Muqam, which itself is a relatively
simple style of folk song and dance joined as a suite. The musical characteristics of
the former will be analyzed to illustrate artistic features of Muqam song and dance
music:
(1) Structural Characteristics
Twelve Muqam is popular in Kashgar, Hotan, Yarkant, Aksu, Korla, Yili and other
areas in Xinjiang; they comprise Rak, Čäbbiyat, Mušavräk, Čahargah, Pänjigah,
Özhal, Äjäm, Ushaq, Bayat, Nava, Segah and Iraq. Each set of Muqam is divided into
three parts: (i) Naghma, which includes an Prelude (Sanxu) song and dance part with
four to eleven songs and two to six interludes. (ii) Dastan, which includes three to five
narrative folk songs and instrumental Intermezzos, sometimes with an introduction. (iii)
Mashrap, which includes two to seven folk songs and dance tunes, sometimes with
an introduction. As mentioned, Naghma was the only form of Twelve Muqam in early
days. In the nineteenth century (some say in the seventeenth century), it developed
into the present tripartite structure of Naghma, Dastan and Mashrap. For centuries,
the genre known as Naghma in Kashgar and Yarkant of Xinjiang is essentially
Muqam, the reason for Naghma being the main body of Twelve Muqam. The
movements of Naghma include Sanxu Introduction, Täzä, Täzä Intermezzo, Nuskha,
Nuskha Intermezzo, Small Säliq, Large Säliqä, Small Säliq Intermezzo, Jula, Sänäm,
Large Säliq, Päshru, Päshru Intermezzo and Täkit, among which Introduction, Täzä
and Small Säliq are the multi-verse chanted classical songs with melodies cleverly
set to the rhythm of lyrics in classical poetry style, forming an irregular and flexible
musical structure. It is followed by song and dance.
The song and dance section of Naghma includes Jula, Sänäm, Large Säliqä and
Päshru, forming a kind of independent suite. Jula is steady and relaxed; Sänäm is
robust and zealous; Large Säliqä is joyful and witty, hence the passages possess
some kind of unity, while maintaining contrasts. Naghma also functions as a link
between the preceding and the following sections; it begins with a free and somewhat
improvisatory introduction, leading to the relaxed and elegant dance Täzä. This is
followed by a series of songs and Intermezzos with changing metres and moods,
leading to song and dance suite, culminating in the first fervent and jubilant climax.
The ensuing part Dastan is in from of singing narrative in steady and unhurried pulse,
before entering the second climax of Mashrap suite in simple, direct, robust and
unrestrained style. This part comprises several linked melodies of song and dance
in contrasting metres, rhythms and moods. Hence the Twelve Muqam have a logical
structural layout of “song (vocal music)—dance (instrumental music)—song (vocal
music)—dance (instrumental music)” or “slow (preparation)—fast (climax)—slow
(turning)—fast (climax).” It is highly appropriate that the two song and dance suites
serve as climaxes of the entire work, and that Naghma is given due consideration
owing to its strong artistry and long history, as well as its tradition of being performed
by folk artists. Of course, Naghma has been subject to reform of its mode of
performance–such as eliminating mass dances–as well as stylizing music, lyrics and
literary content, hence raising the artistic level of the genre, leading to professional
performances. Even so, the audiences still have an opportunity to participate during
the performance from Dastan to Mashrap, hence retaining the tradition of group
participation and self-entertaining characteristics of dance genre.
The structure of music for singing and dancing in Twelve Muqam is simple and
rigorous, the most common being binary form, even though it may be conceived in
single, tripartite or composite sections. A typical binary structure can be found in the
second Mashrap of the Rak Muqam, and its structure is illustrated as follows:
(Binary from)
G Zhi (fifth degree) D Yu (sixth degree) G Zhi (fifth degree)
Illustration 2-3. Second Mashrap of the Rak Muqam and its binary structure
The first 4 measures of Section A of the above song is the theme, with the third and
fourth measures developed from the two preceding measures. The second phrase (4
measures) is a variation of the theme, while the third and fourth phrases are in contrast
with the theme, leading to further development and extension of the theme, ending
the section on G as Zhi (fifth degree, or sol). Section B modulates to the subdominant,
with new materials introduced, and there is some kind of recapitulation in the third
phrase, as fragments of melody from Section A reappears, and returning to the home
key; the last two phrases include complete melodic materials of second half of melody
in Section A, bringing the music to a logical end. In short, the piece is based on
variation with a touch of improvisation, with material based on the first two measures,
comprising descending notes, generating an atmosphere of brightness and liveliness
carrying the instrumental idioms of plucked instruments.
Example 2-15. The Structure of single-section piece in Sänäm of Naghma of Čäbbiyat Muqam
Single section
C Gong (first degree, tonic)

Illustration 2-4. The Structure of the Melody in Sänäm of Naghma of Čäbbiyat Muqam
The above tune is based on a short and lively motive, as seen in the first and
second phrases, highlighting some degree of expansion at the end of phrases, as
well as hinting at development on the dominant. Four of the sub-phrases in the third
and fourth phrases show some tendency of development, and there is some kind of
rudimentary imitation between phrases; these phrases end on the principal modal
degree, and the following three sub-phrases are extensions of previous materials. In
short, the repeated melodies are ironically based on techniques of Chinese folk music,
such as Jiahua (adding embellishments), Jianhua (reducing embellishments), as well
as improvisation. As in the previous piece, the music demonstrates features of stylized

instrumental idiom and structure.
(2) Scales and Modes
The twelve Muqam are conceived in different scales and modes, including those
built on the degrees do, re, mi, sol, la and si; they are similar to the diatonic scale of
Western music, but pentatonic or hexatonic scales are also used. A scale may also
contain intervals of augmented second or micro-tones. The most common scales are
illustrated as follows:
Example 2-16. The most common scales used in the Twelve Muqam
(3) Rhythm and Metre

The rhythm of Muqam song and dance music is based on the following patterns
(citing the rhythms of Dap hand drum as an example):
Example 2-17. The rhythms of Dap hand drum
Sänäm was originally a genre of folk song and dance music of Uyghur people,
featuring steady rhythms and graceful melodies. It was later combined with the
lively Säliqä, forming a bipartite dance structure, with some kind of accelerando,
while retaining the original style of folk dance rhythms within Twelve Muqam.
The Introduction of Mashrap is a moderato in 7/8 metre, and it leads to the Second
Mashrap in 2/4 metre with an accelerando. The whole scene is based on jubilant
singing and dancing, creating a contrast with predominantly singing performances of
Naghma and Dastan. Its ending features a whirling dance of great excitement.
CHAPTER III
NARRATIVE
SINGING
SECTION 1 OVERVIEW
I. Definition of Narrative Singing

Narrative singing (Shuochang music) is a kind of composite folk art integrating
literature and music, and it demands recitation and singing for performance, hence
in actual performance, more akin to Wagner’s idea of Gesamtkunstwerk than a clear
distinction of recitatives and arias in operas of the Baroque and Classical periods in
the West. It combines rhyme and prose with narration and representation in literary
style; story-telling and role playing are combined (“jumping in and out” or “one actor
playing many roles”), with music playing a vital role using unique narrative melodies.
Since it combines folk music and language, and is a very popular genre of performing
art in China.
Narrative singing has a close relationship with other folk arts, in spite of its own
distinctive features, which can be illustrated by comparing it with other genres, such
as folk song and opera.
One notices folk songs highlight on the expression of emotion, hence focusing
on the singers themselves, rather than on the audience, or the art of performing
skills. More explicitly, folk songs are channels to express the singer’s joy, anger,
sorrow and happiness, or in work songs, to coordinate action, motivate spirit and
reduce fatigue for those involved. Therefore, most folk songs are short, with concise
and simple lyrics, which are full of poetic charm, and using analogies or metaphors
to convey meanings. As lyrical nature of melodies of folk songs is highlighted, the
singing will endeavor to render beauty, richness, freshness and liveliness, and with a
strong bearing to daily lives. Since folk songs are sung by ordinary people, they are
less restrained, especially in organization of lyrics and melodies, or structures and
forms.
Narrative singing, on the other hand, is a form of storytelling delivered by artists,
hence it is an art form bound by certain conventions, enabling the performers to make
a living. Repertoires of narrative singing are more extended works compared with
folk songs. The narrative lyrics are more complex than those of folk songs; they serve
to facilitate oral narration, detailing the plot as far as possible, going as far as stating,
for example, the timing, venue, personalities and actions of the stories. The performer
has to fulfill certain rules on rhymes, and on level and oblique tones of the libretto.
When focusing on music, narrative singing is a perfect juxtaposition of narrative
melodies and spoken language. Most types of narrative singing have independent
sections of “chanting” or “reciting”, termed differently according to their origins,
such as Pingqiang (Level Tune, or Smooth Melodies) in Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum
Song in Beijing Dialect), Duozi’ban (Staccato Beats) in Shandong Qinshu (Dulcimer
152 CHAPTER III NARRATIVE SINGING
Narratives of Shandong), Shuzi (Counting Words) in Tianjin Shidiao (Fashion

Tune of Tianjin) and Pingqiang (Level Tune) in Henan Zhuizi (Narrative Singing
Accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle in Henan). This quasi-recitative style is highly
melismatic, with many words set to a note, and without extended melodic fragments
at the end of phrases, while with tempo more suited for speech than music. The
speech is a sublimation of language, with slightly exaggerated projection of the four
tones of Putonghua (Manderin). Such performance can be very effective in narrating
the plot and portraying characters. When the chanting becomes more musical, the
performance is akin to the Western arioso. Owing to its long history, performers have
inherited certain tradition of performance practice, such as “singing according to the
words” in shaping the voice, “connecting sequence of labelled tunes” and “changing
metres”. The art also has certain unique rules of singing, accompaniment and diction,
which distinguishes it from other genres of folk vocal music.
Narrative singing is also different from opera. First, it is different in the means
of expression: the former is combination of narration and representation, or a
combination of a narrator (as a third person) and roles in a drama (as a first person),
while the latter relies on an actor playing to the role as a first person, hence unfolding
the plot by dialogues, solo singing, vocal duets and ensembles, as well as body
movements.
Narrative singing has some features unique to Chinese folk music. The means of
communication involves spoken language (narration) and music (singing) either by
one or two actors. They take on the roles of a narrator, describing the events; they
are also actors impersonating different characters, by simulating their tone, attitude
and personalities in the stories, nurturing an atmosphere through controlled use of
voices and expression of sentiments, often coupled with facial expressions and mild
body movements. When a story involves a few characters, the actors will need to
take on different roles, hence unlike opera singers, actors in this trade have to “jump
in and out” as the plot is being unfolded by narration, leading to changes in manners
of speech and singing. This is apparent when one refers to the Changben (scripts
or scores) of Suzhou Tanci (Plucking Words of Suzhou); there are prompts such
as Guanbai, Sibai, Gubai and Biaobai, stating the appropriate mode of narration
in various contexts. Guanbai refers to dialogues between characters; Sibai is a
character’s self-monologue; Gubai is how a character speaks his own mind; and
Biaobai is the objective narration linking the story line. The Tanci (Plucking Words)
community compares their perception of “role playing” and that of opera, “Opera
involves using one’s own experience as an example, while Tanci uses an example as
one’s own experience.” The implication is that narrative singing involves the handling
of totally different characters in the same performance, hence a superior art.
One may argue that opera is more attractive, owing to its established theatrical
stock melodies, sceneries, costumes, accompaniments and performing conventions,
hence possessing more channels to portray the characters and highlight dramatic
conflicts. Yet it is necessary to distinguish the intentions of the two arts forms:
operatic performance involves a large team of actors taking on individual roles,
Historical Evolution of Narrative Singing 153
while these roles have to be assigned to one or two performers in narrative singing.
The audience of narrative music will have to be kept entertained by the somewhat
seamless switching between the narrator and a group of characters in the drama. The
art involves skillful handling of techniques of telling stories. The emphasis on the
performing art of one or two individuals in narrative singing is apparent.
II. Historical Evolution of Narrative Singing

Narrative singing has a history that can be traced back to the Zhou Dynasty (BC1046 -
BC256), some three millennia ago. Its more recent development was related to
changes made to Buddhist scriptures by simplifying the text to Bianwen (Changed
Scriptures) and Jiangchang (Telling and Singing) during the Tang Dynasty (618–907).
It matured in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) and further developed in the Yuan (1279–
1368) and Ming (1368–1644) Dynasties, and reached its peak in the Qing Dynasty
(1644–1911), becoming an art form covering many singing styles across the country.
The tradition of narrative singing has been largely preserved since the Qing Dynasty.
The development of the art can be divided into five stages:
A. Literary Sources Prior to the Tang Dynasty
Recent historians have suggested that “poetry reciting, storytelling, history-telling”
of the blind since antiquity were the earliest examples of narrative singing. Indeed,
there are many ancient sources referring to blind musicians–men and women–singing
and playing accompaniment, an example being Biographies of Exemplary Women
(Lienv’zhuan) by Liu Xiang, where there is a scene of a blind man reciting poems
to the pregnant mother Tairen of King Wen of the Zhou Dynasty, with a view of
providing pre-birth education to the fetus:
In the old days, when women got pregnant, they were not supposed to sleep on
side, sit at edges and stand by carriages. As for eating, the food should not have
unpleasant smell, and it should be served properly with the seat upright. They
were not supposed to see unpleasant colours or listen to sumptuous music. At
night, the blind artists are invited to chant poems and tell stories so that the
child shall be born with good physique and endowed with extraordinary talents
and moralities.1
As Tairen was a royal concubine, her future son would be the heir to the throne,
hence it was vital to observe rules on fetal education, such as restrictions on how to
sit, stand and sleep, and what to eat, listen and see. Blind artists were invited to recite
poems at night, presumably involving singing and chanting, the traditional manner of
interpreting poetry. “Telling the right thing” was the motto of the stories chosen by
the artists; it was believed the fetus would benefit much intellectually if the conceived
mother were exposed to such performances. In the event, soon after King of Wenwang
1 Chen Ruheng: History of Storytelling. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1st edition, 1987, p7.
of Zhou was born, he was proved to possess “extraordinary talents and high standard
of moralities”, and he is still considered one of the wisest rulers in China.
In the olden days, blind artists in narrative singing enjoyed a higher status
than other folk musicians, owing to the superstition that they were endowed with
mysterious power of witches or demons, hence possessing the supernatural power of
communicating with spirits and could predict military conflicts as well as forecast
the harvests through music. Some hailed them as “prophets”. The artists were some
kind of indirect “advisors” to the monarch, owing to the conveyance of satire and
remonstrance, as recorded in Discourse of the States: On Zhou (Guoyu-Zhouyu
Shang), “When the Son of Heaven attended the court … scholars will present poems;
the blind will play tunes; teachers will offer proverbs; the eye-impaired men will chant
poem and tell history to admonish”, while “the kings will re-assess their strategies
before making decisions, so as not to act against the rules”. It seems kings in the Zhou
Dynasty had some kind of advisors, who were elite teachers, historians, scholars and
blind artists, who offered “formal” advice, as well as “informal” messages from artists.
In any case, narrative singing could function like folk songs, by conveying sentiments
of the people. There is a saying in the classic Mozi: Geng Zhu (Mozi, Section of “Pillar
of Planting”), “Let those who excel at debating debate, and those who can tell stories
deliver their duties”. Storytelling is, above all, entertaining as well as educational, as
the narrators also take on the role of historians.
During the Warring States Period (403- 221 BC), Xunzi wrote a passage entitled
Cheng Xiang in the ninth year of Qinshi Huang (BC 238): the text is believed to relate
to the earliest example of narrative singing. Since then, scholars in the Qing Dynasty,
for example, have suggested that Cheng Xiang as the original form of Tanci (Plucking
Words) and Lianhua’lao (The Lotus Flower Tune)2. The texts of Cheng Xiang are
rigorously structured, complying with certain rules for rhyme changes. The whole
article contains five chapters; each chapter begins with “Cheng Xiang”. The beginning
of the first chapter reads:
qǐnɡ chénɡ xiānɡ shì zhī yānɡ àn yú àn yú duò xián liánɡ rén zhǔ wū xián rú ɡǔ
请成相 , 世之殃，暗愚暗愚堕贤良 , 人主无贤如瞽
wú xiānɡ hé chànɡ chànɡ
无相 —— 何怅怅。
English translation:
Let me play a drum to tell you the world is chaotic, ignorant and bewildered;
good people are framed up, the state is want of a prime minister, akin to
helpless blind people, the King doesn’t know what to do.
2 Lu Wenzhao, a Qing scholar held that Cheng Xiang was the earliest form of Tanci literature. See History of
Storytelling. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1st edition, p9.
qǐnɡ bù jī shèn tīnɡ zhī yú ér zì zhuān shì bù zhì zhǔ jì ɡǒu shènɡ qún chén
请布基慎听之愚而自专事不治 , 主忌苟胜群臣 ——
mò jiàn bì fénɡ zāi
莫谏必逢灾 3。
English Translation:
Let me tell the truth, please listen carefully: bewildered and autocratic rule,
important tasks could not be done; the King is jealous and seeks to undermine
others; officials are afraid to say anything, disasters will happen.
Cheng Xiang was an ancient work song for rice husking but the philosopher
Xunzi adopted it to pronounce his political propositions to his clients in prominent
administrative positions. Cheng Xiang is not an example of narrative singing, as
unlike the latter, it does not involve storytelling, nor prose dialogues, even though
they share similar verse style.
There are also other claims for early repertoire of narrative singing, such as the
poems Peacock Flies to the Southeast (Kongque Dongnan’fei), The Mulberry by
the Road (Moshang’sang) and other long texts in Yuefu (Music Bureau) of the Han
Dynasty. Some scholars refer to the Eastern Han pottery figurines unearthed in
Chengdu as storytelling artists, hence associate these with narrative singing. These
hypotheses are subject to debate and challenge.
In spite of the complexity in handling early sources for Shuochang music, the
relatively scarce evidences can still serve as a reference for ethnomusicologists.
B. Narrative Singing in the Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was one of the most prosperous eras in China, owing to the
advancement of urban communities and commerce, providing opportunities for
the development of narrative singing. The art became fully established, and it was
recorded by Bianwen (Changed Scriptures) Jiangchang (Telling and Singing) in
Buddhist temples.
Bianwen is considered the origin of narrative singing, as there are many literary
sources referring to “singing and telling” Bianwen as “Sujiang”(Public Preaching),
prevailed in major temples of the capital Chang’an from middle to late Tang Dynasty.
The repertoire comprised Buddhist or secular stories told or chanted by monks while
Buddhist scriptures were disseminated. Bianwen has an important position in the
history of literature, and its style was reflected in the storytelling literature of later
generations. The following excerpt from Zhaojun’bian (Bianwen of Zhaojun Story)
throws light on the features of narrative singing of the time:
Since last night, Zhaojun felt unwell and believed she was attacked by evil
spirit. Chanyu made sacrifice in the mountains and worshipped the moon and
sun to pray for her health. He exhausted all means and sought heals from all
medical resources... In late night, she died. Chanyu stripped off his official
3 Chen Ruheng: History of Storytelling. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1st edition, p8.
robe and dressed in common clothes, mourning with dishevelled hair. All
Chiefs attended the funeral. Chanyu observed the ritual of the funeral, and his
subordinates dared not move around. He wept in grief unceasingly for Zhaojun,
in sorrowful and mournful tones. As it was stated:
Chinese: 昭君昨夜子时亡，突厥今朝发使忙。
Romanization: zhāo jūn zūo yè zǐ shī wāng, tū jūe jīn chāo fā shǐ māng.
English translation: Zhaojun died last night, and the Turkic rushed around since
early morning.
Chinese: 三边走马传胡命，万里飞书奏汉王。
Romanization: sān bīan zǒu mǎ chūan hū mìng, wàn lǐ fēi shū zùu hàn wāng.
English Translation: The news of her death was conveyed by fast horses to the
local areas and to the Han court.
Chinese: 单于是日亲临哭，莫舍须臾守看丧。
Romanization: chān yú shì rì qīn līn kū, mò shě xū yú shǒu kàn sāng.
English Translation: Chanyu went to mourn in person and all the family
observed the mourning ceremony.
Chinese: 解剑脱除天子服，披头还着庶人裳。
Romanization: jǐe jìan tūo chū tīan zǐ fū, bēi tōu hūan zhūo sū rēn shāng.
English Translation: He removed his sword and official robes, with his hair
down in common clothes.
Chinese: 寒风入帐声犹苦，晓日临行哭未央。
Romanization: hān fēng rù zhàng shēng yóu kǔ, xǐao rì līn xīng kū wèi yāng.
English Translation: The bitter wind blew into the tents. The crying sounds
lasted till the following morning.
Chinese: 昔日同眠夜即短，如今独寝觉天长。
Romanization: xī rì tōng mían yè jì dǔan, rū jīn dū qǐn júe tīan chāng.
English Translation: The nights were short when she was sleeping by his side,
but now the nights feel very long after her departure.
Chinese: 何期远远离京兆，不意冥冥卧朔方。
Romanization: hē qī yǔan yǔan lī jīng zhào, bù yì mīng ming wò sùo fāng.
English Translation: She came afar from the central capital without realizing
that she will die in the remote north.
Chinese: 早知死若埋沙里，悔不教君还帝乡。
Romanization: zǎo zhī sǐ rùo māi shā lǐ, hǔi bù jìao jūn hūan dì xīang.
English Translation: Had I known that you would be buried in sand (in foreign
land), I would rather let you return to your hometown.4
Here, Bianwen is used in long narrative poems combining verse and prose. The
verse is featured by lines comprising seven characters, mixed with those comprising
six characters (divided into three-three) or five characters. This literary style is
therefore different from that of poetry, as its text is less literary, with looser rules on
the organization of level and oblique tones. Its rhyming schemes are rather free, and
the prose part is mainly in popular vernacular. Such features are also preserved in
the present Tanci (Plucking Words), Baojuan (Treasure Scripture) and Guci (Drum
Expressions).
The singing score of Bianwen verses is marked with Ping (smooth), Yin (recital),
Ce (side) and Duan (staccato) to denote the styles of singing. The spoken and sung
Bianwen were preserved in the Tang Dynasty, with a wide range of topics, such
as those based on Buddhist sources, including Vimalakirti Scripture; some are
interpretations of folk legends, such as Shunzi Zhixiao Bianwen (Filial Piety of Shun
Bianwen); others relate to historical stories, such as Wu Zixu Bianwen (Story about
Wu Zixu), Wang Zhaojun Bianwen (Story about Wang Zhaojun) and Zhang Yichao
Bianwen (Story about Zhang Yichao) .
At a later stage, reciting and singing Bianwen was not confined to Buddhist monks;
secular artists of both sexes were involved in performing the genre. For example, in
Complete Poetry of the Tang (Quantang’shi), there is a poem entitled Watching the
Barbarian Female Singer (Guan Manji) by Wang Jian, which describes vividly the
scenario of a female artist performing Zhaojun’bian in Bianwen.
Chinese: 欲说昭君敛翠蛾，清声委曲怨于歌。
Romanization: yù shūo zhāo jūn jìan cùi é, qǐng shēng wěi qū yùan yū gē.
English: She praises the beauty of Zhaojun, and her complaints in high singing
voice.
Chinese: 谁家少年春风里，抛与金钱唱好多。
Romanization: shūi jīa shào nían chūn fēng lǐ, pāo yǔ jīn qían chàng hǎo dūo.
English: The unknown young man is attracted by her, and throws her money to
reward her to sing more.5
As a form of narrative singing, Bianwen reached its artistic summit in the Tang
Dynasty, but as the genre of narrative singing developed, monk performers began to
deviate from Buddhist religious doctrines, which led to antipathy of state bureaucrats.
Its religious and social values continued to be undermined in the ensuing Song
Dynasty, which eventually led to it being banned by Emperor Zhenzong. Narrative
music in the Tang Dynasty also included storytelling, in addition to Bianwen, with
4 Chen Ruheng: History of Storytelling. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1967, p26.
repertoire including Yizhi’hua (A Flower) and San Guo (Three Kingdoms). Since
storytelling is considered a folk art, there has been little incentive to preserve
it, bearing in mind the educated class would only record what they considered
worthwhile and morally correct. It is therefore virtually impossible to distinguish the
genres of pure storytelling from the art also involving singing.
C. Narrative Singing in the Song and Jin Dynasties
The early Song Dynasty was considered a stable empire after the chaotic splits
of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960). As economy developed, there
were more opportunities for culture and art to flourish. After the demise of the
Northern Song Dynasty, the Jin court took over the northern regions, while the Song
court migrated to the south. The establishment of the new Song Empire had led
to prosperity of Hangzhou, where the literati and scholar-bureaucrats aggregated,
providing the necessary conditions for the development of Shuochang music. Special
venues Goulan Wasi (Fenced Stage) were designated for narrative artists in Hangzhou
and other cities. Some enthusiastic scholars also joined the artists’ organizations, and
wrote librettos for the artists. It is natural, under the circumstances, to see a rise in
literary standard of these texts.
There were several types of narrative singing in the Northern Song Dynasty,
including Guzi’ci (Words Accompanied by Drum), Zhugong’diao (Tunes in Multiple
Modes6), Changzuan (a kind of narrative singing popular during the Song Dynasty),
Taozhen (True Story, a kind of narrative singing) and Yaci (Elegant Words), each
having its characteristics.
An example of Guzi’ci is Yuan Weizhi Cui Yingying Shangdiao Dielian’hua (Story
of Cui Yingying sung with melody Dielian Hua “Butterfly Loves Flower” in Shang
mode) written by Zhao Delin and collected in Records of Hou Qing (Hou Qing
Lu). The work combines verse and prose, with the former set to the labelled tune
Dielian Hua repeated twelve times. There is an instruction for the first verse, “If you
would, accompanying instruments and singers, please set the tune, and then listen
to the singing.” Each of the following verses also has the instruction, “If you would,
accompanying instruments and singers, please accord to the previous tune.” The
following is a citation from this Guzi’ci:
Chinese:
是夕，红烺复至，持彩笺而授张曰：崔所命也。题其篇云《明月三五夜》。
其词曰：待月西厢下，迎风户半开，拂墙花影动，疑是玉人来。奉劳歌伴，
再和前声：
6 “Mode” (Gongdiao) is a term applied to Chinese labelled tunes; it is a means of grouping and classifying
different melodies, hence the meaning is different from “mode” in Western music. The definition of the term is
still under debate amongst ethnomusicologists in China. It is generally accepted that the term has many facets,
including the indication of the key and mode as in Western music; it also refers to the form of melody, number
of phrases, as well as music style each Gongdiao may present. The number of Gongdiao has changed from
Yuan to Qing Dynasty from around forty to nine. Each Gongdiao has a specific name and it contains many
labelled tunes, while each labelled tune belongs to a particular type of Gongdiao with a designated name.
English translation as:

That night, Hongniang revisits (the West Chamber) holding a lantern in her
hand, and says to Zhang: I came by the order of Cui (Yingying). This poem by
her is entitled “Midnight Bright Moon”. The verse goes: The moonlight sheds
in the West Chamber. The door is left half open to draw the wind. The shadow
of flowers shivers on the wall, wondering if it is my lover coming to me. If you
would, accompanying instruments and singers, please accord to the former
tune:
Chinese:
庭院黄昏春雨霁，一缕深心，百种成牵系。青翼蓦然来报喜，鱼笺微谕相
容意。
The spring rain falls in the courtyard. My heart is full of the yearning for my
love. The blue bird flies over to report good news. The love letters express
mutual affection.
Chinese:
待月西厢人不寐，帘影摇光，朱户犹庸闭。花动拂墙红萼坠，分明疑是情
人至。
Waiting under the moonlight in the West Chamber I can’t go to sleep. The
curtain swings in the light and the door is left half open. The wind blows and
the shadow of flowers moves on the wall, wondering if it is my lover coming to
me.7
This Guzi’ci was written by Zhao Delin based on the short story Biography of
Yingying (Yingying’zhuan) of the Tang Dynasty, a famous example of outstanding
Chinese literature. It was later adopted by Zhugong’diao and Yuan Zaju (Miscellaneous
Plays of Yuan Dynasty) by Dong Jieyuan and Wang Shifu. The story is preserved in
many genres of Chinese opera, which are frequently performed.
Zhao Delin’s Guzi’ci was considered too scholarly by many, as there are
exaggerated wordings presented in elegant style, hence deviating from the more
popular folk narrative singing. A version of the work, entitled Wenjing Yuanyang’hui
(Killing in the Event of an Illicit Affair) in the Song Dynasty was incorporated into the
block-printed edition Qingpingshan Tanghua’ben (Scenario from Qingping Mountain)
of the Ming Dynasty. The labelled tune used for the piece is Cu Hulu (Vinegar
Calabash) in Shang Mode. A similar instruction to request instrumentalists and
singers to “accord to the former tune” is found between the verses, perhaps indicating
some affiliation with Zhao’s version, even though the language of the verses is more
popular. The artist singing this Guzi’ci is named Qiushan, an indication that Guzi’ci
appearing as a form of folk narrative singing in the Song Dynasty.
7 See Chen Zhenduo: History of Chinese Popular Literature. Beijing: Writer’s Publishing Hourse, 1954, p 66.
Guzi’ci of the Northern Song Dynasty is different from the present Guzi’ci genre;
the former uses labelled tunes, and is considered the earliest form of narrative singing
using such melodic resources.
The cultural tradition of the Northern Song is, of course, preserved in the ensuing
Southern Song Dynasty, and storytelling remained very popular. There were four
divisions of storytelling, including “Short Stories (Xiaoshuo)”, “Explanation of
Religious Scriptures (Shuojing)”, “Crime Cases (Shuo Gongan, Tieqi)” and “Historical
Records (Shuoshi)”. The first three are performances combining storytelling and
singing; for example, “Short Stories” were also known as Yinzi’er (Silver), and were
accompanied by silver mouth organ (Sheng) or silver pipe (Bili), and sung with
labelled tunes, but hardly any materials are extant.
Zhugong’diao is the most popular form of narrative singing in the Jin and Yuan
Dynasties. It was first established by the Goulan artist Kong Sanchuan of the Northern
Song Dynasty, and the mode of performance was adopted by many literati, leading to
continued development.
Zhugong’diao is based on the combination of verse and prose, with the former
set to a succession of labelled tunes in different modes, on libretto in long and short
phrases. Many examples of narrative singing in this category are extended works,
such as Dong Jieyuan’s West Chamber Zhugong’diao (Xixiangji Zhugong’diao),
which includes 188 suites of long and short tunes, totaling over 400 tunes.
Zhugong’diao is sung by a soloist to the accompaniment of drum, flute, clappers or
water bow (percussion instrument), but by the Ming Dynasty, there was evidence that
ten performers could sit around to take turn to sing.
In Chapter 50 “Winged Tiger Hitting Bai Xiuying” of The Water Margin
(Shuihu’zhuan), there is a reference of Bai Xiuying speaking and singing
Zhugong’diao (Zhuban Pindiao, Various Kinds of Tune Modes, an alternative term
of Zhugong’diao), providing some evidence of the manner of narrative singing in this
style.
The following is an excerpt from the text:
Chinese:
李小二道：都头（雷横）出去了多时，不知此处近日有个东京新来的打踅
的行院，色艺双绝，叫做白秀英。如今在勾栏里说唱诸般品调，每日有那
一般打散，或是戏舞，或是吹弹 , 或是歌唱，赚得那人山人海价看。都头
何不睃一睃？
Li Xiaoer: Dutou (Lei Heng) has been out for a while. Recently, a new
travelling actress named Bai Xiuying has come to Dongjing (Bianliang) to
perform; she is said to be good-looking and well-versed. Now she is performing
Zhuban Pindiao in Goulan. Daily, there is a series of performances, either
opera dance, or wind and plucked string music, or singing songs, drawing
crowds of people to attend. Why don’t you go and have a look?
……
Chinese:
那白秀英早上戏台参拜四方，拈起锣棒如撒豆般点动。拍下一声界方念出
四句七言诗道：
In the morning, Bai Xiuying is already on the stage, cupping her hands to thank
the audience. She picks up the gong and beater, hitting the drum continuously
to start the show. After the drumbeating, she chants out a four-line seven-word
poem:
Chinese:
新鸟啾啾旧鸟归，老羊羸瘦小羊肥。
The young bird twitters when the old bird returns. The old sheep is thin and
weak while the little lamp is fat.
Chinese:
人生衣食真难事，不及鸳鸯处处飞。
Life is difficult for many people. Nothing like the mandarin ducks that can be
free to fly.
Chinese:
雷横听了喝了声彩，那白秀英道 : 今日秀英召牌上明写着，这场话本是一
段风流蕴藉的格范，唤作：《豫章城双渐赶苏卿》说了开话又唱，唱了又
说，合棚价喝彩不绝。
Lei Heng applauded for the singing. Bai Xiuying says, “As I wrote on the board,
this script is about a romantic story entitled Yuzhangcheng Shuang Jian Gan Su
Qing.” She combines narrating and singing, and continues in this manner. The
hall is full of cheering sounds.
The most complete extant work of Zhugong’diao is Dong Jieyuan’s West Chamber
Zhugong’diao (Xixiangji Zhugong’diao) dated to the Zhangzong Period of Jin
(1190–1208 AD). Some 148 tunes of this work are recorded in the collection Jiugong
Dacheng Nanbei Cigong’pu (A Great Collection of Songs in Nine Modes from North
and South).
Other existing sources of narrative singing in this category is the anonymous
collection Liu Zhiyuan Zhugong’diao discovered by a Russian expedition team in
Gucheng, Heishui, Northwest China, an incomplete volume of 42 pages, with 72
tunes; and Tianbao Anecdotes Zhugong’diao (Tianbao Yishi Zhugong’diao) written
by Wang Bocheng of the Yuan Dynasty. Wang’s original copy has long been lost, and
only some melodies are survived in Jiugong Dacheng Nanbei Cigong’pu.
Since Zhugong’diao gained high artistic standard through its development from the
Northern Song to Yuan Dynasties, this type of narrative singing had great influence
on the establishment of Yuan Zaju (Miscellaneous Plays of Yuan Dynasty), with both
genres sharing many melodies, even though the former gradually went out of fashion.
D. Narrative Singing in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties

The relatively harsh administration of Mongolian rulers instituted restrictions to
Han Chinese politically and culturally, and endeavoured to ban folk narrative singing.
While the tradition of performing the genre continued, there was little development,
and sources on the art in this period are scarce.
Soon after the establishment of the Ming court in Beijing by Emperor Chengzu,
there was social stability, with development of urban handicraft industry, favouring
the development of narrative singing. Important genres of the art included Cihua
(Words and Stories), Taozhen (True Story, a kind of narrative singing) and Tanci
(Plucking Words).
Little information on Cihua of the Yuan Dynasty is available, even though these
were used in Zaju of the period, with many of the poems and songs added with the
prefix “Ciyun (Word Says)”, referring to Cihua form.
Cihua works of the Ming Dynasty can be found in written sources, such as
The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan), a romance widely circulated then. There is a
description in Scattered Manuscripts of Xu Wenchang: Vol. 4 (Xu Wenchang Yigao) of
the Ming Dynasty:
Chinese:
始村瞎子习极里小说，本《三国志》，与今《水浒传》一辙，为弹唱语耳。
“History of the Three Kingdoms” and “The Water Margin” and the Xiaoshuo
(Short Stories) of the blind men all belong to Tanchang (Singing to Plucked
Strings).8
The earliest examples of surviving Cihua date back to Chenghua Period of

the Ming Dynasty (1465–1487), and were unearthed at the tomb in the suburb of
Shanghai in 1967, totaling 11 volumes. The collection includes titles such as New
Version of Narrative Singing of the Family Background of Guan Suo (Xinbian
Quanxiang Shuochang Zuben Huaguansuo Chushenzhuan) and New Version of
Narrative Singing of the Guan Suo Recognizing His Father (Xinbian Quanxiang
Shuochang Zuben Huaguansuo Renfuzhuan) on the son of the historic hero Guan Yu,
as well as New Version of Narrative Singing of the Biography of Baodaizhi (Xinbian
Quanxiang Shuochang Zuben Baodaizhi Chushenzhuan) on the story of the famous
Magistrate Bao Gong9. Other sources include the Ming block-printed editions of
Cihua of King Qin of the Great Tang (Datang Qinwang Cihua) by Zhu Shenglin and
Cihua of Ten Stories of Successive Dynasties (Lidai Shilue Shiduanjin Cihua) written
by Yang Shen.
Each verse of Cihua can include seven, ten or other number of characters. The
seven-character style is akin to Bianwen, while the patterns of the ten-character verse
9 Zhao Jingshen: Discussions on Quyi. Beijing: China Quyi Publishing House, 1982, 1st edition, pp5-7.
can be divided in the manner of “three-four-three” or “three-three-four”. One needs to

note that “three-three-four” phrase style is different from ten-character phrase built on
the seven-character structure of “four-three” with three-character prefix. The phrase
structure and rhythm are different from the seven-character phrase of the previous
dynasties; it is close to popular language, and is more narrative. The “three-three-four”
verse was widely used in northern Guci (Drum Expressions) and operas; its usage is
illustrated in the following excerpt from Cihua of King Qin of the Great Tang:
Chinese: 唐太子急拈香低声祷告, 李世民忙下
Romanization: tāng tài zǐ jí nǐan xīang dī shēng dǎo gào, Lǐ Shì mín māng xìa
拜恭敬参神。
bài gòng jìng cān shén.
English translation: The son of Tang Emperor prays in low voice, Li Shimin
knelt down to pray earnestly to the Gods.
Chinese: 吾乃是大唐国高皇次子，父李渊祖李
Romanization: wǔ nǎi shì dà táng gúo gāo hūang cì zǐ, fù Lǐ Yūan zǔ Lǐ
炳李虎玄孙。
Bīng Lǐ Hǔ xúan sūn.
English translation: I am the second son of Emperor of great Tang, my father is
Li Yuan, grandfather is Li Bing, great grandfather is Li Hu.
Chinese: 忆往岁炀帝崩九州鼎沸，隋恭皇禅
Romanization: yì wǎng sùi yāng dì bēng jǐu zhōu dǐng fèi, súi gōng húang shàn
宝位让父为君。
bǎo wèi ràng fù wēi jūn.
English translation: Recalling last year when Emperor Yang died, the nine
states were shocked, and later my father ascended to the throne.
Chinese: 普天下起尘烟一十八处，剪强梁诛贼寇
Romanization: pǔ tīan xìa qǐ chēn yān yī shī bā chù, jǐan qīang līang zhū zéi kòu
放赦安民。
fàng shè ān mīn.
English translation: There were 18 tribes uprising, we need to conquer them,
killing the thugs and bringing peace to the people.10
Taozhen is found in literary records from Northern Song to Qing Dynasties,

and the genre of narrative singing is often confused with Tanci, as they refer to
performances of similar style. Taozhen is based on seven-character verses, and
performed by a pair of blind man and woman, with the former singing to his own Pipa
lute accompaniment, hence the same mode of performance as Tanci. Alas, there is no
independent Taozhen work in existing repertoire.

Tanci originated in the Ming Dynasty, and the term has become an umbrella
term for all forms of narrative singing south of the Yangtze River. The tradition of
performing Tanci, inheriting features of Bianwen, saw great development in the Ming
Dynasty. The female Tanci writer Tao Huaizhen in the seventeenth century wrote,
“Ten thousand copies of Tanci scripts filled the house” in her book Tianyu’hua (Rain
Flowers from Sky), which accounts for the flourishing scene of the genre.
The literary style of Tanci has remained the same since the Ming Dynasty, adopting
the seven-character verse of Bianwen. There are two relatively modern categories
of Tanci, including Guoyin Tanci (National Tanci) and Tuyin Tanci (Local Dialect
Tanci), the former being (visual) reading material and not for singing, while the latter
in Wuyu (Suzhou dialect) script. Famous Guoyin Tanci includes Twenty-one Historic
Annals Tanci (Ershi’yi Shi Tanci) adapted from Cihua of Ten Stories of Successive
Dynasties (Lidai Shilue Shiduanjin Cihua) of Yang Shen of the Ming Dynasty, and
the extended works on the fortune of Zhao Kuangyin family from the late Tang to the
Five Dynasties, such as Anbang’zhi (Tranquilizing the Nation), Dingguo’zhi (Story
of Nation Establishment) and Fenghuang’shan (Phoenix Mountains), all related to
historical-story telling. There are also Tanci works by female writers, examples being
Tao Huaizhen’s Tianyu’hua, Chen Duansheng’s Zaisheng’yuan (Story of Next Life)
and Qiu Xinru’s Bisheng Hua (Flower from Pen), telling love stories. Guoyin Tanci
has its own position in literature. Tuyin Tanci in existing repertoire is mainly preserved
from the Qing Dynasty.
E. Narrative Singing in the Qing Dynasty
Narrative singing flourished during the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong periods
of the mid-Qing Dynasty. After the defeat of the Opium War, China had to endure
huge military and economic pressure, even though at the turn of the twentieth century,
coastal areas enjoyed “abnormal” prosperity owing to the influence of colonial
powers. The development in transportation coupled with opening of teahouses
and theatres led to promotion of culture, and provided the necessary venues for
popularizing narrative singing.
The development of Southern Tanci in the Qing Dynasty has much influence on
the art of narrative singing. This was the time when Tanci evolved into various forms
in different regions. These sub-genres have different names, even though they share
similar characteristics in performing techniques. For instance, it is called Suzhou
Tanci in Suzhou, Xianci (String Words) in Yangzhou, Siming Wenshu’diao (Elegant
Story Tunes) in Ningbo and Muyu’shu (Wooden Fish Book) in Guangdong and Fujian.
The last is divided into Nanyin (Southern Sounds), Longzhou Shuoshu (Story Telling
of Dragon Boat) and Yue’ou (Guangdong Songs), while the art is known as Moyu’ge
(Fishing Song) in Guangxi.
Different kinds of narrative music are known as Dagu (Big Drum Song) or Guci
(Drum Expressions) in the north, and they also had opportunities to develop in the
Qing Dynasty. Unlike the Guzi’ci of the Song Dynasty, Dagu music is not based on
juxtaposition of labelled tunes. The latter comprises different sub-genres, such as
The Position of Narrative Singing in Traditional Chinese Culture 165
Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum Song in Beijing Dialect), Xihe Dagu (Big Drum Song of
Western River), Jianghua Dagu (Big Drum Song of Jianghua Flower), Fengdiao Dagu
(Big Drum Song in Feng Melodies) and Zidi’shu (Big Drum Singing Scripts among
Brothers) of the Manchurian Eight Banners. The famous writers Han Xiaochuang and
Luo Songchuang of the Qing Dynasty compiled a great volume of Zidi’shu lyrics, and
the style of performance has influenced narrative music in the north.
Other forms of narrative singing fashionable in the Qing Dynasty include Paizi’qu
(Labelled Pieces), Daoqing (Taoist Expressions) and Qinshu (Dulcimer Narratives),
and their repertoire and performing tradition have survived.
III. The Position of Narrative Singing in Traditional Chinese Culture

Narrative singing is often perceived as an urban culture, and its clientele are mostly
villagers and ordinary city dwellers, even though there is a sizable group from the
higher social strata. Its popularity is partly due to the flexibility of performance, which
can take place in a small room or a narrow alley, as well as remote villages. The
ramification of the art is, according to some writers, “like spilled mercury, which can
fill every possible hole.” Indeed, the art has an impact on the literati, and it was also
performed at the imperial court.11 It is therefore vital not to ignore its impact on the
broader perspectives of traditional Chinese culture.
The long tradition of history-telling in narrative singing has played a vital role
in preservation of history and culture. There is evidence that blind male history-
tellers were recruited to entertain rulers at court by rendering historical materials
through their performances. Zuo Qiuming is perhaps the most prominent personality
in the trade, even though he is only remembered as an outstanding writer who had
contributed to the classics Discourse of the States (Guoyu) and The Commentary
of Zuo (Zuozhuan); few realize that he was also a blind narrative singing artist. It
was believed that his repeated chanting and singing was recorded by his disciples as
primary materials for the publications. Some believe that during the oral imparting,
historical texts were constantly polished and modified to become more elegant,
vivid and realistic. This style of history-telling in narrative singing also affected the
historian Sima Qian, the author of Historical Records (Shiji), the first compendium
incorporated into the Twenty-four Annals (Ershi’si Shi). The Ming writer Gui
Youguang once said, “Taishi’gong (another name of Sima Qian) was excited at the
lively part of Shiji, “like the present story-tellers, he would burst into singing as the
contexts warrant.” Gui obviously referred to the shared role between Sima Qian and
storytellers.
First, the practice of history-telling of Zuozhuan and Shiji directly influenced
writers of the Song Dynasty and beyond. Many believe that the aspect of storytelling
in Shiji has influenced famous publications such as The First Myth (Fengshen’bang),
Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (Dongzhou Lieguo’zhi), Three
11 Zheng Zhenduo: History of Chinese Popular Literature, Part I. Beijing: Wirter’s Publishing House, 1954, p10.
Kingdoms (Sanguo), Heroes in Sui & Tang Dynasties (Suitang Yanyi), The Water
Margin (Shuihu’zhuan) and Heroes of Ming (Mingying Lie). However, storytellers
gradually divorced from the official history the Twenty-Four Histories, since they had
to adjust to popular taste by focusing more on figures interesting to the public rather
than influential historical personalities. This has led to the general negligence of the
valiant records of Qinshi Huang and the Emperor Wu of Han, while highlighting
personalities such as Guan Gong, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun, Wu Song, Song Jiang and Li
Kui, mostly heroic figures of some kind. While credit should be given to storytellers
playing the role of folk historians, their shortcomings are obvious in the eyes of
serious scholars.
Second, narrative singing has some influence on Chinese literature; there is a large
number of literary masters influenced by narrative singing. For example, Bianwen as
an early form of narrative singing was favoured by great poets of the Tang Dynasty,
including Bai Juyi, who adopted Bianwen phrases in his poems. Meng Qi gave an
account of the meeting between Bai Juyi and Zhang Hu in his Benshi’shi:
Chinese:
诗人张祜未尝识白公，白公剌苏州，祜始来谒。才见白，白曰：“久钦
籍，尝记得君款头诗。”祜愕然！曰“舍人何所谓？”白曰：“鸳鸯秀带飘
何处，孔雀罗衫付阿谁？非款头何耶？”张顿首微笑，仰面答曰：“祜尝记
得舍人目连变。”白曰：“何也？”祜曰：“上穷碧落下黄泉，两处茫茫皆不
见。非目连变，何耶？”遂与欢宴竟日。
The poet Zhang Hu did not know Bai Juyi, so when the former was appointed to
Suzhou, he paid him a visit. At their first meeting, Bai said: “I’ve been admiring
your poetry for a long time. I still remember your kuantou poems.” Hu was
stunned! He asked, “Please do enlighten me, what do you mean?” Bai said:
“Where did the embroidered ribbon of Mandarin Ducks design fly? Who was
the receiver of the peacock robe?” Isn’t that kuantou? Zhang nodded his head
with a smile and answered, “I also remember that you used Mulian Bian.” Bai
said, “Oh? Tell me then?” Hu said, “Up in heaven and down in hades I have
searched you. But you are not seen. Is it not Mulian Bian?” The two entertained
each other with feasts for several days.12
This above joking conversation of the two poets unveiled that two lines of Bai
Juyi’s Changhen’ge (Song of Eternal Sorrow) were cited from the Bianwen text of
Mulian’bian (Story of Mulian).
The classic novel The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan) was compiled by Shi Nai’an
on the basis of narrative singing, as he was influenced by Cihua singing of the story
in the Yuan (1279–1368) and Ming (1368–1644) Dynasties. In fact, storytellers began
to unfold deeds of Liangshan heroes, such as Song Jiang and 36 associates, known as
narrative singing of “Thirty-six Friends” in the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279).

In Zuiweng Tanlu (Records of Talks of Drunkard), Luo Ye lists four book titles Shitou
Sun Li (Stone Sun Li), Qingmian’shou (Blue Animal), Wuxing’zhe (Martial Person)
and Hua Heshang (Coloured Monk), each being an independent piece. In the Yuan
Dynasty, the Chinese were discontent with their Mongolian rulers, nurturing an anti-
government sentiment, hence adding popularity to the 36 heroes in The Water Margin,
who were, of course, characters bravely opposing the corrupt officials. Storytellers
were in a sense opportunists making use of the kind of Zeitgeist to glorify the deeds
of these heroes. Shi Nai’an was believed to have “compiled” the long fiction The The
Water Margin based on accounts of storytellers, by adhering to Cihua style in the
early version, and only revising to prose style around the Jiajing Period (1522–66)
of the Ming Dynasty. The earliest extant block-printed edition of The Water Margin
is the novel in prose-style Zhanghui (chaptered), yet it still retains some librettos in
style of narrative singing. For instance, there is a passage describing Zhujiazhuang in
Chapter 48 of the Ming block-printed edition Loyal Outlaws of the Marsh (Zhongyi
Shuihu’zhuan) collected by Li Libo of Gao Yang:
Chinese: 独龙山有独龙岗，独龙岗上祝家庄。
Romanization: dú lóng shān yǒu dú lóng gǎng, dú lóng gǎng shàng zhù jiā zhūang.
English translation: Du Longgang is in Du Long Mountain, where there is a
village called Zhu Jiazhuang.
Chinese: 绕岗一带长流水，周遭环匝皆垂杨。
Romanization: rào gǎng yì dài chāng líu shǔi, zhōu zāo hūan zā jīe chúi yáng.
English translation: Water runs around the area, where there are many willow
trees.
Chinese: 墙内森森罗剑戟，门前密密排刀枪。
Romanization: qīang nèi sēn sēn lúo jìan jǐ, mēn qían mì mì pái dāo qīang.
English translation: There are sword halberds inside the wall, and many sharp
weapons at the front gate.
Chinese: 对敌尽皆雄壮士，当锋都是少年郎。
Romanization: dùi dí jìn jíe xíong zhùang shì, dāng fēng dōu shì shào nían láng.
English translation: We are strong men against the enemy; those who are
involved in fighting are young.
Chinese: 祝龙出战真难敌，祝虎交锋莫可当。
Romanization: zhù Lóng chū zhàn zhēn nán dí, Zhù Hǔ jīao fēng mò kě dēng.
English translation: No one could fight Zhu Long, while Zhu Hu will never be
defeated.
Chinese: 更有祝彪多武艺，咤叱喑呜比霸王。
Romanization: gèng yǒu Zhù Bīao dūo wǔ yì, chí chà yīn wū bǐ bà wáng.
English translation: There is also Zhu Biao who excelled in martial arts, who
can be a warlord in disguise.
Chinese: 朝奉祝公谋略广，金银罗绮有千箱。
Romanization: cháo fèng Zhù Gōng móu lùe gǔang, jīn yīn lúo qí yǒu qían xīang.
English translation: The treasurer Zhu has much wisdom, who can accumulate
a thousand boxes of gold and silver.
Chinese: 白旗一对门前立，上面明书字两行：
Romanization: bái qí yī dùi mén qían lì, shàng mìan míng shū zì lǐang háng:
English translation: A pair of white flags hanged at the front gate, with two lines
of verses inscribed:
Chinese: 填平水泊擒晁盖，踏破梁山捉宋江。
Romanization: táan píng shǔi bó qǐn Cháo Gài, tà pò líang shān zhūo Sòng Jīang.
English translation: Filling in the Lake water to catch Chao Gai, searching
through Liangshan for Song Jiang.
The above passage is clearly a kind of lyrics for narrative singing, originally
performed by artists in the trade. Since it serves as a link to the following passage, it
is retained in the novel in its original form. This is a piece of evidence of The Water
Margin being originated from Changben (script or scores) of narrative singing. The
novel The Water Margin begins each chapter with the phrase Huashuo (last time we
talked about...) and ends with “to be continued in the next chapter”, the cliché of a
storyteller performing on the spot. As Chen Ruheng points out, “We have reasons to
believe that the predecessor of prose-style The Water Margin is from the repertoire of
narrative singing The Water Margin Cihua (Shuihu’zhuan Cihua).13”
Contemporary Chinese scholars regard narrative singing as an important aspect
of Chinese culture. Dongdiao’xuan (Selection of Eastern Tunes) and Xidiao’xuan
(Selection of Western Tunes) of Dagu Zidi’shu (Big Drum Singing Scripts among
Brothers) compiled by Han Xiaochuang and Luo Songchuang were incorporated into
World Anthology (Shijie Wenku) in the 1930s to 40s, elevating the status of Chinese
narrative singing to international level, on a par with masterpieces such as the Spanish
Don Quixote and the Russian Dead Souls by Gogol.
Third, narrative singing has also played a role in the development and preservation
of religious culture, as seen in the large repertoire related to Buddhism and Taoism,
particularly Sujiang (Public Preaching) prevailed in Buddhist temples in the Tang
Dynasty. The Bianwen found in Dunhuang is a kind of Sujiang script based on
Buddhist stories; and Xuanjuan (Reciting Buddhist Scriptures) of narrative singing in
13 Chen Ruheng: History of Storytelling, Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House, 1967, p112.
later generations is also associated with Buddhism. Even the style of narrative singing
Lianhua’lao (The Lotus Flower Tune) is a kind of advocacy for Buddhism. Since the
Ming Dynasty, Taoist disciples have been acting as some kind of troubadours, holding
a Yugu (Fish Drum) and Jianban (two wooden beating sticks) to spread the stories of
Tao, or simply as a means for self-cultivation to become immortals. Their repertoires
include Baxian Guohai (The Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea), Sandu Linying (Three
Times of Salvation to Lin Ying) and Xueyong Languan (Falling Snow in the Pass);
these have become an important category of narrative singing.
SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND ARTISTIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF NARRATIVE
SINGING
Narrative singing can be classified into eight categories, namely Guci (Drum
Expressions), Tanci (Plucking Words), Yugu (Fish Drum), Paizi’qu (Labelled Pieces),
Qinshu (Dulcimer Narratives), Zaqu (Miscellaneous Songs), Zouchang (Walking and
Singing ) and Bansong (Clapper Chanting). This simple taxophony, based on genre
names of folk music, is established and can be easily accepted by audiences. There
are, however, drawbacks on such classification, as they focus on broad perspectives.
For example, they can be based on the accompanying instruments, manner of
performance and structures of melodies. It is therefore almost impossible to identify
their artistic characteristics or even the boundaries between them. It is more logical
to take into consideration factors such as historical evolution, preservation, changes,
features of current folk music genres, and classification of narrative literature. In
simple terms, narrative singing can be grouped into two categories, namely Labelled
Pieces (Paizi’qu, also called Yuequ’xi, meaning: Musical Singing Category) and Drum
Songs (Guqu, also called Shizan’xi, Poetic Chanting Category). From a historical
perspective, the former is developed from ballad singing, while the latter from
storytelling.
I. Labeled Piece-Based Narrative Singing

The melodic sources for narrative singing based on Labelled Pieces are, as the title
suggests, derived from stock melodies. This category is characterized by all verses
of the libretto being labelled according to the name of the melody used. The labelled
melodies have a long history, ranging from poetic tunes of the Song Dynasty, melodies
of Southern and Northern drama of the Yuan Dynasty, as well as folk songs and ditties
since the Ming Dynasty.
This category of narrative music is represented by Guzi’ci (Words Accompanied by
Drum) of the Song Dynasty, Zhugong’diao (Tunes in Multiple Modes) of the Jin and
Yuan Dynasties, various Lianhua’lao (The Lotus Flower Tune), Labelled Pieces and
Daoqing (Taoist Expressions) of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. This category has two
subcategories: the first includes poetic tunes and Southern and Northern drama music
of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, while the second folk songs of the Ming and Qing
Dynasties. Genres belonging to first subcategory include Henan Dadiao Quzi (Great
Narrative Song Genre from Henan), Lanzhou Guzi (Tunes from Lanzhou), Danxian
Labeled Piece-Based Narrative Singing 171
Paiziqqu (Labelled Pieces Accompanied by Three-Stringed Lute Alone), Qinghai Fuzi

(Tunes from Qinghai), Shaanxi Guanzhong Quzi (Tunes from Guanzhong Shanxi),
Hu’nan Changde Sixian (Silk String from Changde Hunan), Yangzhou Tanci (Plucking
Words of Yangzhou), Yangzhou Qingqu (Pure Songs from Yangzhou), Sichuan
Qingyin (Pure Sounds from Sichuan), Hubei Yugu (Fish Drum from Hubei) and
Guangxi Wenchang (Refined Performance from Guangxi). These genres share many
Labelled Pieces, such as Yinniu’si (Silver Thread), Jisheng’cao (Parasitic Grass),
Dieduan’qiao (Overlapping Broken Bridge), and Luojiang’yuan (Sorrow by the
Luojiang River). The other subcategory has developed from the folk songs and ditties
from the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries, and repertoire include Guangxi
Lingling’luo (Songs of Guilin, Guangxi), Tianjin Shidiao (Fashion Tunes of Tianjin),
Shandong Qinshu (Dulcimer Narratives of Shandong) and Yulin Xiaoqu (Ditties from
Yulin).
Narrative singing based on labelled pieces has the following characteristics:
First: lyrics set to labelled pieces with fixed melodies. This concept of
“composition” is vastly different from that of the West, as it does not involve setting
melody to words, but rather juxtaposing words with fixed melodies. Each narrative
music genre has a set of commonly used labelled pieces, hence it can accommodate
lyrics of different structures and rhyming schemes (long and short phrases and varying
number of characters in each verse). Labelled pieces of the genre Danxian Paiziqu
have the following structural characteristics:
Two-phrase Structure: Examples include Xicheng’diao (Western City Tune),
Nancheng’diao (Southern City Tune) and Siban’qiang (Tune of Four Beats); the
number of characters in each of the two phrases is 8 + 8 or 4 + 4.
Three-phrase Structure: Examples include Shua’haier (A Naughty Boy) and
Nanluo Beigu (Southern Gongs and Northern Drum); the number of characters in each
of the three phrases is 6, 6 and 7.
Four-phrase Structure: Examples include Taiping’nian (Peaceful Year) and
Huguang’diao (Tune of Hubei and Hunan); the number of characters in each of the
four phrases is 6, 7, 7 and 7.
Five-phrase Structure: An example is Luojiang’yuan (Sorrow by the Luojiang
River); the number of characters in each of the five phrases is 4, 4, 4, 4 and 7.
Seven-phrase Structure: An example is Liuqing’niang (A Slender Lady); the
number of characters in each of the seven phrases is 5, 9, 8, 7, 7, 7 and 5.
Nine-phrase Structure: An example is Nanyin Niusi (Southern Silver Thread); the
number of characters in each of the nine phrases is 7, 7, 5, 5, 7, 7, 7, 7 and 7.
Some labelled pieces have over ten phrases.
Second: Musical Characteristics of labelled pieces are as follows:
(i) Format of single-tune: A labelled piece with a single tune is the most basic
format, akin to strophic folk songs, that is, with several verses of lyrics set to the same
melody. It is possible to incorporate several labelled pieces in the same work, and
use these independently, leaving them unconnected. Music genres based on single-
tune format include Lingling’luo (Songs of Guilin, Guangxi), Yulin Xiaoqu (Ditties
of Yulin, Shaanxi) and Siju Tuizi (Four-phrase Tuizi of Anhui). They represent a
transition from folk songs to more sophisticated music of narrative singing.
(ii) Format of simple connected tunes: Some genres of narrative singing are based
on a basic melody derived from a labelled piece and a rapping section. The melody
of the labelled piece is often borrowed from folk songs and ditties, while the rapping
section from fast patter. An example is the vocal music of Tianjin Shidiao (Fashion
Tunes of Tianjin), which consists of a Kaoshandiao (Tune of Leaning on the Gable)
and a Shuzi (Counting Words). The former is melodic, hence musical, while the
latter is mere linguistic (speech-like). These two styles are combined linearly to
narrate a story. Narrative singing of such genres in the format of simple connected
tunes can involve two labelled pieces. One labelled piece is speech like while the
other is melodic; the two are combined to produce the desired effect in performance.
For example, Shandong Qinshu (Dulcimer Narratives of Shandong) incorporates
Fengyang’ge (Fengyang Song) and Duozi’ban (Staccato Beats) as main labelled
pieces. The former is melodic while the latter speech-like, and they are linked by
combining two different metres. Fengyang’ge features one strong beat and three
weak beats (4/4), while Duozi’ban features one strong beat and one weak beat (2/2).
Therefore, Fengyang’ge in Shandong Qinshu is called “slow tempo” and Duozi’ban
“fast tempo”. One needs to note that such combination is different from changes
effected from Banqiang (Music Based on Metrical Change) music, owing to the
adoption of two labelled pieces, instead of developing the music from one labelled
piece. Folk music genres in the format of simple connected tunes are more advanced
than those of the single-tune format, allowing more possibilities for narrative singing.
(iii) Format of connected-tunes: Many genres of narrative singing are based on
the format of connected-tunes. The technique involves joining various labelled pieces
according to their characteristics to narrate different aspects of the story. Hence a
large number of labelled pieces are available: there is a saying “Nine Melodies and
Eighteen Tunes” in the trade, and there are certain conventions in choosing and
joining the labelled pieces. Genres adopting this format include Danxian Paiziqu
(Labelled Pieces Accompanied by Three-stringed Lute Alone), Yangzhou Qingqu
(Pure Tunes from Yangzhou) and Sichuan Qingyin (Pure Sounds from Sichuan). Some
genres make imaginative use of treating the labelled pieces, for example, by dividing
a melody into two halves, then inserting melodies in between, thus creating a sense of
unity (that is, in the format of “Beginning of Melody I - Various Labelled Pieces–End
of Melody I”).
Third: Styles of melodies: The long tradition of narrative singing means that there
are inevitable changes made to the melodies, hence labelled pieces may include
padding words or melodic features of folk songs, making the music more appealing
to the audience. In any case, many genres of narrative singing borrow melodies from
folk songs, which eventually become labelled pieces. Hence it may be difficult to
differentiate the styles of the two types of melodies.
Fourth: Trend of development: Narrative singing based on labelled pieces is
similar to operatic music in many respects, in spite of the difference in stage design
and costumes. For example, Xiangju (Xiang River Opera) and Gezai’xi (Gezai Opera)
in Taiwan have developed from Fujian Jin’ge (Beautiful Song) songs; Shandong
Luju (Luju Opera in Shandong) has developed from Shandong Qinshu (Dulcimer
Narratives of Shandong); Beijing Quju (Tunes Opera of Beijing) has developed from
Beijing Qinshu (Dulcimer Narratives of Beijing); Henan Quju (Quju Opera of Henan)
has developed from Henan Dadiao Quzi (Great Narrative Song Genre from Henan);
Jiju (Jilin Opera) has developed from the Dongbei Errenzhuan (Northeast Song-and-
Dance Duets). The listed genres of narrative singing have incorporated a large number
of labelled tunes, and when different roles in the stories are taken up by individual
actors, transformation to opera is highly feasible.
The following are representative genres of narrative singing based on labelled
pieces.
A. Fujian Jin’ge (Beautiful Song)
Fujian Jin’ge is a rudimentary form of narrative music based on labelled pieces,
but it is not highly expressive, though the melodies are beautiful and fresh, retaining
the style of folk songs.
1. Evolution of Fujian Jin’ge (Jin’ge, Beautiful Song, an alternative name)
Jin’ge (Beautiful Song) is an important genre of narrative singing in Fujian
Province. Sung in South Fujian dialect, it is popular in Southwest areas of the
Province and Taiwan, as well as amongst overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia and
beyond. The music materials originate from Jinjiang area, encompassing Zhangzhou,
Shima and Xiamen in the middle, and the Plains between the Duojiang and Lujiang
Rivers. Folk songs there are rooted in ancient Dan’ge songs of ancient Yue people
and Fan’ge songs of “Barbarians in the South”, which evolved into She ethnic group
folk songs (Shezu Minge), Tanka Boat Songs (Danjia Chuange) 14, Tea-picking
Baoge Songs (Caicha Baoge) and Chegu Dance Tunes (Chegu Wuqu)15. Continuous
migration of Han Chinese from Central Plains led to acculturation of these southern
folk songs with northern music elements. Hence Jin’ge possesses features of folk
songs, ditties and southern lyrics from the tenth to sixteenth centuries.
Despite its profound cultural heritage, Jin’ge songs have retained many features of
folk songs. For example, traditional Jin’ge repertoire such as Changgong’ku (Miserable
Life of a Farm Worker), Cheshui’ge (Water Pumping Song), Xingchuan’ge (Boating
Song) and Shierge’yue (Twelve Months) are essentially folk songs; Wuli’qiao (Wuli
Bridge), Rongshu’gen (Banyan Roots) and Yusan’zhe (Taking Shelter under an
Umbrella) are Tea-picking Baoge Songs. Extended narrative songs emerged later,
including repertoire such as Shanbo and Yingtai (or Butterfly Lovers, the male named
Shanbo and female Yingtai), Chen San and Wu Niang (a Chaozhou love story between
Chen San, male and Wu Niang, female), Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang) and Qin
Xuemei (a girl’s name). There are shorter works such as Miaochang Yuan (Sorrow of
Miaochang), Jingbian’hui (Meeting by the Well), Lyu Mengzheng (A poor scholar),
14 Tanka, or Danjia, are a fishing people living along the Seashore of Southern China.
15 Chegu, literally translation is Rickshaw.
Yuzhen Xunfu (Yuzhen Looking for Her Husband) and Jin’gu Ganyang (Jin’gu the
Shepherdess).
2. Mode of Singing
Jin’ge songs used to be performed by blind musicians who accompanied
themselves by Yueqin (two- or four-stringed moon lute) or Nan Erxian (Two-stringed
fiddle of the south), and repertoire includes “begging songs”, performed in streets.
Present Jin’ge singers perform while seated. The keys of the songs are either set
according to the tuning of the Guanzi (double reed wind instrument) or Dongxiao
(vertical flute), known as “Guanmen (Pipe Gates, or Pipe Keys)” and “Dongguan” or
“Shang Siguan (Upper Pipe)” respectively; songs can also be tuned to the Dizi (bamboo
flute), hence referred to as “Pinguan (Tasting Pipe)” or “Xiasi’guan (Low Pipe)”.
The main accompanying instruments include the Dongxiao, Dizi, Datong (a kind of
big fiddle) and Nan Erxian, as well as Pipa (southern pipa held horizontally, akin to
Japanese Biwa) or Yueqin. The singer plays the clappers to mark strong beats.
3. Characteristics of Melodies
(1) Wukong’zai
Wukong’zai is an established melody of Jin’ge songs, and it is sung according
to the fundamental pitch of the Dongxiao, taking the pitch D as tonic in Zhi (fifth
degree as sol) mode (hence Gong, first degree do = G). The melody accommodates
four verses, each with seven characters, and set to a gentle melody in steady motion,
allowing modulation to a related key. For example, the song Antong’nao (A Boy
Called Antong) begins with the pitch D (Zhi fifth degree as sol) and ends with D (Shang
second degree as re), that is, modulating from G (Gong first degree as do) to C (Gong
as do), or to the subdominant.
Example 3-1. Wukong’zai “Antong’nao”


Antong comes to report to the official,
Something serious has happened.
A girl hanged herself on a tree at South Mountain,
It’s me, Antong who has rescued her.
(yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi)
(2) Sikong’zai
Sikong’zai is also a well known Jin’ge melody, which is sung according to the
fundamental pitch D of the Dongxiao flute as Yu (sixth degree as la. Gong first degree
do = F). It is also set to lyrics of four verses, in flowing rhythm, while allowing some
melodic leaps, and featuring the degrees of Yu (sixth degree la) and Jue (third degree
mi). Since the second and fourth verses inevitably end on the Zhi degree (sol), there
is an implication of switching modes between Zhi and Yu, creating an atmosphere of
authentic folk music.
Example 3-2. Sikong’zai “Ma Sange” (Scolding Third Brother)

Chen San is leaving home,
Yi Chun is nervous.
She comes out of the room and asks,
“Brother San where are you going?”
“I am returning home in Quanzhou City.”
(3) Zanian’zai (Varied Recitals)

Zanian’zai is also known as Zasui’zai (Varied Breaking Recitals), and is a Jin’ge
melody with reciting features. It used to be performed by one singer in the Shuban
(Rapping Beats) style, later developed into duets or ensemble of three to four
performers singing in turns. The lyrics are colloquial, with verses in varying lengths,
invoking a lively and humorous atmosphere. The songs are not very melodious,
more akin to reciting than singing, and mostly in syllabic style. There is seamless
connection between the verses, and the ending of each section is conspicuously
marked by means of prolonged pitches.
Example 3-3. “Haidi’fan” (Rebellion under the Sea), a piece belonging to Wukong Zanian’zai (Varied
Recitals in the Wukong mode)

Listening to the singing one realises the changes of the sky and earth,
Fishes and Shrimps under the Sea are fighting each other.
Why are they fighting?
For eggs of carps.
Which are born so beautiful:
Red lip, jade face and pomegranate teeth,
Slender eyebrows, green Chinese onion nose,
Black temples, black fungus ears.
Meeting with the Dragon King at the Sea Palace,
He wants to take her as his concubine.
(4) Zage Huadiao (Miscellaneous Flower Tunes)

Zage Huadiao accounts for a large proportion of Jin’ge songs, and they are based
on folk songs and melodies of operas of the region. Their origins can be traced back
to folk songs of Southern Fujian, Tea-picking Baoge Songs (Caicha Baoge), tunes
from Zhuma (Bamboo Horse), Chegu (Rickshaw) and operas, as well as ditties
with southern lyrics. These melodies exist in large quantity, and are stylistically
diversified. The songs can be performed with one labelled piece sung repeatedly,
or with several labelled tunes in succession, even though there are no fixed rules in
linking them.
4. Jin’ge Songs versus Gezai’xi (Gezai Opera) and Xiangju (Xiang River Opera)
It is believed that Jin’ge spread to Taiwan in mid-seventeenth century, when the
famous seafarer Zheng Chenggong made a voyage eastward, taking many soldiers
from South China onboard. It is possible that Zheng’s followers had a role to play
in the transmission of folk music, as Jin’ge was a channel for them to express
homesickness. In the event, Jin’ge became popular in Taiwan, perhaps owing to
the sharing of South China dialects. In the eighteenth century, folk operatic genres
such as Siping’xi (Siping Opera), Luantan (Miscellaneous Performances), Hanju
(Hubei Opera), Jingju (Beijing Opera) and Gaojia’xi (Gaojia Opera) were introduced
to Taiwan. It is natural that under the influence of these dramatic genres, Jin’ge
songs gradually transformed from a relative crude form of narrative music to opera,
known as Gezai’xi. The Taiwan Gezai’xi troupe Sanle’xuan (Three Joys Club) was
supposed to have visited Tongan County in Southern Fujian in 1926 to pay tribute
to their ancestors for preserving the tradition of performing Jin’ge; Gezai’xi had
the opportunity to be performed in the mainland, and soon the newly established
folk opera was enthusiastically received in Xiamen. From then on, Taiwan Gezai’xi
troupes performed annually in Zhangzhou and Longxi; the genre became localized
in Southern Fujian, where troupes were set up. During the turmoil in the 1940s, the
Nationalist Government issued a ban on Gezai’xi, and dismissed the troupes. Gezai’xi
performers had no choice but to sing Jin’ge in order to survive. The positive side
is that there was continuous development of narrative singing, as Jin’ge had the
opportunity to absorb essences of other folk genres, such as Southern Lyrics (Nanci)
and Chaozhou Opera, leading to the emergence “Reformed Tune (Gailiang’diao)”,
and eventually the dramatic genre Gailiang’xi (Reformed Opera), which became
Xiangju (Xiang River Opera) in the 1950s, taking its name from Xiangjiang in the
middle of Jiulongjiang River.
Under the circumstances, Gezai’xi and Xiangju share the same melodies with
narrative music Jin’ge, even though there are changes to the nomenclature of core
music materials: Wukongzai, Sikong’zai and Zanian’zai in narrative music Jin’ge
have become, respectively, Dadiao (Great Tune), Qizi’zai (Seven-character Form)
and Shinian’zai (Recital Form) in Gezai’xi and Xiangju. Zage Huadiao of narrative
music is also retained in the operas. Efforts were made in enriching the music in the
new operatic forms, notably in strengthening the accompaniment by adding gongs and
drums, as well as the bowed coconut fiddle (Yeqiao’xian).
B. Shandong Dulcimer Songs (Shandong Qinshu)
1. Evolution of Shandong Dulcimer Songs
The history of Dulcimer Songs is related to the performance of narrative singing
based on labelled pieces in areas north of the Yangtze and lower reaches of Huai
Rivers in the Qing Dynasty, with repertoire such as Yinniu’si (Silver Thread),
Dazao’gan (Jujube Beating Stick), Dieduan’qiao (Overlapping Broken Bridge),
Wugeng (Fifth Watch of a Night), Jiandianhua (Cutting a Blue Paper Flower),
Luojiang’yuan (Sorrow by the Luojiang River), Fenhong’lian (Pink Lotus Blossoms),
Taiping’nian (Peaceful Year), Yaer’yo (nonsense syllables) and Lianhua’lao
(The Lotus Flower Tune). These Labelled Pieces are preserved in Nichang Xupu
(Continuation of Nichang Scores) and Baixue Yiyin (White Snow Heritage Sound),
collections of folk songs from the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Other Labelled
Pieces from folk songs and operas were also sung by these artists, which included
Xiu’hebao (Embroidering a Small Pouch), Wawa’diao (Kid’s Tune), Shibei’jiu (Ten
Cups of Wine) and Kumi’zi (Crying Tune). The Yangqin (Dulcimer) was, of course,
a foreign instrument widely used by folk musicians in Europe, such as Hungary;
since its transmission to China it has been Sinicized, leading to its adoption by
folk musicians, including those performing narrative music. The genre of narrative
singing with Yangqin as accompaniment is known as Qinzheng Qingqu (Pure Singing
Accompanied by Dulcimer and Guzheng) or Qinxi (Dulcimer Opera), referring to the
dulcimer. Such a mode of performance was popular in northern areas of Jiangsu and
Anhui Provinces, later spreading to Shandong, forming the genre Qinshu (Dulcimer
Narratives), with repertoire such as Baxian Lingshou (Eight Immortals Celebrating
the Birthday), Xiangzi Chujia (Xiangzi Becoming a Taoist Monk) and Liuling Zuijiu
(Drunken Liu Ling). Qinshu in Shandong underwent some development, particularly
when artists Zhang Lantian and Zhang Zhitian of Dongzhai Village, Guangrao visited
Fengyang in 1898 and incorporated Fengyang’ge (Fengyang Song) as labelled
melody to the genre. In addition, travelling performers of narrative music to Shandong
fleeing famine from Jiangsu and Anhui strengthened the position of Fengyang Song
as a Labelled Piece in Qinshu. Fengyang’ge gradually became the main labelled
tune of narrative singing, and it was used in conjunction with the speech-like Duozi
melody. The music was augmented by other Labelled Pieces when needed, resulting
in a composite structure. Qinshu in Shandong is, of course, sung in local dialect, and
its name was only established in 1941. Since then, the genre has spread to northeast
Provinces such as Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang.
Qinshu in Shandong developed into different sub-genres, largely owing to the
variety of dialects. The singing style in the south is Nanlu (southern branch), covering
areas such as Jining, Linyi and northern areas of Jiangsu and Anhui, with famous
singers such as Liu Yuxia and Yang Fanghong. Style in the north is Beilu (northern
branch), referring to Jinan, mid- and west- Shandong and Bohai Sea, with famous
singers such as Dang Jiuru and Zhang Jianling. Style in the east is Donglu (eastern
branch), covering Qingdao and east Shandong, with famous singers such as Shang
Yexing, Shang Yunxia, Li Jinshan and Gao Jinfeng. Shandong Qinshu highlights
styles according to regions, in contrast to most genres of narrative music, which focus
on individual performers.
Shandong Qinshu can also be performed with some degree of acting, thus akin
to opera with a small cast, a kind of experiment conducted by Shi Dianyuan and Cui
Lexing of Tanjia Village, Guangrao, when they performed Wang Erxiao Ganjiao (Wang
Erxiao the Porter). The piece was performed with singers in painted face and wearing
costumes, and the former took the role of Wang Erxiao, while the latter the Second
Sister, attaching a paper donkey to her waist. There were running round and humorous
gestures in the performance, bringing much laughter to the audience. Shi and Cui had
many followers, leading to eventual acceptance of dramatic interpretations of Qinshu.
This mode of performance in costumes and makeups gradually gained popularity, and
they were known as “Donkey Plays (Lyuxi)”, owing to the affiliation with the female
role in Wang Erxiao Ganjiao. The operatic genre was later renamed Lyuxi (Both
Chinese characters驴, donkey, and 吕, a surname, are pronounced as “Lyu”),
owing to the vulgarity of the original name involving donkey. It is important to note
that the emergence of the new operatic genre Lyuxi does not mean that Qinshu will
disappear: the two genres can co-exist so long as there are enough supporters for
each art form.
Shandong Qinshu is a genre of narrative singing with a strong inclination towards
music (hence less emphasis on speech), involving a soloist or a small group up to
seven performers. When there is only one performer, he accompanies himself with
the Yangqin, but when a bigger vocal ensemble is assembled, the accompaniment
may include instruments such as Zhuiqin (two-stringed fiddle with a long, fretless
neck, and hollow, wooden or copper cylindrical sound box, with one side covered in
snake skin), Zheng zither, Soft Bow Jinghu (Ruangong Jinghu) fiddle and percussion
instruments. The performers usually take turns to sing, with male actors impersonating
male characters, children or old women, injecting funny remarks here and there to
liven up the atmosphere.
3. Melodies
(1) Fengyang’ge (Fengyang Song)
The melody is also known as “Slow Beat (Manban)” or “Siping Tune
(Siping’diao)”, with the following characteristics:
Metre: One strong beat and three weak beats in a measure (4/4), usually begins
with weak/upbeat and ends on strong/downbeat; early versions may begin on
downbeat.
Structure: Each period comprises four phrases in the sequence of Qi (beginning),
Cheng (continuation), Zhuan (change) and He (ending). The first phrase ends with
do; the second phrase changes and develops the first phrase, ending with sol; the third
phrase, or the transition, ends on the sequence re-si-la; the fourth phrase reverts to the
second phrase, ending on sol.
Stylistic Features and Function: Melody of Fengyang’ge is highly expressive and
lyrical, and the flexibility of its tempo increases its narrative potential.
Mode: Based on Zhi (fifth degree, as sol).
Example 3-4. Fengyang’ge (Fengyang Song) “Shuanggan’che” (On the Cart)

When autumn comes, the air becomes cold,
Cottons blossom and wheats plants are long.
It is impossible to describe the scene of harvest fully,
We can see carriages are running fast on road.
(2) Duozi’ban (Piled Beat)

Duozi’ban is also known as Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4), another definition
being melodies based on two beats in a measure called Erban (Double Beat”, or
2/4); melodies with one beat per measure are known as Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4).
Duozi’ban’s characteristics are as follows:
Metre 2/4 or 1/4: Duozi’ban often begins and ends on a downbeat, even though it
is possible to begin on Shanban (second half of the downbeat).
Example 3-5. Duozi’ban used in Liangzhu Xiashan (Liang and Zhu Departing the Mountain)
Structure: The phrases are sung in pairs; with the opening phrase ending on do, and
the answering phrase on re.
Stylistic Features: the singing is more akin to recitation than singing; the relative
lack of melodic contour provides more room to narrate stories. The fast tempo of
delivery allows the singer to express intense and vehement emotions.
Mode: Shang (second degree).
An example of Duozi’ban can be found in Liangzhu Xiashan (Liang and Zhu
Departing the Mountain).
(3) Chuiqiang (Blowing Melody)
Chuiqiang (Blowing Melody) is originally used in Huiju (Anhui Opera), but the
labelled tune is also used in Jingju (Beijing Opera) and Kunqu (Kun Opera).
Metre: One strong/down beat and three weak/up beats (4/4), and often begins with
an upbeat and ends on a downbeat.
Structure: The phrases are in pairs, with the opening phrase ending on do, and
answering phrase on re.
Stylistic Features: It has more inclination towards singing than recitation, and its
melodious swing is mild, hence suitable for portraying landscapes and expressing
inner feelings.
Mode: Gong (first degree).
An example of Chuiqiang can be found in Liangzhu Xiashan (Liang and Zhu
4. Example for Appreciation and Analysis: Liangzhu Xiashan (Liang and Zhu
Liangzhu Xiashan is a scene taken from Liangzhu Aishi (The Sad Story of Butterfly
Lovers), one of the four famous Chinese folklores, the others being Niulang Zhinu (The
Cowherd and the Weaving Maid), Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang) and Baishe’zhuan
(Legend of the White Snake). Among these, the story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu
Yingtai has been known over one millennium, owing to its romantic nature, and to
a certain extent, through comparison with Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, albeit
anachronically. It is not only well known in China, but has also been enthusiastically
received in North Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and other Southeast Asian countries. The
glorious love story of Liang and Zhu has led to establishment of tombs, temples and
study rooms for the pair throughout China. The lovers have become a symbol of the
desire for freedom and pursuit of eternal love. Many folk genres have touch upon this
story in some ways.
The Shandong Qinshu “Liangzhu Xiashan” is an excerpt conceived in the 1950s
based on traditional melodies, set to the lyrics of Shiba Xiangsong (Shanbo Seeing
off Yingtai for Eighteen Li, a half kilometer) of Chuanju (Sichuan Opera), Liuyin’ji
(In the Shade of Willows) and Shanbo Songxing (Parting at Pavilion) of Yueju drama
Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai. The story is based on the love story between Liang
and Zhu, who study for three years at the same school, but have to return home. At
the departure, Zhu tries to express her affection to Liang with a poem, but the young
scholar, simple and naive, is completely lost. Finally Zhu has to propose marriage
to Liang, tactfully for a nonexistent ninth sister. The music is lyrical and humorous,
comprising over ninety verses, set to two basic Labelled Pieces with a Chuiqiang
(Blowing Melody) in between.
The scene begins with the lyrical melody Fengyang’ge (Fengyang Song),
consisting of four verses, “The red sun rises over the east sea; two scholars depart
the mountain on their homeward journey. Liang Shanbo walks in the front, followed
by Zhu Jiulang (Yingtai), who is a girl disguised as a man.” The melody features
one strong/down beat and three weak/upbeats (4/4 metre) and is more melodious
and melismatic than speech-like settings. This version of Fengyang’ge is a variation
of the basic melody. Unlike most Fengyang’ge, the third phrase does not end on la,
but changes and repeats the first phrase. Hence the original four-phrase format of Qi
(beginning), Cheng (continuation), Zhuan (change) and He (ending) is condensed to
the two-phrase format of question and answer. Such flexibility of maneuvering the
melody of Fengyang’ge is seen in other passages, allowing part of the melody to be
repeated as the drama warrants.
The opening four phrases of Fengyang’ge are functionally similar to the
introductory “Poem” (Shipian) of Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum Song in Beijing Dialect)
songs. Here the music setting is not merely a simple commentary, but serving to
depict a picturesque scene, introduce the characters and comment on their actions.
Duozi’ban is first used in setting the following verses to music, “Liang Shanbo
walks slowly in front, while Zhu Yingtai follows closely tossing her sleeves. Soon,
the two buddies move on, arriving at Xinghua Village.16” Each period comprises two
phrases, in form of question and answer, in metre of strong/weak beats (2/4), moderate
tempo (even though the singers may speed up the pulse, as the situation warrants).
The style of setting is melismatic, highly appropriate for narrating events.
The setting of Chuiqiang is illustrated in the passage about beautiful scenery,
“They leave the village and climb over the mountain, which is covered with green
trees and grass.17” The melody is originally an operatic Labelled Piece, but adopted
by Shandong Qinshu narrative singing. Its lyrical nature and wide range is attractive
to the audience. It is in form of question and answer, and in the metre of one strong/
down beat and three weak/up beats in a measure (4/4).
The three melodies referred to above in Liangzhu Xiashan have to be skillfully
juxtaposed in order to achieve the desired dramatic effect. The story is unfolded by
setting the lyrics to Fengyang’ge and Duozi’ban, with Chuiqiang inserted between
these main melodies.
Fengyang’ge is most effective in alluring inner feeling, hence apart from the music
example of the opening scene cited above, the melody is also used in setting lyrics on
Yong Hehua (Ode to Lotus Blossoms), Bi Yuanyang (Yingtai Comparing Shanbo and
Herself to Mandarin Ducks), E’xishui (Geese Playing in Water) and Xishang Wanxia
Changbieli (Parting as the Sun Sets on Western Mountain). The melody is adjusted
16 梁山伯迈步就在那头前面走，祝英台甩袖在后面紧紧地跟。兄弟二人来的好快，眼前来到杏花村。
17 离村庄来过山峦，绿树芳草盖满山。
according to circumstances as described in the lyrics, by introducing changes in pitch,

rhythm and phrase length. For example, the first verse is introduced by an undulating
Chuiqiang melody, creating a poetic mood; the four verses describing parting of
the lovers is based on retarded tempo and a downward melodic shape, akin to the
musical device in setting Lachrymae in the West, aptly considering the meaning of
the text; the passage of Fengyang’ge following the Chuiqiang is speeded up, so as to
accommodate a more vivid mood.
Duozi’ban is a useful means of narration as well as expressing humour implied
in the lyrics. This melody is used in the scene when reaching Xinghua Village, Zhu
Yingtai comments teasingly on the “male and female” shadows of her and Liang
Shanbo reflected on well water, “You are clueless, in comparing me to a woman. Since
both of us are grown up men, how come you can regard a couple (of different sexes)
smiling to one another?18” The Duozi’ban is adapted to the vernacular, portraying
the honest character of Liang, by means of adjusting the tempo from slow to fast, in
order to highlight the wit of Zhu. Liang eventually replies, “You have been making
metaphors every now and then, isn’t it your desire to compare me to a woman?” These
two verses conclude the middle section of the scene effectively, creating some kind of
climax, hence a classic example of achieving appropriate dramatic effect.
Chuiqiang functions in the excerpt as a device to link chosen passages of the
labelled piece Fengyang’ge. A four-phrase Chuiqiang can be used to introduce the
main melody Fengyang’ge; it can also be integrated with part of Fengyang’ge, similar
to the technique of Jiqu (Taking music phrases from different pieces to form a new
piece) found in Chinese opera.
The roles of the three Labelled Pieces can be differentiated: Fengyang’ge is for
expression of emotion, and Duozi’ban for description while Chuiqiang for adding
colour or emphasizing dramatic effects. The amalgamation of these melodies enables
vivid portrayal of the excerpt Liangzhu Xiashan.
C. Sichuan Qingyin (Pure Sounds from Sichuan)
Sichuan Qingyin is a matured genre of narrative singing believed to preserve
the tradition of performing Changzhuan (a kind of narrative singing popular during
the Song Dynasty), on the basis of joining different Qupai (Labelled Pieces) in an
accepted convention.
1. Evolution of Sichuan Qingyin
Sichuan Qingyin is a type of vocal music developed from ballad singing. Its early
form is known as Chang Xiaoqu (Ditty Singing), and the genre is also called Chang
Yueqin (Singing to Yueqin) or Chang Pipa (Singing to Pipa), owing to the use of these
plucked instruments as accompaniment.
In the early days of performing Sichuan Qingyin, the labelled pieces adopted were
folk songs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties: these include Manjiang’hong (The River
All Red), Matou’diao (Horse Head Tune), Jisheng’cao (Parasitic Grass), Yu’elang
(A Handsome Man) and Fengchui Heyesha (The Wind Blowing Lotus Leaves).
18 贤弟你说话理不应，你不该将我比女人。弟兄俩都是堂堂的男子汉，哪来的一男一女笑吟吟？
By the middle of Qing Dynasty, new settlers to Sichuan as a result of urbanization

brought with them folk songs and ditties, including Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang),
Moli’hua (Jasmine Flower), Jiu’lianhuan (Nine Connected Rings), Yangzhou
Xiaodiao (Yangzhou Ditties) and other folk songs from the middle and lower reaches
of the Yangtze River. These songs were brought to Sichuan by the boatmen and song
girls on merchant boats, and soon these became labelled pieces of Sichuan Qingyin.
During the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1875–1908), Sichuan Qingyin was performed
at story-telling houses and tea houses, and the repertoire of labelled pieces increased
to over four hundred. At the turn of the twentieth century, famine and war drove a
large number of poor farmers to Sichuan, and some of them began singing Sichuan
Qingyin for a living. Some set up family troupes, or adopted little girls (foster
daughters) to make a fuller cast; smaller troupes comprised three to five performers,
while large ones numbered over ten. These were referred to as “Haihu’ban (Sea
and Lake Troupes)”; the vast number of performers promoted the popularity of the
narrative genre. There were also amateur performers who have acquired professional
skills in the art, even though they only sang for leisure. They generally had superb
singing skills, could play instruments, and mastered many traditional songs. They
had the resources to organize “Strings and Bamboo Flute Ensembles (Sizhu’hui)”
and “Amateur Qingyin Performers’ Clubs (Qingyin Wanyou’hui)”. By the 1920s,
professional performers formed large guilds all over the country, ironically on the
models of the amateur groups. In 1930, the “Improvement Association of Qingyin”
was set up in Chongqing while “Qingyin Association” and “Qingyin Trade Union”
were set up in Zigong and Chengdu. After the founding of the People’s Republic in
1949, this genre of narrative singing was officially named Sichuan Qingyin.
There are two categories of Sichuan Qingyin: one is based on historical legends
and folklores, such as Zhaojun Chusai (Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier),
Changting Jianbie (Farewell at the Pavillion), Sifan (Fancying Secular Love), Nigu
Xiashan (A Nun Descending the Mountain) and Zengshan (A Gift Fan); the other
includes lyrical pieces on daily lives of young girls, such as Xiu’hebao (Embroidering
a Small Pouch), Yiwo’lang (Missing My Lover) and Xiao Fang’fengzheng (Flying
the Kite). There are also new works in the past fifty years, such as Ding Youjun (male
name), Huang Jiguang (male name), Xiang Xiuli (female name), Yongyuan Huozai
Renxin (Living Forever in the Hearts of the People) and other songs honouring heroic
characters.
2. Modes of Singing
Sichuan Qingyin used to be performed at tea houses and story-telling houses, with
performers seated. Since the 1950s, the genre has been performing at folk theatres,
with artists standing on stage, hence becoming formalized. The lead singer is usually
a female, who accompanies herself by beating a small drum and wooden block; other
instrumentalists may sing the parts of minor characters, should they be involved.
Instruments accompanying Sichuan Qingyin include Pipa lute, Yueqin lute, Sanxian
(three stringed lute) and Erhu fiddle; Wanwan’qin (a kind of fiddle) was also used
in the past. Lead singers may also accompany themselves with a special instrument
“Bamboo drum”, hence controlling the pace of the music.

3. Melodies
Many Labelled Tunes are used in Sichuan Qingyin; the Compendium of Chinese
Folk Performing Arts, Sichuan Volume (Zhongguo Quyi Jicheng, Sichuan Juan)
contains nearly two hundred transcribed tunes of the genre. There are different ways
of organizing them.
(1) Single-tune Structure
This structure involves the adoption of a folk ditty as labelled tune, with the music
repeated but sung to different verses of lyrics (describing scenery or narrating short
stories), akin to Western strophic songs. Some of these labelled tunes can be part of
a composite structure involving a series of labelled tunes. There are nearly a hundred
melodies used singly in the genre, and these include Xianhua’diao (Flower Tune),
Changcheng’diao (Tune of the Great Wall), Jianjian’hua (Cutting Flowers) and
Xiaotao’hong (A Little Red Peach). The following are two examples of how single
labelled pieces can be used.
The labelled piece Xianhua’diao is frequently used in Sichuan Qingyin to express
warm and cheerful emotions; its origin is the Jiangsu folk song Moli’hua (Jasmine
Flower), and there are few changes to the melody, even though the performing context
is completely different. An early example of the application of the melody in the
genre is Xixiang’shan (The Fan of West Chamber); by the 1950s, when Li Yueqiu
Example 3-6. A comparison of two versions of Xianhua’diao (Flower Tune)
sang Xianhua’diao in Bugu Niaoer Gugu’jiao (Cuckooing Cuckoos) the melody has
undergone significant changes.
The scores of the two versions of Xianhua’diao are illustrated below, showing that
the second melody has prominent changes, even though the original melodic outline is
kept.
English translation of the lyrics of Xianhua’diao:

It is a beautiful Jasmine flower; it is a beautiful Jasmine flower,
All flowers in garden are not as fragrant as it.
I would like to pick-up one,
But I am afraid the gardener will blame me.
English translation of the lyrics of Bugu Niaoer Gugujiao:

Cuckooing Cuckoos, flying out from forest to the South,
Turning around here and there,
Humping their eyes to look at the surroundings.
It will be seen that Xianhua’diao in Bugu Niaoer Gugu’jiao (Cuckooing Cuckoos)

deviates from the original melody owing to the influence of Sichuan dialect and its
new role as Labelled Tune in narrative singing, highlighting the indigenous style of
“Haha Melodic Type (Haha’qiang)” unique to the genre. Hence the original folk song
has undergone acculturation.
Changes similar to the folk song Moli’hua can also be found in many labelled
tunes in Sichuan Qingyin. Such a phenomenon is not uncommon in Chinese folk
music; the changes are effected when there is a shift of location or genre, or even
according to the taste and performing style of performers.
Changcheng’diao (Tune of the Great Wall) is another labelled piece developed
from a folk song known as Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang), popular in areas along
the Yangtze River. When it was first adopted to Sichuan Qingyin there was little
change made to the original melody, as illustrated in the excerpt entitled Duanqiao
(Broken Bridge):
Example 3-7. Early version of Changcheng’diao (Excerpt from Duanqiao)

Using one hand to fetch my husband to sit on the Broken Bridge,
I, your wife, will tell you something:
You wife was originally not a human being,

Cultivating and practising my crafts to become an immortal at the White Lotus
Pool.
The labelled piece Mengjiang’nu became more complex in Sichuan Qingyin, again
owing to the local dialect, as seen in the transcription of its use in Duanqiao (Broken
Bridge) sung by Li Yueqiu:
Example 3-8. Changcheng’diao (Tune of the Great Wall) sung by Li Yueqiu (Excerpt from
Duanqiao (Broken Bridge). The lyrics are the same as in the Example 3-7
As seen in the above examples of Bugu Niaoer Gugu’jiao (Cuckooing Cuckoos)

and Duanqiao (Broken Bridge), the technique involves singing the same melody
repeatedly, while adjusting the melodic contour according to the mood of different
verses of the lyrics.
(2) Structure Based on Connected Tunes
Professional singers of Sichuan Qingyin identify eight main tunes, but out of these
only three are considered possible for use as connected melodies, namely Yuediao
(Moon Tune), Beigong’diao (Reversed Gong Mode) and Jisheng’diao (Parasitic
Tune); the remaining five, standing alone, cannot be used for the purpose, and these
include Gou’diao (Gou Tune), Matou’diao (Horse Head Tune), Dangdiao (Dang
Tune), Tanhuang’diao (Tanhuang Tune) and Fan Xipi’diao (Reversed Xipi Tune). The
first three tunes are used to introduce and conclude a longer series of labelled tunes.
(3) Banqiang Structure (Music Based on Metrical Change)
Banqiang Structure is a special feature found in narrative music, but it is rarely
found in Sichuan Qingyin, owing to the shortage of appropriate tunes, which are
derived from certain kinds of operatic music possessing the qualities of effecting
melodic variation according to changes in metre. An example for such adoption is
Fan Xipi’diao (Reversed Xipi Tune) originated from Huqin Tune (same type of Tune
used in Pihuang in Beijing Opera) of Sichuan Opera, which has several metrical
patterns, such Yizi (One Word), Slow Erliu (Man Erliu) and Fast Erliu (Kuai Erliu),
with respective metres in one strong/down beat and three weak/up beats (4/4), one
strong and one weak beat (2/4), and downbeats only (1/4). Han’diao, the tune from
local opera, may also be used for the purpose, with metres similar to Fan Xipi Diao.
The Fan Xipi’diao and Han’diao Tunes are connected according to their accepted
convention, with some variations chosen to connect other Labelled Tunes in a kind of
suite. Banqiang structure is rarely found in the living tradition of Sichuan Qingyin.
The structure based on connected tunes is by far the most common in Sichuan
Qingyin, and its characteristics are illustrated through analyzing Beigong’diao
(Reversed Gong Mode) of Zhaojun Chusai (Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier).
Beigong’diao is a labelled tune with a nomenclature carrying a certain meaning in
Chinese music theory involving Gongche notation. It literally means “removing the
degree Gong (mi in solfege)” or “replacing Gong with Fan (fa in solfege)” This will
lead to a transposition of a fifth below, or to the subdominant.
The main melody is Beigong’diao, and when another Labelled Tune such as
Yuediao (Moon Tune) is added, it is usually in the original key (a perfect fifth above,
or the dominant), resulting in modulation. The key relationship of connected tunes of
Beigong’diao in Zhaojun Chusai (Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier) is outlined as
follows:
Opening Beigong’diao - Dieduan’qiao (Overlapping Broken Bridge) -

Ku’wugeng (Crying Throughout the Night) - Bianguan’diao (Frontier Tune) -
Yin’duozi (Feminine Duozi - (Bb Gong - F Gong) - Yindie Duanqiao (Feminine
Overlapping Broken Bridges) - Ending Beigong’diao (Bb Gong)
Characteristics of Beigong’diao (Reversed Gong Mode) Melody:

First, the melody is slow, lyrical and usually in 4/4 metre; its undulating nature
facilitates expression of reserved or intense emotions.
Second, the distinctive degree “↑fa” (also referred to as “#a”) often appears in
Beigong’diao, making the music suitable for expressing intense or despondent
feelings, in contrast to the more optimistic melodies, such as those evolved from the
Labelled Tune Yuediao (Moon Tune).
Third, Beigong’diao is similar to Yuediao and Jisheng’diao, and if the
melody comprises only the “head” and “tail” of Beigong’diao, it is termed “Pure
Beigong’diao”; if a related labelled tune such as Dieduan’qiao is included, the music
is termed “Plain Beigong’diao”. The most common structure in Sichuan Qingyin is
the insertion of a number of Labelled Tunes.
4. Example for Appreciation and Analysis: Excerpt from Beigong’diao (Reversed
Gong Mode) of Zhaojun Chusai (Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier).
(1) About Story
Zhaojun Chusai (Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier) is an excerpt from the story
on Wang Zhaojun, a beauty. The original story is recorded in Mingfei’qu (Song of
Famous Concubine) in Xijing Zaji (Miscellany of the Western Capital) believed to be

written by Ge Hong (284–364). It is through Bianwen “Zhao Jun Bian” in the Tang
Dynasty that the story was preserved in the Yuan Dynasty Zaju “Guyan Hangong’qiu
(Solitary Wild Goose at the Han Palace in Autumn)”, the Ming Dynasty’s legend
Qingzhong’ji (Tomb of Zhaojun) and the Qing Dynasty’s novel Shuangfeng Qiyuan
(Romances of Double Phoenixes). The present version of the story has undergone
minor changes since then. The original legend is supposed to record Wang Zhaojun’s
desire to marry the Mongolian chief voluntarily, in order to halt military aggression
of enemies of the Han court. Yet the more patriotic version describes her departure
from the Han border as a scene of great grief, and she finally died of depression owing
to homesickness. There is a famous saying, “When someone has died, don’t believe
any story about the deceased even if it is told by a wise man like Cai Yong.” Yet it is
a common practice for narrative singing and opera to amend history to create more
dramatic conflicts. As a result, the treacherous court official Mao Yanshou is believed
to have been added to the story. The villain was the official painter of Emperor Yuan
of the Han Dynasty, and in order to victimize Wang Zhaojun, a beautiful imperial
concubine, Mao Yanshou drew two portraits for her, one beautiful, the other plain,
which were presented to the Mongolian Chief and Han Emperor respectively. Having
seen the beautiful portrait, the Mongolian Chief instituted the condition of marrying
Wang Zhaojun for withdrawing his aggressive army. After accepting the request, the
Han Emperor vowed to rescue his concubine at Yanmen Pass, but the promise was
broken. Wang Zhaojun died fifteen years later, after her marriage to Mongolia. The
scene Zhaojun Chusai describes the sadness of Wang Zhaojun at the juncture of being
dispatched to foreign land.
(2) Introduction to Main Labelled Tunes
First: Opening Beigong’diao (Reversed Gong Mode). The beginning of
Beigong’diao (also called Beigong’tou, head of Beigong’diao) is used to introduce a
series of connected labelled tunes. The introduction consists of four phrases: the first
phrase has a “two, two, three” character pattern and ends on re; the second has a “two,
two, three” pattern and ends on sol; the third has a “three, four, three” pattern and ends
on re; the fourth has a “three, four, three” pattern and ends on sol. There is a practice
to begin each phrase with free rhythm. This section of Beigong’diao can be treated
with some liberty, such as the addition of several four-character phrases after singing
the first three characters in the fourth phrase, a technique known as Cunzi Beigong
(Addition of Character to Beigong). The free rhythm of the opening of melody creates
the mood for the desolate landscape outside the Yanmen Pass, while the undulating
slow melody of the prolonged last phrase depicts Zhaojun’s mixed feelings as she
leaves Chang’an for Mongolia.
Second: Dieduan’qiao (Overlapping Broken Bridge). This Labelled Piece
Dieduan’qiao is frequently used in Sichuan Qingyin. It is originally a folk song from
the North, acquiring its name owing to its special four-phrase structure. The first two
phrases are set to five-character phrases, while the third phrase has nine characters,
and the fourth phrase seven characters. Hence the first two phrases are “overlapped”,
owing to their symmetry, while the four phrases are “broken” (relatively independent)
and “bridged” (connected) with padding tunes, hence the name. This Labelled Piece is
very melodious, and can be used for expressing feelings and narrating stories (unlike
Beigong’diao which only accommodates a few characters in a phrase). Zhaojun
Chusai includes two passages of Dieduan’qiao: the former expresses Zhaojun’s
longing for the Han Emperor, while the latter narrates the plot.
Third: Ku’wugeng (Crying Throughout the Night). Ku’wugeng is Labelled Piece
originated from folk song, and is usually used to depict the frustration of women. The
melody is transposed to the Gong mode a fifth above (dominant) in Zhaojun Chusai,
so as to highlight the grief emotion of the protagonist, especially her regrets for
leaving the motherland.
Fourth: Bianguan’diao (Frontier Tune). This Labelled Piece Bianguan’diao
(Frontier Tune) owes its name to its frequent use in expressing feeling of
homesickness of soldiers, and the same nomenclature in another genre may refer to
a different melody. In Sichuan Qingyin, the Bianguan’diao is organized according
to paired phrases, each being prolonged at the end; it is steady and slow, suitable
for recalling the past or narrating events. It is used in Zhaojun Chusai to express
Zhaojun’s mixed feelings as she gets to the border, realizing that she will never return
to the homeland.
Fifth: Yin’duozi (Feminine Duozi). Duozi in Sichuan Qingyin can be written as 垛子
or 夺子 in Chinese (the pronunciation “Duo” refers to two homophonous characters).
The melody comprises two phrases, with the first and second phrases ending on
do and re respectively. After the first phrase is sung, if it joins the second phrase of
Jinniu’si (Golden Thread), the mood of the music will be darkened, hence the term
Yin’duozi.
Sixth: Yindie Duanqiao (Feminine Overlapping Broken Bridge). If the first phrase
of Dieduan’qiao is replaced by the first phrase of Ku’siji (Crying for Four Seasons),
and changes are made to the following melody, the Labelled Tune is called Yindie
Duanqiao (Feminine Overlapping Broken Bridge), which is effective in expressing
grave emotions. When the melody appears in Zhaojun Chusai, the opening tonality
returns.
Seventh: Beigong’wei (Ending of Reversed Gong Mode). Beigong’wei comprises
the last three phrases of the Beigong’diao; it can be modified by adding extra pitches,
prolonging the end of phrase. The melody is used to conclude the complex scene
of Zhaojun Chusai, when the imperial concubine has just departed her motherland,
reaching Mongolia, where she was warmly received. The melody has the duo role
of being narrative and expressive, with tempo accelerating, until the deliberate
Ritardando at the end, returning to the atmosphere of the opening.
It will be seen that when Beigong’diao is used in this except of Zhaojun Chusai
based on connected Labelled Tunes, the emphasis is on the expression of Zhaojun’s
sadness and nostalgic, rather than on the intricacies of the story, or even on changes
of human emotion. Hence melodies which are slow and expressive are chosen, and
the metre is one strong and three weak beats (4/4). Such a lyrical style of singing is
typical of Sichuan Qingyin using joined melodies. The genre also includes repertoire
focusing more on the narrating aspect, and some works can involve passages of
vastly different emotions, with added Labelled Tunes in 2/4 or 1/4 metres, such as the
Yuediao (Moon Tune) of Nigu Xiashan (A Nun Descening the Mountain) and the new
melody of Yongyuan Huozai Renxin (Living Forever in the Hearts of the People).
D. Danxian Paiziqu (Labeled Pieces Accompanied by Three-stringed Lute Alone)
Danxian Paiziqu is a developed genre involving the use of Labelled Tune, and
it has been influential in Beijing and Tianjin in the Qing Dynasty, as well as in the
twentieth century, including after the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949.
Since the performing style is popular and lively, and in vernacular Beijing dialect, it
is a useful device to fulfill social needs, particularly in nationwide propaganda. The
genre has been further developed by Beijing Opera artist Liu Jidian and his disciples
to establish a new operatic form, known as Beijing Quju (Tunes Opera of Beijing),
with new works such as Yang Naiwu and Xiao Baicai and Tixiao Yinyuan (The Story
of Three Lovers).
1. Evolution of Danxian Paiziqu
Danxian Paiziqu was popular in Beijing and Tianjin during the reign of Emperor
Qianlong (1736–1795), and it was performed in the Northeast and areas along the
Yangtze River. Basic materials of the genre originated from folk ditties in Beijing and
Tianjin, and these melodies were named Za’paizi (Miscellaneous Labelled Pieces),
Danxian (Solo Three-stringed lute) and Bajiao’gu (Octagonal drum). The varying
nomenclatures reflect different perspectives of the genre, for example, Za’paizi refers to
the tunes preserved through generations; Danxian refers to the mode of performance
involving one singer accompanying himself; Bajiao’gu refers to the shape of the
accompanying drum. It will be noted many other genres share the term Bajiao’gu,
such as Matou’diao (Horse Head Tune), Kuaishu (Copper Clapper Reciting), Chaqu
(Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and Tunes) and Paizi’qu (Labelled Pieces) popular
in Beijing in the early twentieth century. The last two genres - Chaqu and Paizi’qu -
merged to form the present Danxian Paiziqu.
It is perhaps worth investigating how the merging of Chaqu (Crossed Phrases
between Lyrics and Tunes) and Paizi’qu (Labelled Pieces) came about. First, the
origin of Chaqu must be traced. It is related to the military operation of the Qianlong
Emperor in 1771, when he had to conquer rebels in the Jinchuan River (upper stretch
of Bailong River) by dispatching Minister of Military Ministry Wen Fu, Governor of
Sichuan and Commander-in-Chief of Guilin there, but to no avail. A year later, A Gui,
Governor of Yunnan and Guizhou, was assigned the military task. Realizing the Qing
army could not adapt to the precipitous topography and climate, the new commander
ordered the soldiers to sew seeds to the barren mountain (where the enemies hid)
through throwing bags of seeds, so as to create a shelter to ease invasion. In the end,
A Gui won the battle, and was honoured as a hero, as the Eight Banner troops “beat
the golden stirrups with whips and sang a song of triumph,19” and while reaching the
19 鞭敲金蹬响，高唱凯歌还。
Lugou Bridge, greeted by the Emperor.

The song of triumph was believed to be arranged by the soldier Bao Xiaocha based
on the six-phrase Cuibai (Clear Recital) songs of the then popular Gaoqiang (High
Melo) tunes. The term Chaqu is based phonologically on Bao’s name, and soon it
became fashionable for fellow soldiers to sing these songs at festivities and joyous
occasions. There were, however, complaints that it was inappropriate for military
personnel to be involved in such performances, but the genre had the support of the
Emperor, who went as far as ordering court musicians to design an octagonal drum
for accompaniment. Indeed, the design of the instrument has several implications: its
octagonal shape represents the Eight Banners of the Manchurians; three little cymbals
afixed to each side, totalling 24 allure to the 24-banner armies; the pair of apricot
yellow and light yellow tassels symbolize bumper harvests (each rice stalk produces
two ears of rice); the drum without handle implies eternal peace. The Emperor also
ordered Shengping’shu (Bureau of Traditional Opera) to compose Chaqu songs for
Manchurians, and issued “Dragon Tickets (Longpiao)” to distinguish these singers
from ordinary folk musicians. Holders of these tickets were called Piaoyou (literally
ticket friends, now referring to amateur performers of Beijing Opera). Piaoyou sang
for free, and brought their “tea and wine”. Repertoire of Chaqu comprised mainly
songs of triumph, and these were highly popular.
Chaqu (Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and Tunes) had an opportunity to develop,
as Duoju (Piled Phrases, or Staccato Phrases) are added to original melodies, forming
Da Chaqu (Long Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and Tunes), even though the lyrics
still focus on expression of emotions and describing scenery. Short Labelled Pieces
were later added to Chaqu to narrate stories, leading to the creation of the genre
Yaojie (Waist Sections). In order to accommodate more Labelled Pieces, a Chaqu
song is divided into sections of beginning and end, allowing the music to link to
other melodies (Paizi), hence increasing the potential for narrating stories. Chaqu is
combined with Paizi’qu in a structure of linked melodies.
More explanation on the origin of the genre Danxian Paiziqu is necessary. The
prefix Danxian (Single String) is related to Si Ruixuan (alias Suiyuanle), a member
of Eight-banner Manchurians in Tongzhi and Guangxu Reigns (1862–1908). By
then, many Manchurians faced poverty, but Si managed to gather an ensemble to
sing Chaqu at teahouse; he was let down, and had to cancel the performance, even
though he promised to return the following year. He then had to live in solitude in
Western Hills of Beijing, and prepare narrative music for great novels such as Strange
Tales from a Lonely Studio (Liaozhai Zhiyi), The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan) and
The Plum in the Golden Vase (Jinpeng’mei). He also changed the accompaniment
of octagonal drum and instruments and group singing to solo singing with self
accompaniment of the Sanxian (Three-stringed lute). Si Ruixuan returned to the
teahouse a year later with a new style of performance, much appreciated by the
audience, owing to the witty lyrics and lively singing. Other performers followed suit,
allowing the genre to flourish in the Chinese capital. Danxian (Single String) refers
to a single performer singing and accompanying himself with the string instrument
Sanxian.
2. Modes of Singing
In the early days of Danxian Paiziqu, it was sung by a solo singer to his own
accompaniment, but it progressed to the deployment of one performer singing while
beating octagonal drum, and accompanied by another musician. Later modes of
performance include two performers singing against one another (Chaichang, Split
Singing) or singing in groups, and it may include a soloist singing against a group.
Many types of instruments can be involved in the accompanying ensemble.
3. Melodies
(1) Chaqu (Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and Tunes)
Chaqu (Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and Tunes) are ideal for expressing
emotions and describing landscapes, and these are based on a six-phrase structure, as
found in traditional repertorire such as Chunzhi Hekai (The River Opens When Spring
Comes), Qiufeng Zhenzhen (Autumn Winds) and Wanxia (The Sunset Glow), and
these are called Xiao Chaqu (Small Chaqu Songs). They were further expanded to Da
Chaqu (Long Chaqu Songs), including Songyue’rao (Pines in Moonlight) and Fengyu
Guizhou (A Boat Returns in Wind and Rain), through adding Duoju (Piled Phrases, or
Staccato Phrases). The lyrics and nature of melodies, however, remain expressive of
emotions and description of scenery.
The Small Chaqu Song Wanxia (The Sunset Glow) is analyzed to illustrate the
general features of the genre (Example 3-9.):

The clouds are floating in the Sky and the evening wind is cool, while the sun
sets behind the mountains.
(shua lala), The red leaves fall with rustles, it is cold.
Blowing the reed catkins bend over water.
The sunglow fades, and the clouds disperse, while galaxy is lighting the
Northern Stars (Chinese Lunar Mansions).
The river and the sky at night are as bright as day time.
Retrospectively, I see the cool, bright moon like a golden ball.
(a) Lyrics of Chaqu Songs

A traditional Chaqu song is usually built on six phrases: the first phrase includes
a pair of four-character verses (contemporary form expanded to two seven-character
verses); the remaining phrases are either seven-character or ten-character phrases,
while other styles are possible. Douju (Piled Phrases) can be added to the third, fifth
and sixth phrases to extend the music, sometimes with whole passages added, as in
Fengyu Guizhou (A Boat Returns in Wind and Rain). The last characters of the first,
third, fourth and sixth phrases are rhymed, but this literary technique can be applied to
all verses.
(b) Melodic Structure of Chaqu
A Chaqu song consists of six basic phrases, but they do not always correspond
Example 3-9. Chaqu Song Wanxia (The Sunset Glow) sung by Ma Tanhui
to the length and structure of the lyrics, as shown in Wanxia (The Sunset Glow) in
Example 3-9.
Melody Lyrics
Phrase 1 The clouds are floating in the water and the evening wind is cool, while the sun sets in
the mountains. (meaning complete)
(The first phrase of the lyrics is “The clouds are floating in the Sky and the evening
wind is cool, while the sun sets in the mountains.”)
Phrase 2 The red leaves fall with rustles, (meaning incomplete)
(The second phrase of the lyrics is “(shua lala), the red leaves fall with rustles, it is
cold.”)
Phrase 3 it is cold. Blowing the reed catkins bend over water. (meaning complete)
(The third phrase of the lyrics is “Blowing the reed catkins bend over water.”)
Phrase 4 The sunglow fades, and the clouds disperse, while galaxy is lighting (meaning
incomplete)
(The fourth phrase of the lyrics is “The sunglow fades, and the clouds disperse, while
galaxy is lighting the Northern Stars.”)
Phrase 5 the Northern Star. The river and the sky are (“crouched ox” meaning incomplete)
(The fifth phrase of the lyrics is “The river and the sky are bright as bright as day
retrospectively.”)
Phrase 6 as bright as day retrospectively. I see the cool, bright moon like a golden ball. (meaning
complete)
(The sixth phrase of the lyrics is “I see the cool, bright moon like a golden ball.”)
Illustration 3-1. Phrasal Relationship of Chaqu between Melody and Lyrics
Although it is impossible to illustrate the structure of Chinese language in an

English translation, it is possible to see sometimes the lyrics appear to be truncated.
The six phrases of the melody are separated by linking passages to keep their
individual identities. This is, however, different from the organization of the lyrics,
as verses 2, 4 and 5 do not appear to convey a complete meaning; the remaining
texts of each of these verses are set to the following melodic phrases. In other words,
phrasing of the music and lyrics do not correspond, hence creating a strong desire for
the audience to await a proper musical resolution. This somewhat contradictory means
of setting words to music is highly effective in raising the aesthetic level of the genre,
and the most prominent feature of Chaqu songs.
(c) Mode of Chaqu
Melodic phrases of Chaqu songs can end on mi, sol or do, and sometimes on re,
even though the whole piece will inevitably end on mi. The final interlude ends on
do, and since the melodies are based on the degrees mi, sol and do, the most common
mode of the music Gong (first degree).
Since the performance of Chaqu does not involve instruments emphasizing strong
beats (like drums and wooden block), the notated scores do not have fixed metres
(meaning that they tend to change).
(2) Danxian Paiziqu (Labelled Pieces Accompanied by Three-stringed Lute Alone)

Danxian Paiziqu refers to music taking the first three phrases of a Chaqu song
as Qutou (Opening Tune) and the last three phrases as Quwei (Ending Tune), with a
number of Labelled Pieces inserted in between.
Many labelled pieces incorporated into Danxian Paiziqu have been adopted
from folk songs, which are based in three sources. The first source includes
folk songs of the late Ming Dynasty, such as Huguang’diao (Tune of Hubei and
Hunan), Bianguan’diao (Frontier Tune), Luojiang’yuan (Sorrow by the Luojiang
River), Shiliu’hua (Guava Blossoms), Jisheng’cao (Parasitic Grass), Dieduan’qiao
(Overlapping Broken Bridge) and Jiandian’hua (Cutting a Blue Paper Flower); the
second source includes folk ditties of the Qing Dynasty, such as Taiping’nian (A
Peaceful Year), Daxin’chun (The New Year Begins), Xianhua’diao (Flower Tune),
Xiao’mofang (Small Millhouse) and Zhao’huatai (Shining on the Flower Bed); the
third source, which accounts for a large number of melodies, are based on music
for narrative singing or opera, including Shuchang (Rapping Tune), Kaoshan’diao
(Tune of Leaning on the Gable), Nancheng’diao (Southern City Tune), Xicheng’diao
(Western City Tune), Nanluo Beigu (Southern Gongs and Northern Drums),
Siban’qiang (Tune of Four Downbeats), Yunsu’diao (Yunsu Tune), Qie’kuaishu (Rural
Copper Clapper Reciting), Beijing Kuaishu (Beijing Copper Clapper Reciting),
Bangzi’qiang (Clapper Melodic Type), Jinqian Lianhua’lao (Golden Coin Lotus
Rhyme) and Shandong Luozi (Shandong Rhyme). Acculturation for these melodies
when they are performed in the context of the new genre is a continuous process, and
it is natural that they will acquire some features of indigenous music, especially those
of Beijing folk songs. The same process of change also applies to other folk songs
mentioned, such as the melody Daxin’chun (The New Year Begins), originated from
the North, taking the first three characters of the lyrics as song title; it may also be
named Yaer’yo (Nonsense syllabus), inspired by three padding words in the song.
Example 3-10. Yaer’yo from Danxian Paiziqu

The first month of a year comes New Spring,
A widow inside the room speaks to herself:
She is 32 years old (ya er you),
She married when she was 17 (yier Yaer You).
Yaer’yo is a melody in folk song style, but it is greatly expanded when it becomes
a Labelled Piece. It often starts on a strong beat, and the contour follows the four
tones of the lyrics closely, hence can be switched to a kind of musical speech in the
style of Sprechgesang, as illustrated by the following excerpt Daxin’chun (The New
Year Begins).
Example 3-11. Daxin’chun (The New Year Begins) (Excerpt from Dangpi’xiang—Pawning the
Leather Trunk)

Sweet flower and beautiful girl,
My dear husband, please listen:
Don’t get angry (ya er you),
This is a very small thing, please ignore it (yier yaer you).
Labelled Pieces adopted by Danxian Paiziqu have different applications, owing to

their diversity in melodic shape, rhythm and convention of word-setting. Some have
the potential to glorify events, such as Shiliu’hua (Guava Blossoms) and Liuye’jin
(Willow Leaf Brocade); some are suitable for joyful expression, such as Xianhua’diao
(Flower Tune) and Daxin’chun (The New Year Begins); others can add an air of
despondency, such as Siban’qiang (Tune of Four Downbeats) and Bianguan’diao
(Frontier Tune). Many Labelled Pieces possess the quality to express a range of
emotions, as they have the flexibility to adjust the contour, rhythm and pace according
to dramatic contents, as in Shuchang (Rapping Tune), Taiping’nian (A Peaceful Year)
and Kaoshan’diao (Tune of Leaning on the Gable).
Danxian Paiziqu can be performed in three tonalities, as the accompanying
instrument Sanxian lute can be tuned according to the range, or indeed the mood, of
the singer. Hence the absolute pitch of the first degree Gong can vary.
Labelled pieces in Gong (first degree) mode (with accompanying Sanxian tuned
to do, sol and do) include: Qutou (Opening Tune), Shuchang (Rapping Tune),
Taiping’nian (A Peaceful Year), Kaoshan’diao (Tune of Leaning on the Gable),
Nancheng’diao (Southern City Tune), Luojiang’yuan (Sorrow by the Luojiang River),
Dieduan’qiao (Overlapping Broken Bridge), Nanluo Beigu (Southern Gongs and
Northern Drums), Bianguan’diao (Frontier Tune), Beijing Kuaishu (Beijing Copper
Clapper Reciting) and Qie’kuaishu (Rural Copper Clapper Reciting).
Paizi melodies in Shangsidu Gongdiao (Dominant of basic Gong Mode, with
accompanying Sanxian tuned to sol, re and sol) include: Qie’kuaishu (Rural Copper
Clapper Reciting), Shibu’xian (Ten Non-Stops), Yumei’ren (Beautiful Lady Yu) and
Gubeng’ci (Drum Expressions).
Paizi melodies in Shangwudu Gongdiao (Subdominant of basic Gong Mode, with
accompanying Sanxian tuned to fa, do and fa) include: Shiliu’hua (Guava Blossoms),
Jian’dianhua (Cutting a Blue Paper Flower) and Xicheng’diao (Western City Tune).
The following is an analysis of the modern Danxian Paiziqu piece entitled
Underground Party Member Hua Ziliang (Dixia Cangsong), illustrating how labelled
pieces are used:
(a) Qutou (Opening Tune)
Qutou (Opening Tune) of Danxian Paiziqu refers to the first three phrases of
Chaqu when the melodic fragment is used to introduce other Labelled Pieces,
functioning as Poem (Shipian) in Dagu songs. Qutou in early works is not used for
narration, and only serves to link other melodies. Its role has now changed, as the
singer will speed up the pace of narration by using Qutou to introduce time, space
and settting of the story, as in Dixia Cangsong (Underground Green Pine, the title
referring to the Communist Party Member Hua Ziliang).
Example 3-12. Qutou (Opening Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu

The Bai Residence is like a jail administered by a killer,
It is ruled by gloomy horror, brutal and callous force.
On 18th October 1946,
Before the daybreak,
Dark clouds covered on the Sky.
Stars did not shine; it is almost in darkness;
Suddenly, bamboo clappers sounded loudly,
The echoes had shaken the mountain.
(b) Shuchang (Rapping Tune)

Shuchang is Labelled Piece frequently used in the genre, and its predecessor was a
Beijing folk song, even though it is also believed to be a form of Qutou. The melody
can narrate in a straightforward manner, and hence works well in the context of the
genre. Shuchang melody is found in many Danxian Paiziqu, and it often appears after
Qutou, in order to emphasise the narrative effect, such as introducing the setting or
personnel of the drama.
The melody of Shuchang is set to lyrics in pairs of four characters, but three
additional characters may precede the original texts, making a seven-charracter verse.
The second verse of each pair of lyrics is rhymed, but not according to strict rules of
level or oblique tones. The lyrics are not very poetic, as they relate much to the daily
spoken language.
Since Shuchang is highly colloquial, its melodies are plain. In order to maintain
the concentration of the audience, it has interesting rhythmic features, such as the
frequent use of anacrusis and syncopation. There is no strict rule for ending the first of
the paired phrases, but the second phrase often ends on mi or do.
Example 3-13. Shuchang (Rapping Tune) used in modern Danxian Paiziqu

One hears the police dog barking madly,
The serach lights are on and off.
(c) Taiping’nian (A Peaceful Year)

Taiping’nian is Labelled Piece frequently used in Danxian Paiziqu. It is believed to
be based on a folk song from Hebei, and often linked to Shuchang. Its strong melodic
character allows it to be set to lyrics with narrative or expressive texts.
The melody is set to lyrics comprising four verses, each with six, seven, seven and
seven characters respectively. The last character in verses 1, 2 and 4 are rhymed, while
the tone pattern of the four lines are “level, level, oblique, and level”.
The phrases of Taiping’nian are organised in the following manner: the first phrase
is usually halved (each set to three or four characters) and ends on la; the second
phrase is set to seven characters, ending on re; likewise, the third and fourth phrases
are set to seven characters, with the term Taiping’nian appearing as suffixes, both
ending on sol. Present performance of the Labelled Piece designates these padded
words to accompanying instruments.
Example 3-14. Taiping’nian (A Peaceful Year) used in modern Danxian Paiziqu

Seeing this thief with round eyes like a rat,
Luo Shiwen is called,
Then Che Yaoxian, and Hua Ziliang.
You three lads better pack your things fast,
And go somewhere else.
(d) Nancheng’diao (Southern City Tune)

Nancheng’diao, originally a Zidi’shu (Big Drum Singing Scripts among Brothers)
melody of Beijing folk song Xicheng’diao (Western City Tune), is a Labelled Piece
frequently used in Danxian Paiziqu. The phrases are in pairs, in form of question
and answer, with each phrase set to eight characters, and lyrics ending on oblique
and level tones respectively. Only the answering phrases are rhymed. The first phrase
is usually set to two four-character verses, with a linking passage in the middle; the
lyrics of the second phrase are sung without interruption.
Nancheng’diao is similar to Kaoshan’diao (Tune of Leaning on the Gable),
stylistically akin to Guci (Drum Expressions), hence appropriate for use in narrative
music. The melody is highly expressive, and can be adopted for extended works.
Example 3-15. Nancheng’diao (Southern City Tune) used in modern Danxian Paiziqu

Gangster Xu lowered his voice, and planed his conspiracy;
Another gangster noded his head, and answered: Master Xu, please wait for the
result.
(e) Qie’kuaishu (Rural Copper Clapper Reciting)

Formerly known as Shandong Kuaishu’diao (Tune of Shandong Copper Clapper
Reciting), Qie’kuaishu acquired its name when it was spread to Beijing, in order
to distinguish it from Beijing Kuaishu (Beijing Copper Clapper Reciting). Early
Qie’kuaishu was sung in Shandong dialect, but when it was incorporated to Danxian
Paiziqu, it began to be sung in Beijing dialect.
Regardless of the length of Qie’kuaishu, the labelled piece begins with two
introductory phrases, as seen in Example 16. The phrases are organised in pairs, and
the length of the music depends on that of the lyrics, even though there is some kind
of coda leading to a linking passage. Lyrics are mostly presented in verses of seven
characters, but other combination is possible. The performance style is like a speech
song, with the first of the pair of phrases ending freely, while the answering phrases
end on do or re.
Example 3-16. Qie’kuaishu (Rural Copper Clapper Reciting) used in Danxian Paiziqu

Everyone curses: your Party Member slaughter their enemies without blinking,
They are vicious like scorpions and snakes, and are ruthless and fraudulent.
They tortured a sick man continuously,
They are fierce without humanity.
(f) Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beat)

Liushui’ban is derived from Beijing Kuaishu (Beijing Copper Clapper Reciting)
or Lianzhu Kuaishu (Run-on Quick Patter), a kind of folk song in the Chinese capital
with characteristics of variation by metre change. Its linked structure is: Poem
(Shipian) - Prologue (Shuzhu Tou) - Chunyun Tune (Chunyun’ban) - Liushui’ban
(Flowing Water Beat) - Poetic (Shibai) or Plain Narrative (Huabai) - Run-on Tune
(Lianzhu’diao). Hence the term Lianzhu Kuaishu (Run-on Quick Patter) originates
from the name of the last melody in the series, and it is based on singing paired
phrases, with possibility of metre change. The three common variations of the melody
are Chunyun Tune, Flowing Tune and Run-on Tune. Chunyun Tune is in medium
speed; Flowing Tune is slightly faster using the same material; Run-on Tune has a
mildly different melody and features 1/4 metre. Lianzhu Kuaishu used to narrate war
stories with intense moods, hence very demanding on the performer, and now rarely
sung. Danxian Paiziqu has adopted Liushui’ban, assigning it to conclude the music.
When the pairs of phrases of Labelled Piece Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beat) is
repeatedly used, the first phrase of each pair does not end with fixed degrees, while
the second phrase usually ends with re or sol; other combinations are possible, but
the melody inevitably ends on do. The most prominent feature of this melody is
that the two-phrase structure is extended by repeating itself subtlely with changes
accumulated, and with skillful introduction of off-beats and syncopations creating a
climax towards the end.
Example 3-17. Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beat) used in Danxian Paiziqu

You have suffered countless ruthless torture,
And subject to inhuman treatment.
As a Member of the Communist Party,
You are courageous with insight,
Brave, profund, stern and loyal.
4. Example for Appreciation and Analysis: Fengyu Guizhou (Boat Returns in Wind
and Rain)
Fengyu Guizhou is also known as Xiezhi Rushenshan (Retreating into the Mountain
after Retirement). It is a traditional piece by unknown composer. In the book List of
Traditional Folk Performing Arts in Beijing (Beijing Chuantong Quyi Zonglu) by Fu
Xihua, this work is included in “List of Chaqu Songs (Chaqu Zongmu)” in the Second
Part of Volume II “Octagonal Drum Songs (Bajiao Gu).” Fu remarks that this work is
preserved in collections such as Chewangfu Ben (Drama Collections in Chewangfu),
Baiben Zhangchao’ben (Hand-Copied Book of Zhang) and Wenming Dagu Shuci
(Civilized Drum Song Lyrics).
Fengyu Guizhou is an extended Chaqu piece. Unlike a short Chaqu song, it
includes many piled phrases added to the third, fifth and sixth passages, hence greatly
expanding its structure. The contents of big Chaqu songs usually relate to expression
of emotion and depicting landscapes. Fengyu Guizhou describes the sentiments of
a scholar in feudal society who surrenders his officialdom, quits office and lives in
seclusion, killing time by fishing, drinking, and playing the Guqin. The Chaqu song
skillfully uses parallel phrases of onomatopoeic words to describe thunderstorm and
hailstorm, post-storm scenery, as well as the high spirit of the scholar drinking on the
boat as he returns to hometown. The work is full of wit and has assumed a supreme
Narrative Singing: Gushu (Drum Songs) 203
position in the repertoire of Chaqu songs.
II. Narrative Singing: Gushu (Drum Songs)

Gushu (Drum Songs), or “Poetic Chanting”, refers to folk music with lyrics similar to
the Gathas in Bianwen (Changed Scriptures) of the Tang Dynasty. These verses do not
refer to particular labelled pieces, and each verse is based on seven or ten characters.
Unlike poetry, these verses do not have strict rules on rhyming, hence very close to
the spoken language.
Early form of Gushu narrative music dated back to the adoption of Bianwen by
Buddhist monks in the Tang Dynasty, a tradition of performance related to Taozhen
(True Story, a kind of narrative singing) of the Song Dynasty, Cihua (Words and
Stories) of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, Tanci (Plucking Words) of the Ming and
Qing Dynasties, as well as Guci (Drum Expressions) and some narrative Daoqing
(Taoist Expressions) of the Qing Dynasty.
Most Gushu (Drum Songs) of the living tradition have preserved features of
Cihua (Words and Stories) of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, and developed from
Tanci (Plucking Words) of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Existing genres of Gushu
narrative singing in the North include Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum song in Beijing
Dialect), Xihe Dagu (Big Drum Song of Western River), Dongbei Dagu (Big Drum
Song of Northeastern China), Jiaodong Dagu (Big Drum Song of Eastern Shandong);
while Southern genres include Siming Nanci (Southern Words with Four Sides of
Brightness), Suzhou Tanci (Plucking Words of Suzhou), Guangdong Muyu’shu
(Wooden-fish Books of Guangdong) and Guangxi Moyu’ge (Fishing Songs of
Guangxi). Other genres of Gushu have inherited the tradition of Daoqing of the Ming
and Qing Dynasties, and these include Henan Zhuizi (Narrative Singing Accompanied
by Zhuihu Fiddle in Henan), Shandong Yugu (Fish Drum of Shandong) and Guilin
Yugu (Fish Drum of Guilin). The Daoqing music is based on Labelled Pieces rooted in
folk songs. A similar category is narrative singing based on poetic-chanting of rhymed
verses, such as Shandong Kuaishu (Quick Copper Clapper Reciting of Shandong) and
Sichuan Jinqian’ban (Golden Coin Patter of Sichuan).
Characteristics of Gushu (Drum Songs) Narrative Singing:
(i) Lyrics: The lyrics of Gushu (Drum Songs) comprise verses of seven or ten
characters, with the last character of the first and second verses rhymed; thereafter,
only even number phrases rhyme. Rhymed characters have level tones, while those
unrhymed have oblique tones. There is a mnemonic, “don’t care about the third, fifth,
and seventh, but watch out for the second, fourth and sixth verses.” Hence, the lyrics
are well organized, and they are highly expressive, often accommodating changes
in the structure in the shift towards colloquial language, such as adding texts to the
beginning, middle or end of a passage. For example, in Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum
Song in Beijing Dialect), there are “Three-character Heads”, “Five-character Tails”
(also known as “Floor over Floor”) and “Three-character Waists” or “Four-character
Waists” , referring to freely added texts to the beginning, end or middle of the lyrics.
The number of characters in each verse can also be changed, hence on the basis of
“four-three” punctuation of the seven-character verse, the text may be expanded to
“four-four” eight-character or shortened to “three-three” six-character verses.
(ii) Structure of melodies: There are two main types. First: single-tune structure.
This usually involves the repetitions of two phrases (in form of “question and
answer”), but there are also melodies comprising a four-phrase framework. This is
somewhat similar to the structure of single Qupai, even though such melodies are
derived from folk songs. However, melodies of Gushu are developed from recitation,
and have less melodic interest. The phrase lengths are regular, and the melodies are
not named; such characteristics can be found in the genre Guangxi Yugu (Fish Drum
of Guangxi).
Second: Banqiang (Music Based on Metrical Change) structure. Many genres
of Gushu are based on this structure, which involves changing the metre of a basic
melody to acquire varieties, yet avoiding a drastic change of mood, for example, by
introducing a new melody. While some genres of narrative singing, such as Shandong
Dulcimer Songs (Shandong Qinshu), adopt Banqiang structure in the context of
linking Labelled Pieces, Gushu music has the same application of metrical change
as opera, even though the latter is more developed. Each Labelled Piece adopted by
Gushu only has two or three metrical patterns, as in Beifang Dagu (Big Drum Song
of Northern China). Worth mentioning is Suzhou Tanci (Plucking Words of Suzhou),
its basic melody only consists of two phrases, and they have not developed metrical
changes, but relying on incorporating other folk melodies to enrich its expressive
power (even though some attempts have been made in introducing metre change to
melodies).
(iii) Style of melodies: Melodies used in Gushu narrative singing are less tuneful
than those based on Qupai (Labelled Pieces), as the focus is on narrating. Gushu
melodies have acquired the qualities of speech, and have less melodic contour, even
though highly attractive melodies may be introduced at times, particularly in the
genres of Dagu (Big Drum Songs).
The close relationship between Bianwen of the Tang Dynasty and Gushu allows
the latter to acquire a matured style of narrative singing, with unique features.
(iv) Development of different schools: Unlike genres based on Qupai (Labelled
Pieces), Gushu music is more likely to nurture different schools of performance. For
example, performance of Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum Song in Beijing Dialect) in the
1920s and 1930s was divided into several schools, such as Liu School of “King of
Drum Song” Liu Baoquan, Bai School of Bai Yunpeng and Zhang School of Zhang
Xiaoxuan; they were succeeded by Junior Bai School (Shaobaipai) of Bai Fengming,
and more recently Luo School of Luo Yusheng in Tianjin and Liang School of Liang
Xiaolou in Beijing. Henan Zhuizi (Narrative Singing Accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle
in Henan) also had the famous Qiao School of Qiao Qingxiu and Dong School of
Dong Guilin, while Suzhou Tanci (Plucking Words of Suzhou) branched into over ten
styles, known as Yu, Ma, Chen, Jiang, Xue and Li singing styles. Different schools of
Gushu have different repertoires and singing styles, and they have composed different
basic melodies, a sign that this mode of narrative singing is very developed. Another
reason for the trend of such division of artistry is due to the need to introduce variety
to a performing style lacking a good supply of stock melodies. Genres based on Qupai
(Labelled Pieces) have less pressure to split into different schools.
Evolution of Gushu (Drum Songs) and Qupai (Labelled Pieces) genres and their
mutual influence can be illustrated as follows:
Narrative singing based on Gushu and Qupai have their own paths of development,
yet the two styles share certain features, a sign that they have influenced one another.
Narrative singing involves mastering the techniques of story-telling, hence it is
ideally achieved through delivering lyrics which are both descriptive and expressive.
Gushu genres focus on plain melodies approaching speech (or like recitative or arioso
in Western opera), hence have a greater potential for narrating, while genres adopting
Qupai are more musical, and are more equipped to express human emotion (like
Western aria). Since the two categories of narrative singing share a common goal,
it will be natural to expect the former genres will become more “musical” (hence
increasing the expressive power), while the latter will include more elements of
speech (more narrative).
It is possible for Gushu narrative singing to incorporate melodies with more
potential for expression, as in the case of Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum Song in Beijing
Dialect), where the speech-like Pingqiang (Level Tune) becomes the more melodious
Tiaoqiang (Rising Tune), Luoqiang (Falling Tune), Laqiang (Dragging Tune),
Shuaiqiang (Tossing Tune), Changqiang (Long Melody) and Beiqiang (Sad Tune).
Xuanjuan (Reciting Buddhist Scriptures) has borrowed melodies from opera to reform
its Qingban (Unaccompanied Recitation) to lyrical Sixian’diao (String Tune). Such a
trend of enrichment is more apparent in Suzhou Tanci (Plucking Words of Suzhou),
where changes have been introduced, such as from “Old Yu Singing Style” to “New
Yu Singing Style”, “Ma Singing Style” to “Qin Singing Style”, “Zhou Singing Style”
to “Jiang Singing Style”, as well as new melodies added to “Xu Singing Style” and
“Li Singing Style”, borrowing melodies from opera and folk songs in Jiangnan.
Some Gushu genres have converted singable melodies as additional Labelled Pieces,
as in Dongbei Dagu (Big Drum Song of Northeastern China), where melodies such
as Man Xicheng (Slow Western City), Youcheng (Tour of City), Da’beidiao (Big
Sad Tune) and Xiao’beidiao (Small Sad Tune) have been incorporated. The same
phenomenon is found in Suzhou Tanci, where melodies from Jiangnan folk songs and
opera have become additional Labelled Pieces of the genre, and these include Laifu
Shan’ge (Folk Song of Laifu), Chuan’ge (Boat Song), Dianjiang’chun (Putting on
Red Lipstick) and Lihun’diao (Tune of Departing Spirit). Another development is the
emergence of shorter narrative works replacing traditional lengthy repertoire, such
as the Duan’ershu (Excerpts) derived from long Dagu (Big Drum song) and Zhuizi
(Narrative Singing Accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle). A parallel development is found
in Suzhou Tanci, where its Kaipian (Opening Poem) has become very melodious, and
is appreciated by local and national population. The wide acceptance of Kaipian of
the genre is a testimony of the success of reform to Gushu narrative singing.
The complementary development of narrative music is the improved capabilities

of storytelling in genres founded on labelled pieces which are highly “musical”.
The change involves reducing the contour of the melodies, making them easier to
accommodate spoken lyrics. For example, long melody based on 4/4 metre or phrases
with irregular patterns of word setting are replaced by regular verses commonly found
in Gushu genres, in order to strengthen narration. For example, Danxian Paiziqu
has replaced its more musical Chaqu in the ending section with the dry Liushui’ban
(Flowing Water Beat) of Gushu music.
In the long history of development, the two large families of narrative singing do
not exist in isolation, as they exert influence on one another. There are also genres
considered middle grounds between the two, but it is quite possible to trace their
origins.
Next are important Genres of Gushu Narrative Singing.
A. Sichuan Jinqian’ban (Golden Coin Patter of Sichuan)
Sichuan Jinqian’ban is a genre focusing on narration, as it relies on delivering the
lyrics in quick patter (faster than normal recitation), yet slightly more musical than
Kuaiban (Bamboo Clapper Reciting) or Kuaishu (Copper Clapper Reciting). The best
description of its performing style is perhaps midway between recitation and singing;
the lyrics are sung in Sichuan dialect, seven characters to a verse. The genre has many
features of untampered Gushu music.
1. Evolution of Sichuan Jinqian’ban
Sichuan Jinqian’ban acquires its name owing to its accompanying instrument
contructed by gold coins fixed to three bamboo clappers; other melodic instruments
such as strings are involved. The genre was in fashion in the late Qing Dynasty.
According to the Compendium of Chinese Folk Performing Arts: Sichuan Volume
(Zhongguo Quyi Yinyue Jicheng-Sichuan Juan), melodies of Sichuan Jinqian’ban are
called “Old Tune (Laodiao)”, a reciting tune slightly refined on the basis of Sichuan
dialect, later becoming Liushui’qiang (Flowing Tune) suitable for both singing and
narrating. At the turn of the twentieth century, learned performers borrowed some
melodies from Gaoqiang (High Melodic Type) of Sichuan Opera and prescribed the
rhythm and tempo of Jinqianban, leading to the birth of several metrical patterns,
greatly enhancing this genre of narrative singing, and making it a popular form of
entertainment in Sichuan.
2. Melodies
As a Gushu performaning art, Sichuan Jinqian’ban should not be based on
Labelled Pieces, yet Chinese Folk Performing Arts: Sichuan Volume (Zhongguo Quyi
Yinyue Jicheng-Sichuan Juan) explicitly refers to eight such melodies adopted by the
genre, including Hongna’ao (Red Padded Jacket) and Fugui’hua (Flower of Fortune).
One might regard these as Subsidiary Labelled Pieces, as found in Suzhou Tanci, yet a
closer look reveals their Gushu nature.
(1) Lyrics
The lyrics of Sichuan Jinqian’ban are organized in paired verses, as shown in
Hongna’ao (Red Padded Jacket). Abridged from The Story of Wu Song (Wu Song Zhuan):
In Chinese: 北宋徽宗乱朝纲，
Romanization: běi sòng hūi zōng lùan cháo gāng,
Translation: Emperor Huizong of the Northern Song Dynasty disrupted court
order,
In Chinese: 梁山有个忠义堂。
Romanization: líang shān yǒu gè zhōng yì táng.
Translation: There was a Hall of Loyalty and Chivalry in Liangshan Marsh.
In Chainese: 梁山一百单八将，
Romanization: líang shān yí bǎi dān bā jìang,
Translation: There were one hundred and eight Liangshan heroes;
In Chinese: 一个更比一个强。
Romanization: yí gè gèng bǐ yí gè qíang.
Translation: Each of them was bold and valiant.
In Chinese: 头一把交椅晁盖掌，
Romanization: tóu tí bǎ jīao yǐ tāo gài zhǎng,
Translation: Chao Gai took the first seat,
In Chinese: 脱袍让位数宋江。
Romanization: tūo páo ràng wèi shǔ sòng jīang.
Translation: Song Jiang repeatedly offered his seat to others.
In Chinese: 醉打山门鲁和尚，
Romanization: zùi dǎ shān mén lǔ hé shàng,
Translation: Lu Zhishen dismantled the temple gate when he was drunk,
In Chinese: 林冲棍棒比人强。
Romanization: lín chōng gùn bàng bǐ rén qíang.
Translation: Lin Chong had no rival at using a cudgel.
The following is the Lyrics of Fugui’hua (Flower of Fortune). Abridged from

“A Woman Visiting the Parental Home (Hui’niangjia)”:
In Chinese: 初八十八二十八，
Romanization: chū bā shí bā èi shí bā,
Translation: On the eighth, eighteenth and twenty-eighth day of the month,
In Chinese: 打打扮扮回娘家。
Romanization: dǎ dǎ bàn bàn húi níang jīa.
Translation: She dresses up to visit her parental home.
In Chinese: 左手提只肥母鸡，
Romanization: zǔo shǒu tí zhī féi mǔ jī,
Translation: She carries a fat hen in the left hand,
In Chinese: 右手抱个老南瓜。
Romanization: yòu shǒu bào gē lǎo nán gūa.
Translation: And a ripe pumpkin in the right hand.
In Chinese: 天上在下毛毛雨，
Romanization: tīan shāng zài xìa máo māo yǔ,
Translation: A drizzle falls from the sky,
In Chinese: 地下踩到硬头滑。
Romanization: dì xìa cǎi dào yìng tóu húa.
Translation: The road gets so slippery.
(2) Melodies
Melodies of Sichuan Jinqian’ban are presented in groups of two phrases, as
illustrated in the following excerpt:
Example 3-18. Hongna’ao (Red Padded Jacket) used in Sichuan Jinqian’ban

Emperor Huizong of the Northern Song Dynasty disrupted court order;
There was a Hall of Loyalty and Chivalry in Liangshan Marsh.
There were one hundred and eight Liangshan heroes;
Each of them was bold and valiant.
(3) Metre Types

The melodies of Sichuan Jinqian’ban are presented in four metrical patterns,
namely Yizi (One Word, 4/4), Erliu (Two Flow, 1/4), Sanban (Three Beats) and
Sanban (free rhythm), typical Gushu style.
It will be seen from the three features mentioned above that Sichuan Jinqian’ban
has retained the characteristics of early Gushu narrative art.
3. Example for Appreciation and Analysis: Xiucai Guogou (A Scholar Crossing the Ditch)
This relatively new piece of Sichuan Jinqian’ban called Xiucai Guogou was
arranged by Xiao Mingyan and Shao Jingxian of the Central Philharmonic Orchestra
in 1958 using materials from a comic work with the same title by Zou Zhongxin of
the Chengdu Folk Performing Arts Troupe. The revised music aptly reflects the style
of this traditional genre, in spite of the use of accordion and a small male chorus; the
melody has a strong flavour of Sichuan dialect, and can fully demonstrate the close
relationship between music and texts in Gushu genre.
Example 3-19. Sichuan Jinqian’ban: Xiucai Guogou (A Scholar Crossing the Ditch)
B. Daoqing (Taoist Expressions) and Henan Zhuizi (Narrative Singing Accompanied

by Zhuihu Fiddle in Henan)
Henan Zhuizi is a folk genre historically related to Daoqing, and it has developed
as a form of Dagu (Big Drum Song). It is best to discuss features of Daoqing, as it has
a vital role to play in shaping Henan Zhuizi.
1. Daoqing (Taoist Expressions)
Daoqing is a genre of narrative music related to the Chinese religion Taoism,
as it is often used as a means of preaching; a similar phenomenon is found in the
dissemination of Buddhism. According to Changlun (The Theory of Singing) by
Yan Nanzhi’an of the Yuan Dynasty, “Each of the three (Chinese) religions has a
different focus in singing: Taoists sing about feelings, Buddhists about human nature
and Confucianists about rites.20” Since the Taoists emphasise feelings, music of
their monks is called Daoqing (Taoist Expressions). The Taoist text Dongxuan’jing
(Dongxuan Scripture) records that “Taoism is insentient but it saves sentient beings.”
In the Ming Dynasty, however, Zhu Quan specified in Taihe Zhengyin’pu (Proper
Scores of Great Harmony) that the term Daoqing owes its orgin to the expression of
20 三教所唱，各有所尚，道家唱情，僧家唱性，儒家唱礼。
magnificence and content, and that “Taoist singing flies in the skies, travels in the
great void, overlooks the earth, and moves freely in the infinite universe. It explores
the past, reflects the present, and expresses contended and leisurely feeling, hence the
name Daoqing.21”
The fact that the origin of Daoqing was related to the songs of Taoists cannot be
challenged. Religious Taoism was founded in the Han Dynasty by Zhang Daoling
in Hemingshan Mountain in Sichuan province. In the second year of Shenrui Reign
of the Northern Wei Dynasty (415 AD), Kou Qianzhi, a Taoist living in Songshan
Mountain, compiled a collection of Taoist songs entitled Yunzhong Yinsong (Recitation
in the Clouds), containing the Taoist song Buxu’sheng (Hidden Sound of Steps), and
it became ritual music in Taoist temples. In the Tang Dynasty, Emperor Xuanzong
composed songs Jiuzhen (Nine Truths) and Chengtian (Inheriting Heaven) to be used
as Taoist songs at Court, while Daoqing songs were sung during collection of alms,
and had a lower status owing to the influence of folk songs. Xuxian’zhuan (A Sequel
to the Story of Eight Immortals) of the Tang Dynasty refers to Lan Caihe, one of
the Eight Immortals, singing Tata’ge (Tap Songs) while beating the clappers. In the
Song Dynasty, the fish drum began to be used as an accompaniment instrument, and
this type of narrative music was known as Guzi’ci (Words Accompanied by Drum).
Zhou Mi of the Southern Song Dynasty has recorded in Wulin Jiushi (Old Stories of
Hangzhou), “In the back garden, thirty servants play Xiqi (Percussion Instrument)
and sing Daoqing. Emperor Gaozong said, ‘This is a Guzi’ci song composed by
Zhang Lun.’22” Daoqing songs telling Taoist stories only became popular in the Ming
Dynasty. An example is Xueyong Nanguan (Snowstorm at Languan Pass) on the story
of Han Xiangzi’s uncle Han Yu, an official demoted and sent to serve as the Prefect
of Chao Prefecture (Chaozhou Cishi), owing to his advocation of Confucianism, and
advising the Emperor not to host a grand ceremony for an alleged Buddhist relic to
be escorted to Chang’an. On his way to Chaozhou Prefecture, Han Yu wrote a poem,
“The clouds block the way to Qinling Mountain and I cannot find my home; the snow
flies around Languan Pass and my horse cannot move forward.23” This incidence was
adopted by Daoqing, with wording simplified, “When Han Yu came to Languan Pass
on horseback by himself, it was the dead of winter and a snowstorm was raging. The
road was blocked by snow and the horse could not move forward. At that moment,
Han Xiangzi, who was then an immortal, appeared and took Han Yu to the celestial
world. ” Another famous Daoqing song Zhuangzi Tankulou (Zhuangzi Exclaiming
Over a Skeleton) describes the sage encountering a skeleton in the wilderness; he was
betrayed by his own sympathy to bring it back to life. The desceased was Wu Gui, but
found himself betrayed in his second life; Zhuangzi used his magic power to revert
him to a skeleton. This Daoqing song was sung by Taoist Lu in the 46th chapter of
Xu Jinping’mei (A Sequel to the Plum in the Golden Vase) by Ding Yaoyuan of the
21 道家所唱，飞驭天表，游览太虚，俯视八弘，志在冲漠之上，寄傲宇宙之间，慨古感今，有乐道徜
徉之情，故名道情。
22 后苑小厮三十人，打息气唱道情，太上 ( 宋高宗 ) 云：‘此是张伦所撰鼓子词’。
23 云横秦岭家何在，雪拥蓝关马不前。
seventeenth century. The same story is recorded in Zhuangzi Tankulou Nanbei Ciqu
(Zhuangzi Exclaiming over a Skeleton in Southern and Northern Ci-Poetry). This
story became very popular, and there was instrumental music inspired by it.
It was highly fashionable to sing Daoqing in the Qing Dynasty, as the genre was
used by failing scholars to express their sentiments to avoid troubles of the secular
world. For example, the anti-Manchurian hero Wang Fuzhi (also called Wang
Chuanshan) composed twenty-seven Yugu songs (Fish Drum Songs) entitled Yugu’ci
(Fishi Drum Songs), taking the pun of the pronunciation, in his later years. He writes,
“When you play the drum under the waning moon and in the morning breeze, you
will feel leisurely and carefree.24” Xu Dachun, author of Yuefu Chuansheng (Legacy of
Music Bureau) in the Qing Dynasty, also composed Huixi Daoqing (Daoqing Music
of Huixi). He writes in the Foreword, “Some of the pieces are to warn the world,
others for leisure.” The most influential Daoqing songs were composed by the famous
scholar Zheng Banqiao, one of Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou in the Qing Dynasty.
Zheng Banqiao, or Zheng Kun, was born in Xinghua, Jiangsu Province. Although
he did not have a successful career and led a frustrated life, he was highly regarded
for his poetry, calligraphy and painting. His failure to attain high office was due to
his desire to uphold integrity while unsuccumbing to corrupt power, hence enjoying a
high reputation among ordinary people. He has composed ten Daoqing songs, which
are still widely sung. Each of these songs is based on the melody Shua’haier (A
Naughty Boy), with the lyrics proper preceded by a poem and a brief prelude, which
reads:
In Chinese: 枫叶芦花并客舟，烟波江上使人愁。
Translation: A boat floats by maple leaves and reed catkins; the misty waves on
the river make me groan.
In Chinese: 劝君更尽一杯酒，昨日少年今白头。
Translation: I ask you to drink up another cup of wine; you were young
yesterday, but now grey-haired.
In Chinese: 自家板桥道人是也。我先世元和公公，流落人间，教歌度曲。
我如今也谱得道情十首，无非唤醒痴聋，消除烦恼。
Translation: My name is Banqiao Daoren (literally a Taoist priest). My ancestor
Yuanhe Gonggong became a commoner and taught people compose songs. Now
I have also written ten Daoqing songs, just to enlighten people’s minds and
eliminate their worries.
In Chinese: 每到山青水绿之处，聊以自遣自歌；若遇争利之场，正好觉人
觉世。这也是风流事业，措大生涯，不免将来请教诸公，以当一笑。
Translation: In the beautiful scenery of green hills and a clean river, you can
24 半为警世之谈，半为闲游之乐。
sing these to entertain yourself; in a world where everyone is contending for

profit, these songs can serve to awaken people. There is also a literary cause,
and these songs are about the life of a frustrated scholar, and hope to raise a
smile.
In Chinese:〔耍孩儿〕老渔翁，一钓竿，靠山崖，傍水湾，扁舟来往无牵绊。
沙鸥点点轻波远，荻港萧萧白昼寒，高歌一曲斜阳晚。一霎时波摇金影，
蓦抬头月上东山。
Translation: Shua’haier (耍孩儿A Naughty Boy) An old fisherman holds a
fishing rod; he sits leisurely in a boat in an inlet at the foot of a cliff. Some gulls
fly over the rippling water; reed catkins rustle in the cold air; he sings a song
loudly at sunset. In an instant, the sunset glow glimmers in the water; looking
back, he sees the moon rising in the east.
In Chinese: 老樵夫，自砍柴，捆青松，夹绿槐，茫茫野草秋山外。丰碑是
处成荒冢，华表千寻卧碧苔，坟前石马磨刀坏。倒不如闲钱沽酒，醉醺醺
山径归来。
Translation: An old forester cuts firewood; he bundles up pine boughs and
locust branches while the wild grass extends beyond the autumn mountain. A
monument is reduced to a deserted mound; mosses grow on a fallen ornamental
column; the stone horse in front of the tomb becomes a whetstone. He takes
out some spare cash to buy some wine; he drinks to his content and then goes
home.
In Chinese: 依次十段唱完，尾声道：“风流家世元和老，旧曲翻新调。扯
碎状元袍，脱却乌纱帽，俺唱这道情儿归山去了。”
Translation: The ten verses are followed by an epilogue, “I have just written a
new tune to the old songs composed by my ancestor Yuanhe Gonggong. I tear
my scholarly attires into pieces and toss my black gauze cap; singing Daoqing
songs, I am returning to the mountain.”
Zheng Banqiao’s Daoqing songs have catchy lyrics and attractive melodies,
showing an aloof attitude, while demonstrating an unrestrained style, making them
popular. Some folk music genres adopt his Daoqing songs as special Labelled Piece.
Singers of Daoqing songs accompany themselves with fish drum (Yugu) or Jianban
clappers, hence some genres are called Daoqing (Taoist Expressions) while others
are called Yugu (Fish Drum). The former category includes Daoqing from Southern
Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Yiwu, Jinhua, Qinghai, Ningxia and
Eastern Gansu; the latter category includes Henan Yugu’zhui (Fish Drum Daoqing
Accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle of Henan), Western Hu’nan Yugu, Shandong Yugu,
Hubei Yugu, Guangxi Yugu, Guilin Yugu and Sichuan Zhuqin. Daoqing songs have
also developed into an opera genre and several types of dramas, such as Northern
Shanxi Daoqing Drama, Western Shanxi Daoqing Drama, Northern Shaanxi Daoqing
Drama, and shadow plays Shangluo Daoqing and Guanzhong Daoqing. There are
ninety types of Daoqing in China, including four based on single melodies, seventy
narrative types, thirteen opera genres and three types of shadow plays. These art
forms based on Daoqing have spread to twenty provinces in China, hence are highly
influential.
Most Daoqing songs are based on Taoist stories advocating quietness, passivity
and escaping from the world, such as Han Xiangzi Converting to Taoism (Han
Xiangzi Chujia), Han Xiangzi Offering Birthday Greetings (Han Xiangzi Shangshou),
Han Xiangzi Returning Home (Han Xiangzi Huifu), Saving Lin Ying Three
Times (Sandu Linying), The Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea (Baxian Guohai),
The Eight Immortals Attending Birthday Celebrations (Baxian Qingshou), Lu
Dongbin Teasing Mudan (Lu Dongbin Xi Mudan) and The Fourth Heavenly Sister
Descending to Earth (Sijie Xiafan). Some Daoqing songs narrate folk tales, such as
Lyu Mengzheng Receiving Alms (Mengzheng Ganzhai), Zhang Tingxiu Taking the
Imperial Examination (Zhang Tingsiu Gankao), Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, Lan
Ruilian Fetching Water (Lan Ruilian Dashui) and Wang Hanxi Makes Borrowings
on the Spring Festival Eve (Wang Hanxi Jienian). Some Daoqing songs are based on
historical stories, such as Romance of Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi), The Water
Margin (Shuihu’zhuan), Big Eight Heroes (Bada’yi), Small Eight Heroes (Xiao Bayi),
Big Stories of Martyrs (Da Yinglie), Small Stories of Martyrs (Xiao Yinglie), Xue Li’s
Expedition to the East (Xue Li Zhengdong), Xue Li’s Expedition to the West (Xue Li
Zhengxi), Cases of Judge Bao (Baogong’an) and Cases of Judge Liu (Liugong’an).
Some lyrics are based on poetic chanting, while others have affiliation with Labelled
Pieces or folk songs.
2. Evolution of Henan Zhuizi (Narrative Singing Accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle in
Henan)
Henan Zhuizi is a form of narrative singing combining Daoqing with other genres
of folk music hence it has a different path of development.
There are anecdotes concerning the origin of Henan Zhuizi. In 1954, the Chinese
Music Institute of the Beijing Central Conservatory of Music conducted fieldwork
research in Tianjin, and traced the origin of the genre by interviewing Chen
Guangfa, a performer of Henan Zhuizi. Chen believed Henan Zhuizi was originally
accompanied by fish drum and Jianban clappers (two wooden beating sticks), and
Daoqing songs were sung with lyrics to spread religious Taoism. Some Taoist priests
had to to sing Zhuizi as travelling musicians for a living. In the mid-nineteenth
century, a Taoist priest in the trade met two blindmen, who sang the song Yingge’liu
(Willow with Birds Singing, a popular tune during the 19th century), with one playing
small Sanxian (Three-stringed plucked lute) and the other singing while playing the
cymbals. The Taoist priest joined them to form a trio, but soon experienced difficulty
for failing to replace a broken string or repair the fish drum. In the end, they had to
make a bow to play the remaining two strings like a fiddle, after adjusting the tuning.
The singer Gao Laifu performed in this style at a New Year temple fair, attracting a huge
audience. He then named the genre Zhuizi, meaning a Sanxian with a broken top string.
There is another version concerning the origin of Henan Zhuizi. The Daoqing artist
Li Yancheng believed there were Daoqing performers and Sanxian players/singers
in Henan in the Qing Dynasty. The lack of resources means that the broken skin of
Sanxian was unreplaced; the substitution of a paulownia board and the conversion of
Sanxian from a three-string plucked instrument to two-string bowed fiddle (Zhuiqin)
allowed the genre to survive. The present Zhuqin is a bowed two stringed instrument,
but it has retained holes for three tuning pegs. There is another saying that when a
Daoqing singer met a Sanxian player, they agreed to form a duet, with the singer
accompaning himself by fish drum. This performing style is called Yugu’zhui (Zhuizi
with Fish Drum), or simply Zhuizi. There is yet another saying that a teen daughter-
in-law named Yingge after being maltreated, left home to make a living by singing
her misfortune in public. Her tune Yingge’liu, mournful and attractive, was adopted by
other performers and developed into the present Zhuizi.
Hence Henan Zhuizi is a combination of Daoqing and folk music in Henan,
including Sanxian’shu (Narrative Singings with Sanxian) and Yingge’liu. It is
musically more attractive than Yugu Daoqing (Taoist Expressions Accompanied by
Fish Drum), and its use of Henan dialect has led to its great popularity in the Province.
Simple melodies of early form of Henan Zhuizi were enriched by different genres
of folk music; the “all male” tradition was abandoned, as witnessed by the success
of the female singer Qiao Qingxiu, who was originally a performer of Lihua Dagu
(Pear Blossom Big Drum), but cleverly combined Zhuizi with Lihua Dagu and
local ditties in Henan. Liu Yinfeng introduced Matou (Horse Head) Tune, while Li
Ruichen introduced Henan Bangzi (Clapper Tune Pattern, one of the most important
stock melodies in Chinese opera) to Zhuizi. Henan Zhuizi can therefore assimilate
different genres to add colour to its basis of narrative singing, allowing it to become
an influential branch of folk music in the North.
The rapid development of Henan Zhuizi means that soon it was a far cry from the
original form of Daoqing. When the music was performed in Beijing, Tianjin and
other big cities, it adopted the lyrics of Zidishu25 and became a drum song-based folk
music genre, stylistically similar to various types of Dagu (Big Drum Song).
3. Mode of Performance
Prior to a performance of Henan Zhuizi, there is an instrumental prelude called
Naotai (Calling the Stage), in order to generate the right atmosphere for the
performance, similar to the opening percussion music of opera. Naotai is followed by
big and small interludes before the singing begins.
Henan Zhuizi features a singer marking accents by beating sandal clappers, and
Zhuiqin is the main melodic instrument, which is, of course, a very unique two-
string bowed instrument with a paulownia sound board, producing a characteristic
humming sound. Like the Erhu, Zhuiqin can generate glissandos by sliding along the
25 Zidishu, or the Works of Eight Banner Offsprings, was a narrative singing genre in the Qing Dynasty. The
genre was created by the offsprings of the ruling Manchurian Eight Banners, and it declined with the demise
of the Qing Court. The works were mostly drawn from novels and operas of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Each phrase of the lyrics has a fixed number of characters, as with Dagu-based genres.
strings, and its timbre can be either bright or dark, and it can imitate the human voice
effectively. Originally only used as an accompaniment for Henan Zhuizi, it has been
developed into a solo instrument. In addition to Zhuiqin, accompanying instruments
for Henan Zhuizi also include Sihu (Four-stringed fiddle), cymbals and foot clappers
(Jiaodeng’bang, a kind of special clapper specifically used in Henan Zhuizi).
4. Schools of Henan Zhuizi
Henan Zhuizi is divided into Schools of East Road and North Road according to
areas. There is also a distinction of the styles of different performers: Qiao School is
represented by Qiao Qingxiu and Qiao Liyuan, Dong School by Dong Guizhi, and
Cheng School by Cheng Yulan. These Schools are collectively known as “Three Old
Schools of Zhuizi”.
Qiao Qingxiu of the Qiao School was famous for singing Qiaokou (Comic
Melodies), by adding piled phrases or padding characters to create a light atmosphere,
making her the “Best Singer in Henan”. She died during the Sino-Japanese War, but
she has recorded some representative works of Henan Zhuizi, including Fengyi’ting
(Fengyi Pavillion), Baochai Pudie (Baochai Catching Butterflies), Maqian Poshui
(Splashing Water before the Horse) and Shuangsuo’shan (Mountain of Double Locks).
The Dong school emphasises simple and unadorned melodies. The founder was
Dong Guizhi, a female singer who possessed a broad range, hence well equipped
for delivering passionate passages. She has acquired the tradition of singing crying
melodies Dahan’yun (Big Rhymed Tune) so often found in Henan Zhuizi. Her singing
was sincere and often allured tears from the audience. Dong’s famous songs include
Yuboya Tanqin (Yu Boya Playing the Zither) and Lanqiao’hui (Meeting at Orchid
Bridge).
The Cheng School is famous for its interpretation of Xiao’heilu (Little Black
Donkey, a special kind of singing technique) and other songs that demand special
skills. Xiao’heilu contains lyrics that are witty, known as Qiaoci, with piled or staccato
phrases added, creating a unique style of performance.
5. Melodies of Henan Zhuizi
(1) Opening
The following are the basic tunes of Henan Zhuizi, each with a specific structure.
a. Qiqiang (Opening Tune)
This refers to the four to eight phrases preceding the melody proper, usually
containing lyrics summarizing what is to follow, hence taking the role of “Poem
(Shipian)” of Dagu (Big Drum Song). There is much melodic interest in this section,
with phrases organized in pairs (upper phrase ending on do or re, while lower phrase
on sol), as in Fengyi’ting (Fengyi Pavillion) sung by Qiao Qingxiu.
b. Pingqiang (Level Tune)
This is the main section of the melody, and is organized in paired phrases, with
relaxed rules on ending pitches. Melodies of Dong School, for example, contain many
phrases ending on do, even though the last section ends on sol, as seen in Yu Boya
Shuaiqin (Yu Boya Smashing the Zither). The Qiao School has introduced a Level
Tune based on Qiaokou (Comic Melody) in Fengyi’ting (Fengyi Pavillion).
c. Luoqiang (Falling Tune)

It is the concluding section of the melody which echoes the Opening Tune; it often
consists of a pair of phrases ending with on Zhi (Fifth Degree), as in the simple and
unadorned passage in Yu Boya Shuaiqin (Yu Boya Smashing the Zither) of the Dong
School.
The Qiao School’s Falling Tune is highly decorative, as seen in Fengyi’ting (Fengyi
Pavillion).
(2) Fast Tied Tune (Kuai’zaban)
Fast Tied Tune (also named Shouban, closing tune) usually appears at the end of
a song, where there is a chance to impose a kind of accelerando, including changing
the metre from 2/4 to 1/4, at the same time simplifying the melody, until it almost
becomes plain speech. The climax is thus achieved by controlling the pace of
delivering the texts.
(3) Hanyun Tune (Rhymed Tune)
Hanyun is a rhymed tune with a specific expressive function: it is aptly set to tragic
lyrics, hence its other name Tanyun (Tune of Sigh). It usually consists of two phrases,
with added figurations to lead to the ending (a kind of coloratura in lower range), as
in as in Yu Boya Shuaiqin (Yu Boya Smashing the Zither).
Hanyun Tune can be added to Pingqiang (Level Tune): this extra passage can
be connected to an interlude, before joining another section of Level Tune, or it can
be treated as a concluding section. Hanyun Tunes can be divided into the “Big” or
“Small”, depending on their length. Big Hanyun Tune is not only longer, its range is
bigger, as found in Yu Boya Shuaiqin (Yu Boya Smashing the Zither). Hanyun Tune
may be extended by an introduction by Jianban clappers, without any rules on metre,
even though the pulse is fast amidst a slow melody, making the music very expressive.
In addition to the melodies discussed, there are other melodies adopted by Henan
Zhuizi: some refer to these as “Labelled Pieces,” but these “special” melodies are
not authentic Labelled Pieces, but rather original music created by performers. The
genre is enriched by padding words and piled phrases to generate an ingenious
humorous atmosphere, as in “Five-character Inserted Phrases (Wuzi’qian)” and
“Ten-character Rhymes (Shizi’yun)”. An example of the former is found in Cheng
Yulan’s interpretation of the traditional piece Duzhan Huakui (The Oil Vendor and the
Courtesan), where the added five-character phrases modulate to Gong mode a fifth
above, but returns to the original mode as it is reconnected to Level Tune. The Ten-
character Rhymes are also found in special songs such as Ten Months and Counting
Down Ten Months (Dao’shiyue), resembling the style of folk songs and ditties.
To sum up, Henan Zhuizi is based on Pingqiang melodies and the flexibility of
treating metre and tempo, such as the transformation to fast Tied Tune, add colour
to this genre of narrative singing, even though the application is not so developed as
Dagu or opera. Another feature of the genre is the capability to incorporate melodies
from folk songs, adding expressiveness to the music. Last but not least, the existence
of different Schools is a testimony of it being a developed genre.
C. Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum Song in Beijing Dialect)

1. Evolution of Jingyun Dagu (Big Drum Song in Beijing Dialect)
Narrative singing in China has been summed up as “Plucking in the South and
Drumming in the North (Nantan Beigu)”, referring to Tanci (Plucking Words) and
Dagu (Big Drum Song) respectively. There are many Dagu genres in the North, which
are popular in the Central Plains and the three Northeastern Provinces, but these
have also spread to Hubei and Zhejiang. There are no literary records on the origin of
Dagu, but most believe that it was sung in the North of the Yangtze River and related
to Cihua (Words and Stories) of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. There are nearly fifty
Dagu genres still surviving.
All Dagu genres share the same process of development, mode of performance,
repertoire and musical structure. It is therefore possible to regard these as a unified
whole, with differences arising from varied dialects and regional nature of folk
melodies.
Jingyun Dagu or Jingyin Dagu (the meaning is the same as Jingyun Dagu), is an
important genre of narrative singing in North China.
Fu Xihua’s Collected Essays on Folk Performing Arts (Quyi Luncong) devotes
a paragraph to discuss the evolution of Jingyun Dagu, which is an early source on
the history of the genre. The text reads, “Jingyun Dagu is a kind of Big Drum Song
popular in Beiping (Beijing), and it originated from Qie’dagu. In the late Qing
Dynasty, performers reformed the tunes of Qie’dagu so that it was sung in Beijing
dialect instead of that of Hebei, hence its name Jingyin Dagu, Jingyun Dagu or
Jingdiao Dagu (Big Drum Narratives in Beijing Tunes). This genre of Dagu later
spread to Gushang (Tianjin), with melodies improved, naming it Jingdiao Dagu
(Big Drum Narratives in Beijing Tunes) or as Jingjin Dagu (Big Drum Narratives of
Beijing and Tianjin). Since most Dagu pieces are based on stories of gifted scholars
and beautiful women, or chivalrous deeds of heroes, the genre is also referred to
as Wenwu Dagu (Civil and Martial Big Drum Song). Performers are inevitably
professionals.”26
The Qie’dagu just mentioned refers to Muban Dagu (Wooden Clapper Big Drum
Song), a kind of rural narrative singing popular in mid-Hebei. Performers were
semi-professionals making use of the opportunity of the period prior to harvest to
sing; accompanying instruments were wooden clappers and drum (without melodic
instruments). Lyrics are largely based on historical stories, such as the Romance of
Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi), The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan), stories of Eastern
Han and Western Han, as well as Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.
This form of narrative singing focuses on recitation, and there are many regional
genres; Muban Dagu is not only the predecessor of Jingyun Dagu but many other
Dagu genres as well.
In the late Qing Dynasty, Muban Dagu spread to Tianjin and Beijing via Cangxian
26 Fu Xihua: Collected Essays on Folk Performing Arts. Shanghai: Shanghai Magazine Publishing House,
1953, p180.
and Baoding, owing to migration bankrupt farmers excelled in narrative singing.

Citizens in Tianjin and Beijing regarded Muban Dagu too rustic owing to its Hebei
dialect, hence choosing the disparaging name Qie’dagu (Rustic Big Drum Song).
There were many Qie’dagu performers, such as Hu Shi, Song Wu and Huo Mingliang,
who had great reputation in performing Dagu, and managed to develop their own
singing styles. Hu Shi was famous for his civil songs, such as Da’xixiang (The Great
West Chamber), Lanqiao’hui (Meeting at Orchid Bridge) and Wang Erjie Sifu (Wang
Erjie Missing Her Husband); Huo Mingliang excelled at martial songs, such as
Zhan’changsha (The Battle of Changsha) and Dandao’hui (Joining Enemy’s Banquet
Alone); Song Wu was a blind singer well-known for interpreting Ma’anshan (The
Saddle Mountain). Liu Baoquan managed to acquire the repertoire and singing skills
of these singers, who lived at the turn of the twentieth century. This was when Dagu
narratives became popular in big cities, especially in Tianjin, where there were social
and economic conditions for the genre to develop.
Three Schools of performing Qie’dagu emerged after the era of Hu, Song and
Huo, and these were represented by Liu Baoquan, Bai Yunpeng, and Zhang Xiaoxuan.
The most outstanding tradition was perhaps kept by Liu Baoquan, who began to
sing Qie’dagu in Beijing dialect, eradicating its Hebei origin completely, leading to
the performing style that has been preserved. Liu’s activities marked the heyday of
Jingyun Dagu.
The taste of the audience changed after Dagu was performed in cities, leading
to reform of the genre, notably the addition of accompanying instruments such as
Sanxian and Sihu, and the shortening of performance by dividing long pieces into
short excerpts. Dagu also began to incorporate passages from Qingyin Zidi’shu (Pure
Sound and Big Drum Singing Popular among Manchus), such as Lulei’yuan (The
Love Story of Lin Daiyu and Jia Baoyu), Qianjin Quande’bao (Gao Guiying and Shi
Shouxin), and Zhen’e Cihu (Fei Zhen’e Assassinating Luo Hu). Lyrics of Zidishu
were in formal literary style, as they were written by men of letters or Manchurians
in the Qing Dynasty. When these were integrated with Dagu narrative singing, the
perception of the audience changed, as the genre had lost its original folk character.
In some variety shows, Jingyun Dagu was even replaced by the more down to earth
Xiangsheng (Crosstalks).
After the founding of the People’s Republic, Jingyun Dagu had a new opportunity
to develop, as there was effort to re-discover traditional repertoire, as well as
composing new works, including those based on Revolutionary Stories.
2. Schools of Jingyun Dagu
(1) Dagu Art of Liu Baoquan (Liu School)
Liu Baoquan (1869–1942) was a famous Dagu singer with a career straddling the
Qing Dynasty and the Republic. Regarded as “King of Dagu”, he was a role-model
for singers of his generation, including Beijing Opera stars like Tan Xinpei, Mei
Lanfang and Ma Lianliang.
Liu Baoquan was a native of Shenxian County, Hebei Province, but left home for
Tianjin when he was nine, to escape famine at home. He learned Qie’dagu from his
father, and had many opportunities to accompany him on the Sanxian. He later turned
to Beijing Opera, joining a troupe to perform in Shanghai. On his rerturn to Tianjin, he
learned Dagu with Hu Shi, and managed to acquire the intricacies of singing his civil
arias, as well as martial arias of Huo Mingliang and The Saddle Mountain of Song
Wu. Liu’s art of Jingyun Dagu was enriched by Beijing Opera, especially though
his friendship with Tan Xinpei, a famous actor for the role of Laosheng (Aged Male
Role). His close contact with senior figures of opera such as Sun Juxian, Gong Yunfu
and Yang Xiaoduo had enabled him to apply the operatic art of singing, reciting and
acting to Dagu, allowing him to reach perfection in the art of narrative music.
Liu Baoquan achieved his supreme artistry through his ability to sing introspectively
as well as bursting into impetuous emotions, and mastering the skills to integrate
different styles of singing. His contributions to Jingyun Dagu are outlined as follows:
He applied the rhymes and four tones of the Beijing dialect to convert Qie’dagu
sung in Hebei dialect to Jingyun Dagu in Beijing dialect, making Dagu music popular
in the capital, then throughout the country.
Liu absorbed the singing and reciting skills of Beijing Opera, and highlighted
the need to breathe by controlling the diaphragm, while distinguishing different
articulations, such as via lips, molars, throat, tongue and teeth. He also borrowed from
Beijing Opera some “sharp (Jian)” and “round (Tuan)” tones and Shangkou (Ancient)
characters, as well as “palatals (E)” and “Sou (Vibrato)” sounds. Coupled with an
immaculate voice, Liu was articulate in narration and truthful in singing; he had a
spectacular vocal range, tackling high and low ranges with ease. His mastering of the
technique of Jingyun Dagu was perfect.
Drawing on operatc performances, he broke the rules of performing traditional
Dagu songs by introducing conspicuous facial expressions in order to deliver
emotions such as joy, anger, worries, thoughts, surprises, fear and sadness, as well
as body movements to dramatise characters. The Beijing Opera master Ma Lianliang
endorsed such performance practice, “Mr. Liu’s singing is vigorous and magnificent,
and his postures are exaggerated, unrestrained and imposing. These qualities are
appropriate for depicting the valiant spirit of the generals in the Romance of Three
Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi) and the heroes in The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan).”
Liu Baoquan was a versatile performer of Jingyun Dagu, but he was also an
excellent player of folk instruments, including Sanxian and Pipa. The Beijing Opera
master Mei Lanfang said, “Mr. Liu once performed in a five piece plucked string
ensemble at my home. The performance was very special, because each player
has to stop his own strings while plucking someone else’s instrument. Only the
most skilful instrumentalists could join the ensemble. Mr. Liu was an all-rounder,
so he and his partners were able to bring Dagu art to a new height.” Liu Baoquan
collaborated with Sanxian players Han Yonglu and Bai Fengyan in composing new
Dagu suites, including songs exclusively for the genre. Their melodies, Dagu suites
and accompaniment were full of surprises, as witnessed by Xu Lanyuan, a famous
Jingju fiddle accompanist, “Mr. Liu’s accompaniment (was excellent). Sanxian and
Sihu do not play in usison: when an instrument has has high pitches, the other plays
in low range; when one part is decorative, the other is simple. Each part has its own
character, but they have to meet eventually, which involves skills as demanding as a
chef’s maneuvering his knife. The accompaniment does not merely overlap Mr. Liu’s
vocal part, but it has to follow rules on a kind of harmony and polyphony. According
to Mr. Mei Lanfang, the accompanists Xu Lanyuan and Wang Shaoqing also applied
the Liu’s Dagu melodies as well as Sanxian lute and Sihu fiddle accompaniment skills
to Beijing Opera. In addition, Liu Baoquan used his wrists very flexibly when playing
the drum, as seen in his application of Xiaocuo and Taodian (indicating off beats or
without strong beats played alternatively) to complement plucked instruments. The
Beijing Opera drummer Hang Zihe also learned such wrist skills and applied them to
the single-head drum. Hence Liu’s innovations in accompanying Jingyun Dagu have
also influenced the national genre of opera.
In addition to Jingyun Dagu Liu was proficient in performing other genres, such
as Beijing Opera, Shiyun Tune (Stone Ryhme Tune), Matou’diao (Horse Head Tune)
and Meihua’diao (Plum Blossom Tune), as well as Kunqu (Kun Opera) and Hebei
Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Hebei). His wide exposure to different genres of folk music
enabled him to institute reforms to the music of Jingyun Dagu, such as converting
simple melodies of Qie’dagu in 2/4 metre to those of Jingyun Dagu in slow (4/4)
and fast tempi (1/4), as well as making the narrative passages more melodious. For
example, he added melodies of Hebei Bangzi to the slow “Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang)”
of Jinyun Dagu; he did the same with melodies of Beijing Opera with “Long Melody
(Changqiang)”, as well as incorporating Shiyun (Stone Ryhme Tune), so as to depict
the bleak and desolate scenes of autumn night. When singing Daxi’xiang (Great West
Chamber), melodies Henan Zhuizi of the Qiao (Qingxiu) School were used to portray
the witty character of the match-maker Hongniang vividly.
Liu Baoquan has contributed much to the development of melodies of Jingyun
Dagu. His repertoire comprises over seventy pieces, but only about twenty of these
were frequently sung. His tactics was to acquire the tradition of singing, before
working on the melodies to generate a unique performing style. He has also arranged
new songs, such as Huozhuo Zhang’sanlang (Capturing Zhang Sanlang Alive),
Baidi’cheng (Baidi City), Xumu Macao (Xu Shu’s Mother Condemning Cao Cao),
Huoshao Bowangpo (Burning Bowangpo) and Nao Jiangzhou (Making Havoc in
Jiangzhou). These pieces have been preserved, and some of these are still performed.
Liu was also innovative in developing singing skills, the most remarkable
technique being singing glissando from the lowest to highest pitch, covering the
ranges of real voice, semi-falsetto to “standing voice (Liyin)” of falsetto without a
margin. The adoption of “standing voice” in Dagu was his invention, and he also had
a special way of looking after his voice, as it remained sonorous when he was nearly
seventy years old.
Liu Baoquan has personally taught Bai Fengming (former Director of Shuochang
Troupe of the Central People’s Broadcasting Station), and Bai’s eldest brother Bai
Fengyan played Sanxian for Liu. Since Bai Fengming’s voice was not as sonorous as
his teacher, there was some difficulty in truly inheriting the singing tradition. With the
help of his brother, Bai Fengming enlarged the scope of Liu School by creating his
own style of singing by adding fa and si to the pentatonic melodies, hence changing
the loud and sonorous style to melodious and expressive singing, which was ideal
for interpreting tragic and desolate tunes featuring a mellow tone. His singing style is
known as Junior Bai School.
(2) Dagu Art of Bai Yunpeng (Bai School)
Bai Yunpeng (1874–1952) was a native of Beiba County, Hebei Province. His first
trade was singing Zhuban’shu (Storytelling with Clapper), but later turned to Jingyun
Dagu. As he realized he did not possess the vocal qualities of Liu Baoquan, Bai
emphasized his unique sonorous low range, while avoiding high notes by narrating
in steady flowing rhythms. Such a flexible and graceful style of singing has led to the
unique style of Bai School.
Bai has a wide repertoire of Jingyun Dagu, including The Romance of the Three
Kingdoms and later A Dream of Red Mansions (Honglou’meng). The lyrics for his
arias in Dream of the Red Mansions are in a unique style based on Zidi’shu, entitled
Lulei’yuan (The Love Story of Lin Daiyu and Jia Baoyu) by Han Xiaochuang. His
other famous pieces include Mengjiang’nu (Lady Mengjiang) and Huaide Bienu
(Huaide Bidding Farewell to His Daughter). In contrast to Liu School, Bai School
excelled in narration hence its singing is less melodious, even though the lyrics are
pronounced very delicately, resulting in a style simple yet moving. Since Bai has
retained some Hebei dialect, the performance is more popular in rural areas.
After the “May 4th Movement,27” Bai Yunpeng went to Shanghai to sing “Civilized
Dagu (Wenming Dagu, songs with contemporary lyrics)”, repertoire including
Quan Guomin (Persuading the People) and Tichang Guohuo (Advocating Domestic
Products), typical repertoire encouraging patriotism and anti-foreign aggression.
Yan Qiuxia, a Jingyun Dagu performer of the Tianjin Narrative Performing Arts
Troupe, is a successor of the Bai School. She excels in performing songs of female
characters with added actions, in a style incorporating Pingtan (Plucking Words)
melodies. Her performance of Yugong Yishan (The Foolish Old Man Removing the
Mountains) “improves” the style of Bai School by adding heroic and loud melodies,
strengthening the dramatic effect by adding narrative passage before singing.
(3) Dagu Art of Luo Yusheng (Luo School)
Luo Yusheng (1914–2002), with the stage name Xiao Caiwu, was the former
President of the Chinese Quyi Artists Association.
Luo Yusheng was born in Nanjing, and she began learning Beijing Opera at the age
of seven or eight, focusing on the stylized roles of old gentlemen and old women, later
learning Jingyun Dagu with Han Yonglu, the accompanist of Liu Baoquan. Having
mastered the repertoires of Liu Baoquan and Bai Fengming, she performed them in
her personal style, fully exploiting the potential of her voice. Her performances were
enthusiastically received by audiences in Nanjing and Tianjin; soon she was hailed as
27 May 4th Movement ( 五四运动 ) happened in 1919, which was an early form of cultural revolution against
archaic Chinese traditions in flavour of Western thoughts on science and democracy.
a “Golden Voice Singer.” While developing her personal style, she collaborated with
Han Yonglu in composing Jian’ge Wenling (Wind Chimes Ringing at Jian’ge) and
Hongmei’ge (Red Plum Blossom Pavillion), which have become standard repertoire
of the Luo School.
Luo Yusheng inherited the loud and sonorous style of Liu School, the relaxed
and graceful tone of Bai School, and the tragic and desolate sentiments of Junior
Bai (Bai Fengming) School, and merged these with her rich mezzo-soprano voice to
create a distinctive Luo School of Jingyun Dagu. At first, the Luo School imitated
Junior Bai School, particularly in interpreting Qixing’deng (Seven Star Lamps) and
Jian’ge Wenling (Wind Chimes Ringing at Jian’ge) with meandering melodies in sad
and desolate mood. After the founding of the People’s Republic, she changed her
singing style to meet the new artistic demands of the State, particularly in glorifying
the heroes endorsed. This means she had to abandon her former sad and sentimental
singing style for an optimistic and majestic style. In the event, she absorbed melodies
of Beijing Opera, Kunju Opera, Pingju Opera and other operatic genres as well as folk
songs, and integrated them to develop a new style. For example, she applied Erhuang
blowing melodies in the new historical piece Woxin Changdan (Stooping to Conquer);
she adopted folk songs to enrich the heroic work Qiu Shaoyun, a relatively modern
work praising a brave soldier.
3. Analysis of Lyrics
The lyrics of Jingyun Dagu are the most typical of all genres of narrative singing
based on drum accompaniment. There are rules on the structure of verses, rhyming
and application of level and oblique tones. The following is a brief analysis:
(1) Phrase Structures of Dagu Lyrics
The lyrics of Jingyun Dagu are organized in seven-character and ten-character
phrases. The structure of seven-character phrases is same as that of other narrative
genres, which has been discussed. Ten-character phrases are more common in Dagu
lyrics, and performers distinguish two forms, “Smart Ten-character Phrases (Qiao’shizi)”
and “Clumsy Ten-character Phrases (Zhuo’shizi).” The former refers to the division
into “three - four - three” character phrases, which can be illustrated by the following
example, a phrase taken from Fengyu Guizhou (A Boat Returns in Wind and Rain):
In Chinese: 过山林 , 狂风如吼，冷飕飕。
Romanization: gùo shān lí, kúang fēng rú hǒu, lěng sōu sōu.
Translation: When I passed through the mountain forest–a gale roared–it was
cold.
“Clumsy Ten-character Phrase” refers to the division of characters into “three -

three - four” in a phrase and the following example is taken from Caochuan Jiejian
(Borrowing Arrows with Thatched Boats):
In Chinese: 汉高祖 , 灭秦楚 , 龙争虎斗。
Romanization: hàn gāo zǔ, mìe qín chǔ, lóng zhēng hǔ dòu.
Translation: When Emperor Gaozu of Han–eliminated Qin and Chu States–it

was like a fight between dragon and tiger.
“Smart Ten-character Phrase” owes it name to its structure because it is close to

that of seven-character phrase, but with an added three-character phrase. There is a
subtle change to stresses in pronunciation; otherwise the original rhythm is retained,
as shown in the example above. The natural rhythm of the verse is rather musical,
making it easy for music setting, hence this phrase is considered “smart.”
In the example of “Clumsy Ten-character Phrases”, the first two fragments of this
phrase share the same rhythm; the phrase ends with four (an even number) characters,
making it harder to close when setting text to music, hence this phrase is “clumsy” for
performers.
In addition to these two basic phrase patterns, the lyrics of Jingyun Dagu have
many other formats. Jingyun Dagu is similar to other genres of narrative music with
drum accompaniment, in spite of performers having special terms in handling lyrics.
The following are some examples of other structures of lyrics:
a. Three-character Head (Qian Sanzi’tou)
Three extra characters are added to the front of the basic pattern, usually a means
to indicate a change of mood, intensification of emotion or simply used as a linking
passage, as in the following examples:
In Chinese: “ 唰啦啦 ”, 风电山川摇草木。
Romanization: “sūai lā lā”, fēng dìan shān chūan yáo cǎo mù.
Translation: “Swish! Suai La La”, the wind shook the grass and trees on the
mountain and by the river.
(from Fengyu Guizhou [A Boat Returns in Wind and Rain])
In Chinese: “ 表得是 ” （宋朝）林冲获罪高衙内。
Romanization: “bǐao dē shì”, (sòng cháo) lín chōng hùo zùi gāo yá nèi.
Translation: (The Story Goes), (Song Dynasty) Lin Chong was sentenced by
Government official Gao.
(from Linchong Fapei [Banishment of Lin Chong])
In Chinese: “ 他二人 ”, “ 只杀得 ”, 黄沙抖起遮红日。
Romanization: “tā er rén”, “zhǐ shā dé”, hūang shā dǒu qǐ zhé hóng rì.
Translation: “Two of Them”, “Fought Till”, The yellow sand blocked the red
sun.
(from Guanhuang Duidao [Guan Yu Fighting Huang Zhong])
b. “Three-character Waist (Sanzi’qian)” and “Four-character Waist (Sizi’qian)”

Some characters are added to the middle of a phrase: usually three or four characters
are inserted, so they are called “Three-character Waist” or “Four-character Waist”, as
shown in the following examples from Xumu Macao (Xu Shu’s Mother Condemning
Cao Cao):
In Chinese: 我恨不能 , “ 寝尔的皮、食尔的肉、挖尔的心、饮尔的血 ”, 与

国除奸、与民除害，才能够拨云见日，汉室重兴乐尧汤。
Romanization: omitted.
Translation: I wish I could, “sleep on your skin, eat your flesh, remove your
heart, drink your blood”, eliminate a traitor for the country and eradicate harm
for the people; then we can dispel the clouds and see the sun, as well as restore
peace and prosperity in the Han Empire.”
The words in quotation marks indicate “Four-character Waist” is applied four

times, totalling sixteen additional characters to the text. The following two phrases
from Fengyu Guizhou (A Boat Returns in Wind and Rain) illustrate a similar
technique:
In Chinese: 遥望见那一支小舟儿 ,“悠荡荡、荡悠悠、悠悠荡荡、荡荡悠悠”，

恰好似好一叶儿飘飘就在水面浮。
Translation: From a distance I see a small boat, “drifting, swinging, drifting
and swinging, swinging and drifting”, just like a leaf floating on the water.
The words in quotation marks indicate “Three-character Waist” and “Four-character

Waist” are each applied twice. These inserted groups of characters are neatly arranged,
and their roles are similar to Piled Phrases (Duoju). Yet there are differences between
them: the added texts are adjectives or auxiliary words in the long phrases, while the
Piled Phrases are more formal, and governed by rules of rhyming and patterns of level
and oblique tones.
c. Five-character Tail (Qian Wuzi’wei)
This type of inserted text is named “Floor over Floor (Loushang’lou)” phrases,
with five characters added to the end of a phrase.
The Five-character Tail is usually sung with a Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang) in order
to conclude a verse in a vigorous and heroic manner as illustrated:
In Chinese: 叹卧龙功未成身先衰在五丈原中 , “ 魂归坠将星 ”。

Translation: Sadly Kongming died on Wuzhang Plains before he gained victory,
“Just like a meteor falling from sky”.
(from Qixing’deng “Seven Star Lamps”)
In Chinese: 吹出来的这个山歌儿野无腔，“ 这不越过了小溪旁 ”。

Translation: He played a folk song that was crude and tuneless. “Is it not
croosing the brook”?
(from Choumo Yinchu “End of Ox and Beginning of Tiger Period”)
d. Piled Phrases (Duoju)

this is an independent phrase pattern rather than a mere expansion of a phrase.
Piled phrases in Jingyun Dagu have not developed into an independent structure as in
operas, and they are only used to intensify emotions or emphasise certain effects. They
are similar to the poems (Fu or Zan) in storytelling, and they appear in pairs. Most of
them are three-character or four-character phrases; the rules on rhyming and language
tonal patterns are same as seven-character or ten-character phrases, even though the
rules are not strict. There are many Piled Phrases in Jingyun Dagu, an example being
Huarong’dao (Huarong Road), where a verse describing Guan Yu, with the first eight
three-character phrases designated as Piled Phrases:
In Chinese: 瞧面貌 , 如重枣，
Ormanization: qiáo miàn mào, rú zhòng zǎo,
Translation: Look at the face, it is like dark Chinese date,
In Chinese: 卧蚕眉 , 颧骨高。
Romanization: wò cán méi, quán gǔ gāo.
Translation: The eyebrows are like sleeping silkworm, cheekbones are high.
In Chinese: 丹凤眼 , 如灯罩，
Romanization: dān fèng yǎn, rú dēng zhào,
Translation: Small phoenix eyes, look like lampshade,
In Chinese: 五绺髯 , 胸前飘。
Romanization: wǔ liǔ rán, xiōng qián piāo.
Translation: The moustache is in five plaits, and they float in chest front.
In Chinese: 飘飘杀气冲牛斗，
Romanization: piāo piāo shā qì chōng niú dǒu,
Translation: The murderous look is like the fierce posture of an ox,
In Chinese: 抖擞威风我瞧也不敢瞧。
Romanization: dǒu sǒu wēi fēng wǒ qiáo yě bù gǎn qiáo.
Translation: Throw my weight about, but I am still afraid to take a glance.
Another example is Zhan’changsha (The Battle of Changsha), where there is a

verse describing Huang Zhong, with the first sixteen three-character phrases used as
piled phrases.
In Chinese: 凤翅盔 , 珠缨罩，
Romanization: fèng chì kuī, zhū yīng zhào,
Translation: Phoenix wind headgear, pears and tassels on the top of it,
In Chinese: 麒麟铠 , 玉玲珑。
Romanization: qí lín kǎi, yù líng lóng.
Translation: Lylin suit of armour, delicately made of jade.
In Chinese: 大红袍 , 花千朵，
Romanization: dà hóng páo, huā qiān duǒ,
Translation: Great red robe, with thousands of flowers,
In Chinese: 攒珠带 , 束腰中。
Romanization: zǎn zhū dài, shù yāo zhōng.
Translation: The belt with pearls, fastened around waist.
In Chinese: 龙角弓 , 箭雕翎，
Ormanization: lóng jiǎo gōng, jiàn diāo líng,
Translation: Bow like dragon horn, arrow like feather,
In Chinese: 虎头靴 , 黄蹬蹬。
Romanization: hǔ tóu xuē, huáng dēng dēng.
Translation: Tiger head boots, with the color of yellow.
In Chinese: 黄骠马 , 急如电，
Romanization: huáng biāo mǎ, jí rú diàn,
Translation: Yellow fine horse, runing as fast as lightning,
In Chinese: 金背刀 , 半潭冰。
Romanization: jīn bèi dāo, bàn tán bīng.
Translation: A golden broadsword on the back, as cold as half a pool of ice.
In Chinese: 老爷看了将头点 , 暗暗地夸奖不绝声。
Romanization: lǎo yé kàn le jiāng tóu diǎn, àn›àn dì kuā jiǎng bù jué shēng.
Translation: The master looks at her, nods his head, and cannot stop praising
her.
(2) Rhyming Patterns and Language Tonal Patterns of Dagu Lyrics

The Chinese language has developed into seven categories of phonologies
according to the varying dialects, namely North, Wu (Jiangsu), Xiang (Hunan), Gan
(Jiangxi), Min (Fujian), Yue (Guangdong) and Hakka. The phonologies of Northern
dialect (Putonghua) have been grouped into “thirteen rhymes” by phonologists.
Jingyun Dagu and most northern operas and narrative singing comply with this
pattern, as shown in the following illustration:
Pinyin Symbols a e ye ai ei ao ou an en ang ong yi u

for Vowels
Thirteen Big fa suo ye huai hui yao you yan ren jiang zhong yi gu
Rhymes - - - - - - - - - - - - -
hua bo xie lai dui tiao qiu qian chen yang dong qi su
Illustration 3-2. Thirteen Rhymes of Chinese Putonghua
There are also Small Rhymes, such as “xiao, ren, chen, er”28 and “xiao, yan, qian,
29
er” in addition to the Thirteen Big Rhymes.
Lyrics of Dagu aria usually use the same rhyme throughout: the rhyme used in
the first phrase is called “opening rhyme.” As music develops, the first of each pair
of phrases does not rhyme, while the second phrase needs to rhyme. Sometimes one
Dagu piece may have several rhymes, known as “Flowery Rhymes (Huazhe)”.
The language tonal pattern refers to the four tones of Chinese characters. In
Putonghua, the first and second tones (Level Tone and Rising Tone) are Level
Tones; the third and fourth tones (Falling-rising Tone and Falling Tone) are oblique
tones. Ancient poetry is very strict with patterns of level and oblique tones, and each
character should follow a certain rule on tone. Dagu lyrics are not as strict in this
respect, and their tonal patterns are reflected at the end of each phrase. In general, the
last character of the first of each pair of phrases ends with an oblique tone, while the
last character of the second phrase ends with a level tone. The first phrase of a song
(the Opening Rhyme Phrase) also ends with a level tone. It is through managing such
language tonal pattern that music can be property set, and getting the most of both
sides of the coin.
4. Analysis of Music
Jingyun Dagu is a mature genre of narrative singing based on accompaniment of
drum. Its melodies can accommodate changes in metres, even though they are less
varied than those found in opera. There are only two metrical patterns–slow and fast
(tight)–used in Jingyun Dagu.
(1) Manban (Slow Beat)
The Manban is a metrical pattern with “one strong/downbeat and three weak/
upbeats (Yiban Sanyan)”, or 4/4. Each phrase “starts on an upbeat and falls on a
downbeat (Yanqi Banluo)”, meaning that it begins on the third or fourth beat, with the
last character ending on a downbeat. Music in this metrical structure can accommodate
many types of melodies, hence can express emotions, narrate stories and introduce
characters. Jingyun Dagu relies much on Manban, which appears in form of Level
Tune (Pingqiang), Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang), Falling Tune (Luoqiang), Dragging Tune
(Laqiang), Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang) and Long Melody (Changqiang). Linchong
Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong) is analysed to illustrate music characteristics of
Manban.
28 小人辰儿
29 小言前儿
Example 3-20. Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong) from Jingyun Dagu
English translations of the lyrics:

Emperor and cabinet ministers of the monarchy has an autocratic system,
Like a pagoda.
An evildoer can have an imperial edict,
Ruling and repression, crimes commited are hard to bear.
What I am complaining is that Lin Chong (a hero) is unjustly sentenced by
Official Gao;
He uses venomous trick and deadly trap,
And sentence Lin Chong to exile as a soldier to the frontier.
Lin holds his wife’s hand, bids farewell to her at the Shiliting;
The hero tears are testimony of his sad feeling.
a. Level Tune (Pingqiang)

Level Tune is the basic melody of Jingyun Dagu, and many other melodies are
developed from it. It has the following four characteristics:
(i) Level Tune is close to speech, with a narrow range, and its formation relies on
exaggerating the four language tones of the lyrics.
(ii) Level Tune has a flexible structure. The phrasal lengths are irregular, and are
related to the structure of lyrics, which may consist of different number of characters
in each verse. There is a close relationship between lyrics and melody, with each
character corresponding to one beat, their breathing places coincide. Each phrase
usually has three rests, and it starts on an upbeat. When the number of characters
increases, the original phrase structure is retained, as in the Level Tune of Linchong
Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong).
(iii) The ending pitch of the first of each pair of phrases is not fixed, but it changes
according to the language tone; the last character of the second phrase in each pair
usually ends on do.
(iv) Level Tune is characterized by their simple and unadorned qualities, with a
narrow range (usually within an octave), and is used in narration. It can appear in slow
or tight tempi; the only differences are metres and rhythms.
b. Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang)
Rising Tune is used in the first of each pair of phrases, and it usually appears at
the beginning of a piece. It is formed by extending the length and range of Level
Tune, and usually appears on the third rest, as in the first phrase of Linchong Fapei
(Banishment of Lin Chong).
When Rising Tune appears at the beginning of a song, it can help capture the
attention of the audience; it may also be used in the middle of the piece to enrich
melodic contour, or emphasize certain atmosphere. In the latter case, Rising Tune
usually appears in the second of a pair of phrases; if it appears in the first of a pair of
phrases, it can only be used in a phrase ending with a character of a rising language
tone, because a character of a falling tone is hard for music setting.
c. Falling Tune (Luoqiang)
Falling Tune is used in the second of a pair of phrases, and it usually appears in the
second phrase at the beginning of a piece, following the Rising Tune. The Rising Tune
ascends while the Falling Tune descends, as their name suggest; such a combination
makes a logical beginning for a narrative piece.
Falling Tune is also developed from Level Tune. The change occurs in the third
rest, extending the lower range, with ending pitch changing from do to the lower sol,
as in the second phrase of Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong).
Falling Tune is sometimes inserted in narration sung in Level Tune, so that an
interlude can follow to give the performer a break.
d. Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang)
Tossing Tune is used in the second of a pair of phrases at the end of a verse or
the whole piece. Lyrics sung in Tossing Tune are often extended by Piled Phrases.
Phrasing of lyrics and melody usually coincides, as in application of Level Tune; this
balance of text and music is only disturbed towards the end of a phrase. See the sixth
phrase of Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong).
The “Floor Over Floor (Loushang’lou)” at the end of the above example has seven
characters, but it is within the five-character tail, hence it can be regarded as a Tossing
Tune with a five-character tail.
Tossing Tune has the widest range, usually encompassing treble sol to bass do.
It rises to high pitches in the first half of a phrase, and falls abruptly; the tonic do is
repeated several times in different octaves, allowing the music to end in a stable manner.
e. Dragging Tune (Laqiang)
Dragging Tune is only used in the first of a pair of phrases in preparation for
the Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang). A Dragging Tune may not appear before a Tossing
Tune, but a Dragging Tune must be followed by a Tossing Tune. There are two types
of Dragging Tunes depending on the language tones of the ending characters. An
example of the Dragging Tune ending with a character of Rising Tone can be found in
the first phrase of Zhaoyun Jiejiang (Zhao Yun Recovering Liu Shan in the River).
Example 3-21. First phrase of Zhaoyun Jiejiang (Zhao Yun Recovering Liu Shan in the River)

In the end, Madam Sun has to jump into river to commit suicide.
Example of Dragging Tune (Laqiang) ending with a Character of Falling Tone in

the Fifth Phrase of Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong).
The common feature of these two types of tunes is that the end of the phrase shifts
to the bass range, and Biangong (Shifting principal degree Gong minor second second
down, or the seventh degree of a diatonic scale) to create a sense of instability, in
sharp contrast to the Tossing Tune with a strong inclination towards closing.
Example 3-22. The long melody in Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong)
(f) Long Melody (Changqiang): Long Melody, or Big Tune (Daqiang), is used
in the first of a pair of phrases. A melody is extended by adding notes to the end of a
phrase; such extension can comprise seven to ten beats (measures) or even longer. See
the Long Melody in Linchong Fapei (Banishment of Lin Chong).

A great man must be striving and taking up endeavours.
Long Melody is often used to replace Dragging Tune anticipating Tossing Tune
at the end of a song. It has a low meandering contour, and is often used for recalling
memory, describing landscapes or expressing emotions.
In addition to the melodies mentioned, Jingyun Dagu also involves other
tunes, such as Sad Tune (Beiqiang), Surprised Tune (Jingqiang), Rising Falling
Tune (Qifu’qiang) and Flowery Tune (Huaqiang). Performers may use differing
terminologies for these, but they are highly functional in Jingyun Dagu.
When these tunes are used in Manban (Slow Beat), the rules are: the first phrase
uses Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang), the second phrase Falling Tune (Luoqiang), middle
phrases Level Tune (Pingqiang). However, as there may be changes in content
and emotion, the performer may also incorporate Flowery Tune (Huaqiang). The
concluding section comprises Dragging Tune (Laqiang) linked to Tossing Tune
(Shuaiqiang), or Long Melody (Changqiang) followed by Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang);
sometimes just Tossing Tune is used.
(2) Jinban (Metrical Pattern in Tight/ Fast Tempo)
Jinban is also known as Shangban (Introductory Beat), and it is a fast passage
with downbeats only (1/4). Melodies in this category are frequently used to express
agitated emotion, highlighting the climax of the story. A typical piece of narrative
singing involves a slow section sung four or five rounds (the first round includes six or
eight phrases, which are referred to as “Poem (Shipian)”; the following rounds narrate
the story and are referred to as “main body”. This is followed by Jinban, pushing
the story to a climax, and leading to two concluding phrases in slow tempo. See the
Jinban of Jian’ge Wenling (Wind Chimes Ringing at Jian’ge) in Collection of Musical
Scores.
Characteristics of Jinban (Metrical Pattern in Tight/ Fast Tempo):
Jinban usually starts on an upbeat and ends on a downbeat. The accompanist
plays double-beat (each beat divided into two halves), and the first half is called “Red
Beat (Hongban)” while the second half “Black Beat (Heiban)”. There is a saying
that Jinban “starts on black beat and ends on red beat (Qihei Luohong)30”. The last
character of the lyrics must fall on a downbeat.
Jinban is fast and is used in passages with intense emotion, hence making it hard
to introduce decorations. Relatively plain Pingqiang and Yunbai (rhymed speech) are
used, resulting in a kind of speech song.
30 起黑落红
Since Jinban (Metrical Pattern in Tight/ Fast Tempo) has no upbeats, it can stop
suddenly and shift to a spoken part. The rhythm of Jinban is apt to change according
to the plot and language tones. The norm is a shift from slow to fast, with a middle
section that is variable. This control of pace is readily applicable to narrative singing,
and must be distinguished from Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4) in opera.
(3) General Music Features of Jingyun Dagu
(i) Melodies of Jingyun Dagu make an impression through their attractive
contours and distinctive rhythms. It is not uncommon to spot big leaps of intervals,
coupled with frequent adoption of Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang), Falling Tune (Luoqiang)
and Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang). The melodic line can rise and fall abruptly, with
a range covering two octaves. It is worth noting that melodic embellishments are
very colourful, often involving intervals of a fourth, fifth, sixth or severth, as well as
vibrato of large amplitude. These characteristics have led to capabilities of singing
the genre with vigour and freedom. This is inseparable from the fact that traditional
Jingyun Dagu is well equipped for narrating stories of war and rise and fall of a state.
Rhythmically, the practice of beginning with an upbeat and ending with a downbeat
can be handled freely, the so-called Flexible Metrical Patterns (Bantou Linghuo). The
expressive power can be increased by the frequent use of Shanban syncopations or
continuous syncopations.
(ii) Jingyun Dagu is a matured genre based on a rigorous structure. The lyrics are
usually divided into three parts: a poem (four to eight phrases), a main body (including
several verses narrating the plot and a Jinban pushing the story to the climax, with
thirty to fifty verses in each section), and an epilogue (two closing phrases). There
are fixed rules on the use of Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang), Falling Tune (Luoqiang), Level
Tune (Pingqiang), Dragging Tune (Laqiang) and Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang).
(iii) Jingyun Dagu is based on the pentatonic mode on Gong (first degree), but may
introduce Biangong (altered first degree, or seventh degree) and Bianzhi (altered fifth
degree, or fourth degree) where necessary, hence venturing into heptatonic mode at
times.
(iv) Jingyun Dagu as well as Danxian and Beijing Qinshu are sung in Beijing
dialect, with their lyrics sharing the same language tones, but Jingyun Dagu is
stylistically different, owing to its frequent use of a rising fourth, making the genre
more vigorous and forceful.
5. Example for Appreciation and Analysis: Jian’ge Wenling (Wind Chimes Ringing at
Jian’ge).
Jian’ge Wenling (Wind Chimes Ringing at Jian’ge) is a tragic piece based on a
romantic anecdote of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty, who was believed to be
rather clueless, and led a dissipated life at the later stage of his reign, resulting in
foreign aggression. The troops of An Lushan and Shi Siming captured Tongguan, and
Emperor Xuanzong fled Chang’an in a flurry. When he arrived at Mawei’po (present
Xingping, Shaanxi), his soldiers launched a mutiny; they first killed Yang Guozhong
and then forced the Emperor to order his favourite concubine Yang Yuhuan to commit
suicide. When the soldiers’ anger subsided, they escorted the Emperor Westwards. As
the entourage reached Jian’ge (or Jianmeng Pass in Sichuan), cold autumn rain was
falling. At night, Emperor Xuanzong heard the eave bells ringing, and burst into tears
as he thought of his beloved Yang Yuhuan. In the famous Song of Everlasting Regret
(Changhen’ge), the poet Bai Juyi wrote, “He would hear the wind chimes ringing
during an evening rain storm, a sound filled with sorrow.31” The Jingyun Dagu piece
Jian’ge Wenling is based on this story.
The lyrics of this Dagu song were drawn from Zidishu: some believe these were
written by Han Xiaochuang, others named Xi Xiaofeng as author. It was a celebrated
work performed by the famous Jingyun Dagu actress Luo Yusheng (Stage Name
Xiao Caiwu), who had been performing the genre over sixty years. The work was first
performed in the 1940s, and it marked the formation of the Luo school of Jingyun Dagu.
Jian’ge Wenling is based on the standard music structure of of the genre, and it is
divided into five sections, summarized in five words, “Comment (Ping)”, “Narration
(Xu)”, “Sadness (Bei)”, “Regret (Hui)”, and “Grief (Tong)”.
The opening section “Comment (Ping)” consists of eight phrases of “Poem
(Shipian)” in slow tempo, which comments on the story as a narrator. Singing
is preceded the gentle beating of clappers, solemn drumming, and elegant
accompaniment of stringed instruments, “The grass is green below Mawei’po, where
the concubine mausoleum still lies...32” The convention of juxtaposing melodies is
observed, incorporating Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang), Falling Tune (Luoqiang), Level
Tune (Pingqiang), Dragging Tune (Laqiang) and Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang). The last
four verses are as follows, “The Emperor travelled thousands of li westwards; why did
he feel so sad hearing the wind chimes on a stormy night? Yang Yuhuan hanged herself
on a pear tree; Chen Yuanli led the troops to escort the Emperor.” When singing these
phrases, the performer (Luo Yusheng) did not display any emotion, so as to maintain
impartiality as an narrator. Her singing style was similar to the unintrusive, tragic and
reserved style of the Junior Bai School, setting the tone of the whole work.
The section “Narration (Xu)” is the beginning of the story. It is still delivered in the
third person, and based on Level Tune (Pingqiang), a rather plain melody shadowing
the spoken language. The passage demands natural articulation of the lyrics, “It was
gloomy when the Emperor started out at the break of dawn; how could he stand
climbing over the hills and through the rivers?33” The Level Tune aptly describes
the hardships of the journey and the Emperor’s sorrow and loneliness. On the basis
of Level Tune, Luo Yusheng used various means to highlight key words, achieving
a unique effect. The phrase “He heard the wind chimes jingling dang (bell sound)
continuously outside the window,34” is set to music in a simple manner, portraying the
ringing of wind chimes at Jian’ge; the words “jingling dang (bell sound)” is followed
by a rest to imitate the manner of ringing. In the last phrase, a long expanding melody
(Tuoqiang) is set to the word “sighing (Tan).” If we say just a dab of ink is applied
31 夜雨闻铃断肠声。
32 马嵬坡下草青青，今日犹存妃子陵 [...]
33 愁漠漠残月晓星初领略，路迢迢涉水登山哪惯经。
34 听窗外不住的叮当连连的作响声。
to the previous phrase, the phrase “The Emperor heard the words (na) and couldn’t
help sighing (ah)35” is highly embellished. The melody lingers and reverberates in
the bass range, allowing Luo Yusheng to exploit her bass range. The Dragging Tune
lasts for over twenty beats, creating a grave and moanful atmosphere, and sounds
as if the character is weeping and complaining. When the singing is over, Sanxian
still produces some isolated notes to sustain the despondent mood. All of a sudden,
another phrase begins in the high range; this highest pitch of the entire piece forms a
sharp contrast with the preceding phrases in low range, highlighting the key phrase
“A heartbroken man heard a heartbreaking sound.36” The “heartbreaking sound
(Duanchang’sheng)” echoes with the words “jingling dang (bell sound)”; the former is
the effect while the latter is the cause. The atmosphere is thus set for fuller expression
of lament in the next section.
The section “Sadness (Bei)” is the mournful complaint of Emperor Xuanzong, with
lyrics shifting from a narrator to the first person. The Emperors sings, “Like this, the
bitter jingling, the bitter rain, how can they cut off my lovesickness and affection.”
Here, the singer introduces the Fan (fa) degree of the Junior Bai School, so as to
embellish the melody, emphasizing the sad and desolate sentiment of the Emperor,
and his feeling of solitude and yearning for his favourite concubine.
Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang) is used in the last phrase, “In vain I cry till my tears run
dry (uh) and my heart breaks37”. The first half of the melody suddenly modulates to
the subdominant, as if moanful complaints lead to heart-breaking scenes.
The section “Regret (Hui)” describes how Emperor Xuanzong regretted his deeds,
“One lies on a cold pillow in a cold bed under the red gauze net; the other half is
buried like a castaway pearl or a broken jade in a loess mound.38” “I regret giving
the military power to your adopted son; I regret letting your elder cousin handle state
affairs. Actually it was the traitor who jeopardized the country; of course you didn’t
cause the fall of the capital. Why did my troops set themselves against you? I had
hoped to protect your life, but in vain...39” These parallel phrases are neatly arranged
and they run on. The verses highlight the regret that the Emperor had long harboured.
Then a short interlude leads to the climax of the whole piece - a verse in Jinban.
The last section “Grief (Tong)” of the piece employs Jinban to describe how the
Emperor recalled his painful experience. A series of parallel phrases are used, with
pulses quickened, leading to the climax in the style of speech song. As the Emperor
was heart-broken with tears running dry, he was overwhelmed by grief. Suddenly,
the mood changed, “The Emperor spent a sleepless night in sorrow till dawn, and he
suddenly heard the eunuch urging him to set off again.” The music also shifts from
Jinban to Manban through a rhythmically free linking passage, bringing the piece to
35 这君王一闻此言（哪）长吁短叹，（啊）。
36 断肠人听断肠声。
37 空教我流干了眼泪（呃）望断了魂灵。
38 一个儿枕冷衾寒卧红罗帐里，一个儿珠沉玉碎埋黄土堆中。
39 悔不该兵权错付卿义子，悔不该国事全凭你从兄。细思量都是奸贼他把国误，真冤枉偏说妃子你倾
城。众三军何愁何恨和卿作对，可愧我想保你的残生也是不能 [...]
a close, with the narrator reflecting on history, commenting on the present, casting all
vicissitudes of life aside. This approach of “hopping in and out” is precisely the charm
of narrative singing.
D. Suzhou Tanci (Plucking Words of Suzhou)
1. Evolution of Suzhou Tanci
Suzhou Tanci is a major form of narrative singing in the region speaking Wu dialect
south of the Yangtze River. Suzhou Tanci and Pinghua (Storytelling) are collectively
referred to as Suzhou Pingtan. Pinghua used to be called Dashu (Long Storytelling)
and Tanci was called Xiaoshu (Short Storytelling). Dashu focuses on state affairs, such
as wars or the rise and fall of a state, and there is no instrumental accompaniment;
Xiaoshu is based on more domestic topics, such as love affair between gifted scholars
and beautiful women, in form of recitation and singing. Such distinction is no longer
observed, and these genres are simply called Suzhou Pingtan.
Since the Ming Dynasty, Tanci was a generic term for all genres of narrative
singing in the south of the Yangtze River. These genres are named differently in
various regions, such as Nanci (Southern Lyrics: or Southern Labelled Tunes) in
Hangzhou, Xianci (String Words) in Yangzhou and Muyu’shu (Fishing Narrative Story,
or Moyu’ge, Fishing Song) in Guangdong and Guangxi. Tanci has a direct connection
with Bianwen in the Tang Dynasty, Taozhen in the Song Dynasty and Cihua in the Yuan
and Ming Dynasties. Tanci can be interpreted as an abbreviation of Tanchang Cihua,
hence its origin may well have a connection with Cihua. Since the Yuan Dynasty, Tanci
has been used as book titles, such as Zang Jinshu’s engraved and printed Siyouji Tanci
(Tanci of Four Roamings) by Yang Weizhen of the Yuan Dynasty - The book consists
of four parts, namely, Chivalrous Roaming (Xiayou), Celestial Roaming (Xianyou),
Roaming in Dreams (Mengyou) and Roaming in the Underworld (Mingyou) - but only
three parts were engraved in the Ming Dynasty. It is the earliest book to use the term
Tanci, but all the printed copies have been lost. Between Zhengde and Jiajing reigns
of the Ming Dynasty (1509–1566), Yang Shen wrote Tanci of Twenty-one Histories
(Ershiyi’shi Tanci). The Legend of the White Snake (Baishe’zhuan) of the late Ming
Dynasty is the earliest known Tanci work involving a singer and plucked stringed
accompaniment. In the Qing Dynasty, major Tanci works sung in Mandarin included
Anbang’zhi (Tranquilizing the Nation), Dingguo’zhi (Story of Nation Establishment),
Fenghuang’shan (Phoenix Mountain), Tianyu’hua (Rain Flowers from Sky),
Bisheng’hua (Writing Like a Genius) and Zaisheng’yuan (Eternal Happiness); the most
popular Tanci works written in local dialect include Sanxiao Yinyuan (Three Smiles),
Yu’qingting (Jade Dragonflies) and Zhenzhu’ta (The Pearl Pagoda).
References of famous Tanci performers in historical sources include Liu Jingting
(Pinghua performer), believed to be an artist of Taizhou in the late Ming, Wu Yi
of Suzhou and Caotou Niang of Changshu. When Emperor Qianlong of the Qing
Dynasty travelled to the south of the Yangtze River, he was impressed with the
performance of the famous Tanci singer Wang Zhoushi of Suzhou, and offered him
an official position of the seventh rank at the imperial court. Wang established the
Guangyu Society (Guangyu’she) to promote Tanci in Suzhou after his retirement,
and since then, there were many outstanding performers, such as Chen Yuqian, Yao
Yuzhang, Yu Xiushan and Lu Shizhen in Jiaqing reign (1796–1820), Ma Rufei,
Yao Shizhang, Zhao Xiangzhou and Wang Shiquan in Xianfeng and Tongzhi reigns
(1851–1874), and Zhu Yaoting, Zhu Yaosheng, Wang Xiaosong, Zhang Futian, Ye
Shengyang, Yang Yuecha and Yang Xingcha in the early Republic. The Guangyu
Society later merged with the Puyu Society and Runyu Society. By the mid-twentieth
century, the merged organization had assembled over 800 Suzhou Pingtan performers,
and there were nearly one hundred storytelling houses in Shanghai and Suzhou. In
addition to Chen, Yu, and Ma Schools, other famous Schools of Tanci include Shen,
Xue, Xia, Qi, Xu, Yang, Jiang and Li. There is simply an inexhaustible list of famous
performers of the genre.
2. Mode of Performance
Suzhou Tanci is an integrated art consisting of the elements of “speaking”, “teasing”,
“plucking” and “singing”.
The genre can be performed in different formats, usually involving one or two
performers. A solo performer accompanies himself with a Sanxian lute while a
duo divides into and Upper Hand and Lower Hand, with the former singing to his
own accompaniment of Sanxian, while the latter singing and playing the Pipa lute.
Development of Tanci has led to performances as a vocal trio or ensemble.
There are four types of Suzhou Tanci–Long, medium, short and opening–each
named according to its length and function.
Traditional Tanci are mostly long pieces of narrative singing, consisting of many
chapters, hence may take several months to complete the performance. Tanci of
medium length is a more recent genre, and its three or four chapters can be completed
in one performance. Short Tanci only lasts thirty minutes to an hour.
“Opening Poem (Kaipian)” is much more popular in recent years, and it is based
on “Poem (Shizan)” consisting of seven-character verses, hence also known as
“Opening Chapter of Tang Poetry (Tangshi Kaipian)”.
“Opening Peom” used to be an introduction to a main piece, and its content may be
completely independent, even though this section is strongly musical. In the early era
of radio broadcast, it was regarded as an independent item. After the founding of the
People’s Republic, it was used as a form of political propanda for the State, hence it
had many opportunities for exposure.
3. Analysis of Lyrics
There are three ways of organizing the lyrics of Suzhou Tanci.
Shangxia’ju (Phrases in Pairs)
The most common structure of lyrics in Tanci is pairs of seven-character verses,
with division of each verse into “two - five” or “four - three” patterns, as in the
following example:
In Chinese: 惊闻 , 可汗点兵卒，
Romanization: jīng wēn, kě hàn dǐan bīng zú,
Translation: I was shocked to hear, Khan ordered men to fight,
In Chinese: 又见兵书 , 十数行。
Romanization: yòu jìan bīng shū, shí shù hāng.
Translation: Then I saw the roll, containing more than a dozen lines.
The example above is taken from Xin Mulanci (The New Mulan Ballad) sung by
Xu Lixian. The “two - five” or “four - three” verses follow a language tonal pattern:
the second character of the former and the fourth character of the latter should be in
level tone. If the first verse is in “two - five” pattern, the complementary verse will be
“four - three”; the reverse is true. However, more recent Tanci do not observe this rule
strictly.
(1) Feng’diantou (Phoenix Nodding Head, a kind of three-verse structure)
This structure takes three verses as a unit (for lyrics, one “up” and two “downs”;
for melody, two “ups” and one “down”). In other words, phrase structures of lyrics
and music are different. The second and third phrases need to rhyme, and language
tone is “level”. For example:
In Chinese: 是月十三他亲赴会，
Romanization: shì yùe shí sān tā qīn fù hùi,
Translation: On the 13th day of the month, he was attending a meeting;
In Chinese: 见关公稳坐顺风舟，
Romanization: jìan gūan gōng wěn zùi shùn fēng zhōu,
Translation: Guan Yu was seen sitting steadily in a downwind boat,
In Chinese: 带一个周仓有勇他惜无谋。
Romanization: dài yí gè zhōu cāng yǒu yǒng tā xī wú móu.
Translation: Taking along Zhou Cang who was brave but lacked wisdom.
The term “Phoenix Nodding Head” refers to the bird nodding its head three times;
it is a very unique structure that Tanci performers have borrowed ideas from local folk
ditties.
(2) Dieju (Reiterative Phrases)
An “starting” verse is followed by a series of reiterative phrases similar to Piled
Phrases, but without strict rules (number of characters can range from three to four, or
in groups of three, five and seven), sometimes extending to several dozen verses. An
example is the lyrics of Kuta (Crying at the Pagoda) in Ma Style:
In Chinese: 强徒口供亲召认，
Romanization: qiáng tú kǒu gòng qīn zhào rèn,
Translation: Mobster has a testimony and confession,
In Chinese: 四野无人三鼓宽，
Romanization: sì yě wú rén sān gǔ kuān,
Translation: There is nobody around the area, and the drum is sounded three
times loudly,
In Chinese: 风作快，
Romanization: fēng zuò kuài,
Translation: Wind is strong,
In Chinese: 雪成团，
Romanization: xuě chéng tuán,
Translation: Snow becomes balls,
In Chinese: 顿时天地黑漫漫，
Romanization: dùn shí tiān dì hēi màn màn,
Translation: Suddenly, the Sky becomes dark,
In Chinese: 鸿雁栖枯树，
Romanization: hóng yàn qī kū shù,
Translation: Swan geese rest on withered trees,
In Chinese: 鱼龙落浅滩，
Romanization: yú lóng luò qiǎn tān,
Translation: Fishes and shrimps are found on the seashore,
In Chinese: 长夜迢迢霜正寒，
Romanization: cháng yè tiáo tiáo shuāng zhèng hán,
Translation: Long night and frost is cold,
In Chinese: 既无车辆又无船，
Romanzation: jì wú chē liàng yòu wú chuán,
Translation: There is neither vehicle nor boat,
In Chinese: 无陪伴，
Romanization: wú péi bàn,
Translation: No accompanying person,
In Chinese: 少救援，
Romanization: shǎo jiù yuán,
Translation: No rescuer,
In Chinese: 强梁辈把性命拼，
Romanization: qiáng liáng bèi bǎ xìng mìng pīn,
Translation: Put an effort to fight for life,
In Chinese: 如同出山恶虎把乳羊噬，
Romanization: rú tóng chū shān è hǔ bǎ rǔ yáng shì,
Translation: It is analogous to a hungry tiger coming out of mountain to catch a
young sheep as prey,
In Chinese: 不问可知性命捐。
Romanization: bù wèn kě zhī xìng mìng juān.
Translation: No need to question whether life will be in danger.
Dieju (Reiterative Phrase) is an expansion of Feng’diantou (Phoenix Nodding

Head). The lyrics are based on the unit of one “up” and multiple “down” verses
(rhyming and language tonal pattern are not very strict). Musically, it is based on
extending the “up” phrase by adding Piled Phrases, without any Dragging Tune
(Tuoqiang) or interlude. Up to several dozens of Dieju may be sung in a row to
achieve a dramatic effect.
The use of Dieju and Feng’diantou in Tanci lyrics breaks the somewhat
monotonous structure of paired verses, allowing a more lively and flexible approach
to music setting, leading to the broadening of the scope of performance.
4. Analysis of Styles of Different Schools and Tanci Music
(1) General Discussion of Styles of Suzhou Tanci
The development of Suzhou Tanci in the past few centuries has led to the
accumulation of a large number of tunes, even though, as in other genres, the relative
lack of reliable music notation has led to the lost of many tunes. Since the founding of
the People’s Republic, several dozens of traditional tunes for the genre are still sung
(in addition to special Labelled Pieces), which are categorized as Chen Style, Yu Style
and Ma Style.
Chen Style is the earliest form of Suzhou Tanci music. Its founder Chen Yuqian
was recognised as the most influential amongst the four famous performers of the
genre in the Jiaqing Period (1796–1820). Chen’s singing style has adopted music from
Kunqu Opera with Suzhou style, and its feature is vigorous and solemn, appropriate
for expressing tragic and heroic emotions. For example, Chen Style is adopted by all
Schools when performing the traditional aria Linchong Taxue (Lin Chong Walking in
the Snow). However, Chen’s successor did not develop the music into an independent
School for singing long Tanci works, but used it to sing the parts of old characters.
Later, Yang Zhenxiong developed Chen Style and broke the boundaries of stylized
roles in performing the long Tanci work of Wu Song.
Yu Xiushan, the mastermind of Yu Style, was one of the four great Suzhou Tanci
masters in Jiaqing reign. Yu’s melodies tend to meander, and considered “as pleasing
as the singing of spring orioles”, part of the reason being the appropriate use of real
voice and falsetto, with an inclination towards the latter. It was often used to express
the love between designated couples, as well as subdued feelings of women. Many
Schools have developed on the basis of Yu Style, including Yang Xiaoting’s Small
Masculine Style (Xiaoyang’diao), Qi Liangfang’s Qi Style and Hou Lijun’s Hou
Style. The last is considered a true branch of Yu Style.

Ma Style was conceived by Ma Rufei in Xianfeng reign of the Qing Dynasty
(1851–1861). Its style is more narrative than singing, owing to frequent appearance
of Reiterative Phrases. The music relies on singing in real voice, and melodies are
in simple and unconstrained style. The most popular Schools developed from Ma
Style include Shen Xue Style invented by Shen Jian’an and Xue Xiaoqing, as well as
the later Qin Style created by Zhu Xueqin. The last is also referred to as possessing
essences of Ma Style.
In addition, certain styles of singing may involve melodies from more than one
School, such as amalgamating music of Yu and Ma Styles, forming some kind of
Composite Styles, such as Xia (Hesheng) Sytle, Xu (Yunzhi) Style, Yang (Zhenxiong)
Style, Jiang (Yuequan) Style, Li (Xu Lixian) Style and Zhang (Jianting) Style.
Melodies of these Schools are the basis of Tanci music, and these are also called
Storytelling Tunes (Shudiao). Tanci has also borrowed Labelled Pieces from other folk
music genres, which are used to depict designated characters or scenes. Labelled Pieces
borrowed from opera include Dianjiang’chun (Putting on Red Lipstick), Suonan’zhi
(Locking Southern Branch), Shua’haier (A Naughty Boy) and Lihun’diao (Tune of
Departing Spirit); those borrowed from folk ditties include Shange’diao (Tune of
Mountain Songs), Jianjian’hua (Cutting Flowers), Feijia’diao (Fei’s Tune), Jiu’lianhuan
(Nine Connected Rings), Yinniu’si (Silver Thread) and Luanji’ti (Crowing Roosters).
(2) Introduction to Melodies of Tanci Schools
a. Chen Style
As mentioned, Chen Style was invented by Chen Yuqian, but succeeding Tanci
performers developed his melodies in different ways. For example, Chen’s piece
Linchong Taxue (Lin Chong Walking in the Snow) interpreted by Liu Tianyun focuses
Example 3-23. Linchong Taxue (Lin Chong Walking in the Snow). Chen Style, sung by Liu Tianyun
more on mourning the hero when he was fabricated. Likewise, Chen’s Tingtang Duozi
(Seizing the Son in the Hall) sung by Jiang Yuequan applied Gaobozi melodic pattern
of Beijing Opera to create a more appropriate mood to introduce the character Xu
Shangzhen of the plot.
(i) Chen Singing Style’s Patterns of Phrasing: Melodies of Chen School are
organized in paired phrases, with the first ending on sol, and the second on re.

A big storm covers all of the mountains,
There is a hero facing the wind and fighting the snow.
(ii) Characteristics of Chen Style: Melodies are broad and vigorous, with steady
rhythmic patterns, and with repeated notes and descending intervals of a minor sixth,
minor seventh and octave.
Chen Style has an inclination towards the Shang (second degree) mode.
Experienced performers of Tanci refer to the last three phrases of Opening Poem
(Kaipian) as preparation for modal change, a feature of the style. Interludes of his
singing style tend to incorporate repeated notes as a feature of its accompaniment. The
skills involved in singing the style recall those of Kunqu opera, particularly that of
highlighting the delicate articulation of lyrics.
b. Yu Style
The original melodies sung by Yu Xiushan, founder of Yu Style, have been lost.
The so-called “Old Yu Style” is supposed to be melodically simple, with a slow
rhythm, and in chanting style. Its accompaniment is plain, and instrumental interludes
are lengthy, while the prelude can last over thirty beats. The essence of Yu School was
preserved by the Zhu family (Zhu Yaoting, Zhu Yaosheng and Zhu Jiesheng), the first
two being brothers while the last their nephew. They borrowed materials from Suzhou
Tanhuang (a local narraitive singing), Beijing Opera and Kunqu opera to enrich Yu
Tune, at the same time shortening the interludes of Old Yu Style to fasten the pace of
performance, hence improving aesthetic qualities and expressive power of the music.
Famous repertoire of Zhu’s Yu Style included Zhu Jiesheng’s Daiyu Guitian (The
Death of Daiyu) and Gongyuan (Complaints from the Palace).
(i) Phrase Pattern of Yu Style: Most are paired phrases each with seven characters,
hence it is rare to find Feng’diantou (Phoenix Nodding Head) or Dieju verses. There
Example 3-24. Gongyuan (Complaints from the Palace). Yu Style, sung by Zhu Huizhen
(to be
continued)
Example 3-24 (continued). Gongyuan (Complaints from the Palace). Yu Style, sung by Zhu Huizhen
(to be
continued)
is deliberate attempt to align phrasing of text and music; texts are paired according to
the convention of juxtaposing the number of characters in form of “4 - 3” or “2 - 4”.
The usual practice is shadow punctuation of texts with melody. The long “two - five”
phrase is the most outstanding feature of Yu Style.

West palace is very quite at night, with the fragrance of hundred flowers,
I would like to roll the pear curtain but alas the sadness of Spring lasts too
long.
Guifei concubine sits alone on the aloes bed,
Lighting the candle and waiting for the Emperor Minghuang.
(ii) It is possible to highlight the characteristics of the long “two - five” phrase of
Yu Style through analysing the third phrase of the score above.
Example 3-24 (continued). Gongyuan (Complaints from the Palace). Yu Style, sung by Zhu Huizhen
Extended Melody: A verse of lyrics is punctuated twice, and texts are set to a
melody with four rests. The first two characters are set to a fragment of melody ending
on re, while the ensuing text (five characters) are set to melodies with three rests,
preceded by do, re and do respectivelty.
The lyrics of the long “2 - 5” verse are, of course, unequal in length, and in order
to achieve an overall balance, the following five characters are punctuated three times,
with ending notes showing a good balance.
The long “two - five” phrase is set to an extended melody, in contrast to the more
condensed “four - three” that follows, hence making some kind of contrast.
Special techniques are therefore involved in extending the long “two - five” phrase
in Yu Tune, marking the unique differences from performers of other Schools. This
verse is not merely unique for its length, but the melody has inherent beauty of a
broad range, hence its potential for expressiveness has been the model for other artists.
Melodic Features of Yu Style: The essence of music setting in Yu Style is frequent
use of melismatic technique, and the melody is very decorative. It also tends to
meander, and covers a wide range, often over two octaves. The undulating melody
with long phrases has led to a firm establishment of its pedagogic role.
Yu Style tends to favour a descending melody, coupled with an undulating

character, providing the necessary background of a unique lingering and reserved
style, somewhat akin to the pattern of Lachrymae in early Western music.
Yu Style has a slow pace, and its melodic contour is attractive, hence possesses
the quality for expressing emotions. In contemporary Tanci, it is often used to portray
female characters.
Yu Style is often sung in Zhi (fifth degree sol) mode.
c. Xiao Yangdiao (Small Masculine Style) and Qidiao (Qi Style) Modelling on Yu
Style
These are most influential melodies modelling on Yu Style. Xiao Yangdiao was
developed by Yang Xiaoting. The tune acquired its name “Small Masculine Tune”
because of its blending of “feminine” falsetto with “masculine” true voice (Tanci
performers refer to “small voice” (falsetto) as feminine and “big voice” (real voice) as
masculine). Besides Chen and Yu Singing Styles, Xiao Yangdiao was most popular in
the period leading to the early Republic.
Xiao Yangdiao developed from Yu Style by speeding up the pulse and simplifying
the melodies, hence its other name Kuai Yudiao (Fast Yu Style). It also has some
influence from Ma Style.
Example 3-25. Yingying Baiyue (Cui Yingying Worshipping the Moon). Xiao Yangdiao, sung by
Yang Renlin

Step by step, one walks to the middle of the Pavillion
Filling up the burner with more incense.
The first of the paired phrases of Xiao Yangdiao is a simplification of Yu Style,

while the second phrase is stylistically close to Ma Style, hence it is also called
Yujia’xue (Rain and Snow).
Qi Style was conceived by Qi Lianfang in the 1930s, featuring gentle plucking
accompaniment and singing in low range. Most melodies are sad and lingering, often
alluring the scene of weeping and complaints. The tragic mood of the melody is
further emphasized by nasal tone and embellishments.
Example 3-26. Sidiao from Shuangzhu’feng (Huo Dingjin Mourning for Her Husband). Qi Style,
sung by Qi Lianfang
English translation of the lyrics (Example 3-26):

In this world, I am the one who has suffered most.
Qi Style is similar to Yu Style, but its beats remain slow, allowing the melodies to
be decorated.
Famous works of Qi Style include Xiao’jinqian (Small Golden Money) and
Shuangzhu’feng (Huo Dingjin Mourning for Her Husband), which have been jointly
performed by Qi Lianfang and Chen Lianqing. Later, Zhou Yunrui made considerable
changes to Qi Style in the Opening Poem (Kaipian) Qiusi (Nostalgia in Autumn),
enabling the singing style to have a fresh outfit. The piece is still popular.
d. Ma Style
Ma Rufei, the founder of Ma Style, spent most of his life singing Tanci in rural
areas. His melodies were unadorned, hence very popular among peasants. Early
Ma Style was akin to recitation of poetry, so it was referred to as “Article Style”
(Wenzhang’diao). Later, it adopted Dongxiang Tune of Tanhuang (a local narrative
genre) and developed the techniques of Feng’diantou (three-verse structure) and
Dieju, making the melodies more suitable for long stories. The most famous work of
Ma Style is the long story Zhenzhu’ta (The Pearl Pagoda), of which singing accounts
for about 60 percent of the performance (the norm is 30 percent; sometimes 20
percent). The style of setting in Ma Style involves accommodating many words in a
Example 3-27. Fangqing Xie’jiaxin (Fang Qing Writing a Family Letter). Ma Style, sung by Wei
Hanying
phrase, hence has a stronger basis for storytelling than Yu Style. Therefore, Ma Style
played a vital role in the development of Tanci music, especially on the basis of its
structure. Ma Style was further developed by Wei Yuqing, who adopted faster rhythms
and more Dieju (Reiterative Phrases), leading to a more vigorous and heroic style. At
present, the most popular Tanci work of Ma Style is Zhenzhu’ta sung by Wei Jueqing
and his son Wei Hanying. The following excerpt Fangqing Xie’jiaxin (Fang Qing
Writing a Family Letter) reflects the typical style of Ma Style.

Prior to writing, sad feeling has built up;
When I start to write, my tears are in two rows;
After writing, my heart has broken.
(i) Structure of Ma Style: Ma Style is organized with phrases in pairs. Owing to its
strong narrative nature, the rhythm is free, and the number of characters in a phrase is
not fixed. Music setting is largely syllabic, and a phrase may be punctuated twice, or
Example 3-28. Kuta of Zhenzhu’ta (Crying at the Pagoda in The Pearl Pagoda)
sung without a break. The first phrase of a pair can end on do or mi, while the second
phrase usually on sol. Feng’diantou is often used, as in the first three phrases of the
above music example.
Ma Style also uses a lot of Dieju (Reiterative Phrases), as in the following excerpt
Kuta of Zhenzhu’ta (Crying at the Pagoda in The Pearl Pagoda).

Mobster has a testimony and confession,
There is nobody around the area, and the drum is sounded three times loudly.
Wind is strong,
Snow becomes balls.
Suddenly, the Sky becomes dark,
Swan geese rest on withered trees,
Fishes and shrimps are found on the seashore.
Long night and frost is cold,
There is neither vehicle nor boats,
No accompaning person,
No rescuer.
Put an effort to fight for life,
It is analogus to a hungry tiger coming out of mountain to catch a young sheep
as prey.
No need to question whether life will be in danger.
(This example is the same as the lyrics illustrated in Dieju “Reiterative phrases”
on pages 237-239).
These Dieju (Reiterative Phrases) are like Piled Phrases in opera. These are usually
parallel phrases of three, five or seven characters. The music setting involves many
words to a relatively short melody, which is rather plain and usually ends on do.
Several Dieju appear without a break before the second of the paired phrases. When
short and fast Dieju are repeated, they can create a momentum for the expression of
agitation and excitement.
(ii) Characteristics of Ma Style: The most conspicuous feature of Ma Style is
the Hewei (Common Ending) of the second of the paired phrases, referring to the
repeitition of the same phrase or its ending. That is, the sixth of the seven characters
of the verse is prolonged for two or three measures musically, with a rest or linking
passage added, before the last charcter is sung. This technique is referred to as
Qingting Dianshui (Dragonfly Skimming on Water), presumably under the influence
of scholars reciting poems.
Ma Style tends to take a descending path, and its range is narrow encompassing
about an octave, while mainly on Zhi (fifth degree sol) mode.
Ma Style focuses on narration, hence is plain melodically; certain passages
are delivered in speaking tone. The idea is to use simple melodies to highlight the
characteristics of indigenous language, hence feelings expressed are truthful. Chen
Ruheng refers to Ma Style in History of Storytelling (Shoushu Shihua) as, “full of

suprises and unrestrained,40” a reason for its popularity in areas speaking Wu dialect.
e. Xue Style and Qin Style Modelling on Ma Style
Xue Style, also known as Shen Xue Style, was jointly invented by Shen Jian’an
and Xue Xiaoqing in the 1930s. Having studied Tanci with Wei Weiqing, the successor
of Ma Style, they developed the singing style and founded a new School. Xue Style
puts more emphasis on singing skills, as well as adopting Hewei (Common Ending) in
the first of the paired phrases. The mode of expression has traces of Cheng School of
Beijing Opera, ready to create an introspective and solemn atmosphere. The relatively
plain singing of Ma Style in Hewei section becomes more expressive, especially on
notes set to the sixth character of the second of the paired phrases.
The most prominent contribution of Shen Xue Style is changes made to the
accompaniment. Tanci performed as duets used to limit the role of the second singer,
who did not accompany the principal singer, even though the former can accompany
himself on the Pipa. Yet duo performances of Shen Xue School allowed the second
performer to accompany the principal singer in heterophonic style, providing contrast
in rhythm and register between the singer and accompaniment, greatly enriching the
expressive power of the accompaniment.
Zhenzhu’ta (The Pearl Pagoda) is also a famous piece of Xue Style; its other
repertoire includes Opening Poem (Kaipian), such as Zijuan Yetan (Zijuan Exploring
at Night).
Qin Style was created by Zhu Xueqin on the basis of Shen Xue Style, while
adopting the rich melodies of Yu Style, and retaining the lively rhythm and method of
ending a phrase of Ma Style. Zhu Xueqin often performed with Guo Binqing. Zhu had
a wide range, and her singing was unrestrained and vigorous, hence often took the role
as principal performer, impersonating masculine characters, such as Liang Shanbo in
Liangzhu (Butterfly Lovers) and Cai Bojie in Pipa Ji (The Story of Pipa). Features of
Qin Style include lively undulating melodic lines, often including surprises of sudden
rises and falls of intervals, as well as staccato singing to portray excited and vehement
emotions.
Example 3-29. Youhui Jidi (Swimming Back to the Base) in Jiang Style
(to be
continued)
40 听上去有汪洋恣肆之感。
Example 3-29 (continued). Youhui Jidi (Swimming Back to the Base) in Jiang Style
(to be
continued)
Example 3-29 (continued). Youhui Jidi (Swimming Back to the Base) in Jiang Style
Zhu Xueqin and Guo Binqing further developed the accompaniment on the basis
of Shen Xue School. Heterophonic techniques are applied to both parts of the duo, so
as to create more linear varieties. Guo was a skillful performer of the Pipa, hence had
an opportunity to create an appropriate atmosphere in Xiaoxiang Yeyu (Night Rain at
Xiaoxiang Guan), by imitating the sounds of wind, rain and copper clepsydra on the
instrument vividly. Such flawless accompaniment greatly enriched the performance.
f. Jiang Style

Wind is strong and wave is high; such circumstances are uncontrollable,
My body is severly wounded, hence cannot walk.
The hero is trapped in the rocks of the mountain,
His surveillance duties cannot be accomplished.
Suddenly I recall the last words of Comrade Daming,
I should overcome all difficulties with confidence.
Our leader is waiting for my return,
How could I perish so easily?
Jiang Style, formerly known as Zhou Jiang Style, was developed by Jiang
Yuequan on the basis of Zhou Yuquan’s Tunes. It is one of the most popular forms
of Tanci performance. Zhou Yuquan’s melodies are based on Ma Style, with changes
introduced. Jiang has adopted melodies and singing methods of Beijing Opera, as he
was familiar with idioms of the genre as a guest performer on stage. He has devoted
much time and energy in acquiring the essences of diction, melodic decoration, tone
production and timbre of Beijing Opera, and managed to amalgamate these features
with Yu Style. Hence the Jiang’s Tunes are rich in expressive power, nurturing an
instrospective, solemn and decorative style. Jiang has indeed played an important role
in the development of Tanci music.
(i) Phrase Patterns of Jiang Tunes: The basic phrase pattern of Jiang Style is similar
to Ma Style, in that the first of the paired phrases resembles Wei’s Ma Style, while
the second phrase is similar Xue Style. Jiang Style also uses Feng’diantou (Phoenix
Nodding Head) and Dieju (Reiterative Phrases) frequently.
(ii) Characteristics of Jiang Tunes: A unique feature of Jiang Style is its strictness
with juxtaposing four language tones with melodies in music setting. For example, the
second of the pair phrases ending with level-tone characters has do as final, while the
same phrase ending with rising-tone characters concludes with fa-sol-mi. This manner
of ending a phrase allows the four tones to be emphasized, but also leads to changes
in mode, giving Jiang Style some characteristics. While Yu Style and Ma Style only
use Zhi (fifth degree) mode, Jiang Style mainly uses Gong (first degree) mode, but his
melodies may venture into Jue (Third Degree) mode.
The fa degree in Jiang Style often appears on the down beat at the end of the
second of the paired phrases; it also appears in other phrases, hence should be
considered as part of melody, rather than merely as decorative, as in Ma Style.
Jiang Yuequan has a habit of enriching his singing from other performers, such as
adopting the structure of long “two - five” division of the first of paired phrases of Yu
Style while simplifying the melody to facilitate the expression of specific emotions.
Another example is the development of Tanci singing upon the melodies of the
stylized Laosheng (Aged Male Role) in Beijing Opera.
Jiang Style has many famous works: extended Tanci include Yu’qingting (Jade
Dragonflies) and Baishe’zhuan (Legend of the White Snake); modern Tanci works
include Yiding Yaoba Huihe Xiuhao (We Must Harness the Huaihe River) and Wang
Xiaohe. In the early days of radio in the 1930s, Tanci Opening Poem (Tanci Kaipian)
were broadcast frequently, making Jiang Style extremely popular. Jiang’s works
in this category include Du Shiniang (Lday Du Shiniang), Daohui (Meeting the
Enemies Alone), Zhan’changsha (The Battle of Changsha) and Baoyu Yetan (Night
Visit of Baoyu). In 1986, Selected Tanci Works of Jiang Yuequan (Jiang Yuequan
Changqiang’xuan) was published.
g. Li Style
Li Style was invented by Xu Lixian in the 1950s based on Jiang Style, as well as
incorporating melodies from folk songs and opera, including original compositions.
Therefore, Li Style is a School of Tanci with the most diverse melodies, which has
potential to undergo rapid development.
Xu Lixian was a composer and performer of Tanci, and she had an extensive
repertoire. The compendium Selected Tanci Works of Xu Lixian (Xu Lixian
Changqiang’xuan) published in 1979 contains 27 original Tanci songs composed by
her. Her repertoire can be divided into two categories: the first portrays images of
oppressed women and features sad melodies in low register, highlighting delicate,
reserved and lingering singing; examples in this category include Shuzhuang (Dressing
and Making Up) and Toujiang (Drowning in the River) of the medium length Tanci
work Du Shiniang (Lady Du Shiniang), Yanggao (Complaining to the God of
Underworld at Sea God Temple) and Qingtan (Test of Love) of the medium length
Tanci work Wangkui Fu Guiying (Wang Kui Deserting Jiao Guiying), and the Opening
Poem (Kaipian) Daiyu Zanghua (Daiyu Burying Flowers) and Daiyu Fen’gao (Daiyu
Burning Manuscripts). The other category is represented by Xin Mulanci (The New
Mulan Ballad), replacing the sad and low melodies with those in bright and vigorous
style. Xu Lixian also has many compositions reflecting the new era. Li Stle stands
out among all Tanci Schools for its strong musicality, a quality much appreciated by
professionals of later generations.
(i) Phrase Patterns of Li Tune: Early Li Style has similar phrase structure as
Jiang Style, and it tends to end with a decorated final note, so as to make the singing
feminine. The second of the paired phrases usually ends on sol, and there is no
distinction of linguistic level/rising tones, hence deviates from Jiang Tune.
Li Style was later influenced by a wide range of other art forms, particularly opera
and other Banqiang (melodic types) music genres. Each of the paired phrases may
be sung with a different speed, hence achieving a sharp contrast between verses,
and introducing fundamental changes to the melodies. For example, in the Opening
Poem (Kaipian) Xin Mulanci (The New Mulan Ballad), some verses are sung in slow,
medium and fast tempi, showing features of Banqiang (Varied Metre) structure. The
Opening Poem Daiyu Fen’gao (Daiyu Burning Manuscripts) and Daiyu Zanghua
(Daiyu Burying Flowers) use Scattered Phrases (Sanban), while the piece Qingtan
(Test of Love) and Toujiang in Du Shiniang (“Drowning in the River” in Lady Du
Shiniang) begin with Dieju (Reiterative Phrases). Such a liberal approach to handling
structures has enriched the expressive potential of Tanci music. Changes in structure
and melody of Li Style are introduced according to the demand of the content of the
stories to be narrated. This aspect alone distinguishes Li Style from other Schools of
Tanci.
(ii) Characteristics of Li Style: The most prominent feature of Li Style is the new
ideas introduced to melodies of Tanci. In order to enhance the portrayal of female
characters, she introduced more contours to the melodies in order to make them more
delicate. Xu Lixian has followed Jiang Yuequan in using fa and si in the context of
the pentatonic scale, leading to a unique lingering and affectionate style, displaying
feminine characteristics.
While adopting melodies of other Schools, Li Style also makes them more melodic
and singables, as seen in a passage of Dieju (Reiterative Phrases) at the beginning of
Toujiang in Du Shiniang (“Drowning in the River” in Lady Du Shiniang).
Example 3-30. Du Shiniang (Lady Du Shiniang)

Sky is dark, deep at night,
The villains act like tigers and wolves, with hearts like vipers;
They are ruthless and want of humanities.
Li Style also uses “Featured Phrase” at the critical positions of the melody or
where it requires special interpretation; this approach is appreciated by the audience
and professionals as a great innovation. The following is an example in Danyu
Fen’gao (Daiyu Burning Manuscripts):
Example 3-31. Danyu Fengao (Daiyu Burning Manuscripts)

Her fragile body is often covered by fragrant silk bed sheets.
Li Style is sung with a unique technique. This is because Xu Lixian’s voice was
thick but a bit coarse, making it difficult for her to produce high notes. In order to
expose her strengths and cover her weaknesses, she focused on the medium register.
For example, when singing Yanggao, she adopted Yu Style, but lowered the pitch by
an octave to use “big voice”; she also sang in the low register in some other pieces.
She meticulous skills in embellishment has added colour to Li Style.
(3) Example for Appreciation and Analysis: Xin Mulanci (The New Mulan Ballad)
in Li Style.
Xin Mulanci (The New Mulan Ballad) is a famous piece of Li Style. The lyrics were
adapted by Xia Shi according to The Ballad of Mulan, a Yuefu (Music Bureau) song of
the Northern Dynasties. Xu Lixian composed the melodies and performed the work.
The Ballad of Mulan is an ancient ballad known in China nationally. Xin Mulanci
(The New Mulan Ballad) is a Tanci Opening Poem written and sung by Xu Lixian,
endeavouring to re-create the image of the ancient heroine with concise and vivid
music. The work is divided into three parts: “Sighing in the Weaving Room (Jifang
Tanxi)”, “Joining the Army for Her Father (Daifu Congjun)” and “Returning Home
after Victory (Desheng Huanxiang)”.
a. Sighing in the Weaving Room (Jifang Tanxi)
“The loom rattled and rattled day and night; Mulan kept sighing in deep sadness.
She was shocked to hear the Khan ordered his men to fight; she also saw the roll
containing more than a dozen lines.41” The first four phrases are typical of Li Style:
the melody is slow and features descending notes, with a winding, graceful and
beautiful melody in low register. The music portrays the atmosphere of the heroine
“sighing in the weaving room,” at the same time highlighting her original identity of a
protected female in a traditional society. This anticipates the contrast of her image in
the middle section.
This section comprises four paired phrases (eight verses); the music is not a simple
repetition, but changes are introduced to the basic melody as the meaning of lyrics
warrants. The fifth verse “Father’s name was seen on the roll42” deviates from the
tradition of using the tune of the first of paired phrases by incorporating the so-called
“Featured Phrase of Li Style”, modulating to the Gong (first degree do) mode a fifth
above. This winding and reserved melody in low range portrays Mulan’s love and
respect for her aged father. If the previous phrases describe Mulan’s self-pity, this
phrase is a display of the close relationship between father and daughter, paving the
way for the ensuing section “Joining the Army for Her Father (Daifu Congjun)”.
b. Joining the Army for Her Father (Daifu Congjun)
This part is the core of the work, focusing on the heroic image of Mulan. To show
the heroic character of Mulan who disguised herself as a man and galloped across
the battlefield with a spear in hands, neither traditional Li Style nor tunes from other
schools of Tanci could achieve the desired effect. Therefore, Xu Lixian ignored the
restrictions of existing tunes and convention and made a bold innovation by inventing
her own melodies. This part can be divided into four short sections, namely “Joining
the Army (Congjun)”, “Marching off to War (Zhengtu)”, “Fighting Fierce Battles
(Aozhan)” and “Returning in Glory (Ronggui)”. Different musical techniques are used
to portray the heroic image of Mulan from various perspectives.
Joining the Army (Congjun): There are two verses of linking passage, “She bought
a horse and a whip from the market; she was ready to replace her skirt by military
uniform.43” The pace is similar to an Allegretto when the main text is sung, in the
stern style of Xue Style, showing Mulan’s determination to disguise herself on behalf
of her father going to war. In the second phrase, motive of the text “take off the
41 唧唧机声日夜忙，木兰是频频叹息愁绪长。惊闻可汗点兵卒，又见兵书十数行。
42 卷卷都有爹名字。
43 东市长鞭西市马，愿将那裙衫脱去换戎装。
skirt44” descends to the low range, while the melody of “put on the military uniform45”
ascends abruptly with a minor seventh - mi to re–changes the mood suddenly, in sharp
contrast with the previous text, vividly showing Mulan’s shift from shyness to pride
as she dons her military uniform. The featured large leap appears several times in this
section, marking Mulan’s heroic and resolute character.
Marching off to War (Zhengtu): It was a long journey over the hills and through
the rivers; she joined the army for her father and was full of pride.46” With the hurried
accompaniment of Sanxian and Pipa, the phrase is lengthened, with a long Dragging
Tune (Tuoqiang) added. It seems that a long shot pushes the field of vision over the
mountains to the distant horizon. The high register appears twice in the melody: the
abrupt la-sol upward leap shows Mulan’s high spirits. This section has four phrases,
with the “Long Heishui River” at the end set to a winding melody of the low register,
in contrast to the previous phrases, as if there were a change in scenes on the stage.
The solemn, quiet atmosphere is vastly different from the ensuing activities of the
battlefield; such irony is an effective means of preparing for the climax.
Fighting Fierce Battles (Aozhan): This part describes the war, and is the climax
of the whole piece. The first phrase “the drums boom47” borrows melodies of Yuju
and Chang Xiangyu’s Sousheng (coughing tone) singing method, and the melody is
vigorous and intense. The word “boom” is followed by an imitation of the timbre of
the drum produced by beating the soundboard of the Pipa; syncopated rhythm, leaps,
unstable notes and other devices are introduced to highlight the ideas of “the north
wind whistles48,” “passing swiftly like the wind or lightning49,” “galloping across the
battlefield50,” and other texts. In an instant, the drums, wind, battle cries and clanking
weapons are heard here and there, vividly depicting the fierce fighting on the ancient
battlefield. The next two phrases, “Mountains passed as flying as she travelled over
thousands of miles; her armour was stained with blood and shone on a cold light,51”
are set to a beautiful melody, to sum up the hardships in ten years of fierce battles.
Returning in Glory (Ronggui): This part describes how Mulan declined the
honorary title conferred by the Emperor, and said that “I would like to be given a
camel so that I can return to my hometown early.52” The music gradually returns to the
typical style of Li to make reference to the beginning, preparing for Mulan to resume
her identity as a girl in the third part.
c. Returning Home After Victory (Desheng Huanxiang)
Returning Home After Victory is sung on lyrics based on the five-character
rhyming pattern of the original poem. The music setting involves frequent use of
44 裙衫脱去
45 换戎装
46 登山涉水长途去，代父从军意气扬。
47 鼙鼓隆隆
48 朔风猎猎
49 风驰电扫
50 跃马横枪
51 关山万里如飞渡，铁衣染血映寒光。
52 愿借明驼千里足 , 送儿早早还故乡。
Dieju (Reiterative Phrases) of Tanci to create an enthusiastic and lively atmosphere,

which matches the text, “Let open my bedroom door; I sit upon my bed. The amours
I wear no more; I put on my old dress. Once again I comb my hair, with makeups on
my face.53” At the climax of celebration, the composer ingenuously follows the phrase
“With a smile my brother-in-arms I greet54” with a male vocal accompaniment of the
instrumentalists, “and her fellow soldiers are shocked: for a decade with Mulan lived,
but knew not that’s a maid.55” These phrases seem to bring the slender lady and the
dumbfounded soldiers before the audience’s eyes, thus achieving a comic effect. To
conclude, the phrase “Who says women are not as capable as men?56” is still sung by
a female voice in a soft and Dragging Tune, reiterating the motto of the whole piece,
and leaving a lasting impression on the audience.
III. The Art of Narrative Singing of Ethnic Minorities

A. Overview
Narrative singing of ethnic minorities is an important aspect of the Chinese music
culture. If narrative singing of Han Chinese possesses characteristics of urban culture,
the same art of many ethnic minorities has great value in ethnography. Some genres
of narrative singing of ethnic minorities are related to Han Chinese culture, hence it is
desirable to explore briefly into this topic so as to present a broader view of the art.
There is a rough estimation that of the fifty-five ethnic minorities inhabiting in
China, about half of them have developed some form of narrative singing.
Among the ethnic minorities in northeast China, the Mongolians have developed
“Holboo” and “Uliger”, art forms imbued with their ethnic temperament. “Holboo”
refers to “singing in succession” or “singing in series”, and the genre has a history
of two centuries, often based on praising heroes, describing travelling military
personnel, and displaying sentiments of homesickness. “Uliger” means Mongolian
storytelling, and according to oral records, it was conceived during the Song and Yuan
Dynasties. Some “Uliger” works narrate stories in prose, while others rely on singing
or combining narration with singing. “Uliger” works are usually heroic epics, such as
Jangar and The Legend of Geser. Some works are based on Han Chinese novels, such
as The Romance of Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi), The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan)
and Journey to the West (Xiyou’ji) . Both “Holboo” and “Uliger” are folk music genres
that are highly influential among the Mongolian people. Some forms of narrative
singing of the Manchu people in the northeast have been merged with those of the
Han Chinese. For example, Octagonal Drum Songs (Bajiao Gu) and Qingyin Zidi’shu
(Pure Sound and Big Drum Singing Popular among Manchurians) were invented by
descendants of the Manchu Eight Banners, but these became part of the culture of Han
Chinese. Another example is Taiping Drum Songs (Taiping’gu) in Manchu settlements
53 开我东阁门，坐我西阁床，脱我战时袍，着我旧时裳，当窗理云鬓，对镜贴花黄。
54 笑出门寻伙伴。
55 伙伴见她皆惊惶，同行一十有余载，不知将军是女郎。
56 谁说女儿不刚强 ?
The Art of Narrative Singing of Ethnic Minorities 257
in the northeast still retain characteristics of original Manchu narrative singing. The
genre is related to primitive religion of Shamanism, and has developed from songs
and dances performed for exorcism, disaster elimination, sacrificial ceremonies and
festive celebrations. The Han Chinese call the genre Minxiang, while Manchu people
designate it as Qixiang.
The Koreans in China are good at singing and dancing, and they have developed
“Panqiao’li (Pansori)”, a form of narrative singing accompanied by drums, Kaya’gum
(Korean zither-like instrument) or Xiqin (two-stringed fiddle). “Pansori” arias include
Chunxiang’zhuan (The Story of Chunxiang) and Shenqing’ge (The Song of Shen
Qing), which are popular works. They have also developed “Guda’ling”, a folk music
genre similar to Shulai’bao of the Han Chinese. The Hezhe people in the far north of
China have a small population over 1,000, but they have also developed their own
form of narrative singing. The Hezhe people live on fishing and hunting. In a leisurely
evening, after returning from work, they usually perform “Yimakan”, a form of
narrative singing, to recall heroic feats in past tribal wars. The Daur people live in the
vast northern areas of Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, and Xinjiang. “Wuqin” is a form
of narrative singing of this ethnic group. Short “Wuqin” arias can be used to narrate
short fables; long “Wuqin” arias are sung to portray folk tales. Translated stories
from Manchurian, Mongolian and Chinese, such as The Romance of Three Kingdoms
(Sanguo Yanyi), can also be performed as long “Wuqin”arias.
Among the ethnic minorities in northwest China, the Uyghur people have a
larger population and are famous both at home and abroad for singing and dancing.
However, they have not developed narrative singing, and the main genre is “Dasitan”,
which has a long history, and is sung using the melodies of the large-scale song and
dance divertimento “Mukam”. The singers play Rewafu, Dutar and other instruments
for accompaniment. “Dasitan” can be used to sing long heroic epics or love stories.
“Kexia’ke” is also a Uyghur narrative art accompanied by Rewafu. “Kexiake” arias
are short, and the lyrics are often improvised by the performers. When performing in
the streets, the singers are sometimes joined by acrobats, and they can even dress in
goat skins to put on animal shows. The Xibo people live in northern Xinjiang, having
migrated there from the Songhua River in northeast China two centuries ago. Some
of them are scattered in the northeast and Inner Mongolia. “Nianshuo (Reading and
Speaking)” is a form of narrative music popular in the Xibo settlements in Xinjiang.
On New Year’s Day or other festivals, performers are invited to sing their folk tales in
the garden and brick-beds, including works such as Wuya (Crows) and Tuhaizi (The
Bald Child). Some “Nianshuo” arias are also based on Han Chinese novels, such as
The Romance of Three Kingdoms, The Water Margin and The Investiture of the Gods
(Fengshen Yanyi). “Manas,” the long heroic epic of the Kyrgyz ethnic group, narrates
how the hero Manas and his seven generations of descendants united Kyrgyz people
to fight against foreign rule. The Kazak people have developed “Dombra Plucking
Singing”. In the performance, Akens (balladists or poets) sing ancient narrative poems,
stories and proverbs while playing the Dombra. The Salar people’s “Baxigu Liuliu”,
the Hui people’s “Banquet Songs (Yanxi’qu)” are also popular in this area, together
with some similar genres from other ethnic groups.

Southwest China, including Yunnan, Guangxi, Guizhou, Sichuan and Tibet, is
inhabited by many ethnic minorities. Their livelihood is farming, and many ethnic
groups have their unique forms of narrative singing. The Yi people have a population
over five million, and they have developed various forms of narrative singing. Among
them, “Asubadi” is developed from “Pan’ge (Antiphonal Singing)”, and its content
is as follows: A young man named Asubadi fell in love with a beautiful girl. Being
poor, the young man and young woman could not get married, so they had to flee their
hometown and faced hardship. The Yi “Sixian Plucking Singing (Xixian Tanchang)”
is a form of narrative singing popular in their settlements in Yunnan, and its content
is related to their ethnic history, heroic stories and knowledge on production.
Performances are held on New Year’s Day, festivals, weddings, harvest celebrations
and other happy occasions.
“Jiasu” means storytelling in Yi language, and the art has a long history. The
performers are mostly “Bimo”, also known as “Beima (Senior Singers)”, who perform
in Yi language. The content of singing is broad, including the origin of mankind,
ethnic history and love stories. Bai people mainly live in Dali, Yunnan. In the Song
Dynasty, they set up the Dali Kingdom and had close contact with Han Chinese.
Their language, poetry and literature, etiquette are influenced by Han culture. The
Bai people have developed the narrative art “Daben’qu (Greater Basic Suite)”, with
lyrics mostly in Bai but supplemented by Chinese. The genre has many melodies,
which are divided into south and north tunes. The former includes “Nine Metrical
Patterns and Eighteen Tunes (Jiuban Shiba’diao)” while the latter “Nine Metrical
Patterns and Thirteen Tunes (Jiuban Shisan’qiang).” “Daben’qu” arias are based
on Bai folk stories such as Huoshao Songminglou (Burning Songming Tower) and
Baiwang’de Gushi (The Story of Bai King). The Hani people have developed “Haba”,
a form of narrative music popular in the Hani region of southern Yunnan. “Haba”
means “Songs”. On New Year’s Day, festivals, weddings, funerals, groundbreaking,
completion of houses, performers sit at the dining table and sing stories such as
Kaitian Pidi (The Creation of the World), Feiqin Zoushou (Birds and Beasts) and
Shayu Quzhong (Kill Fish to Re-generate). The Dai people have developed “Zanha”,
a form of narratives popular in Dai area of Xishuang Banna, Yunnan. “Zanha” means
“Songs”, which are accompanied by the Dai wind instrument “Bi”. The famous love
story “Prince Zhaoshutun” provides the background for the aria “Zanha”. In southwest
China, the Miao people have a population of over five million, second only to the Yi
people. “Guoha” is a form of narrative singing popular in Miao areas of Guangxi and
southeast Guizhou. It is so named because of its accompanying instrument Guoha
(a ladle-like instrument). The performers accompany themselves by “Guoha” while
singing legendary stories. The Miao people have another form of narrative art called
“Gabaifu”. It is mainly narrative, satirizing on arranged marriages while praising true
love. “Buyi Plucking Singing (Buyizu Tanchang)”, also known as Wanbodi (Singing
and Playing Wind and Percussion Instruments), is popular in south Guizhou. The
lyrics are mostly on myths and legends on the formation of the universe and folk tales
of human beings fighting against floods and fierce beasts. The Dong people live in the
outskirts of Hunan, Guizhou and Guangxi as well as inside Hunan. Influenced by the
five- and seven-character poems of Han Chinese, the lyrics of the Dong Pipa Songs
follow certain rhyming and linguistic tonal patterns. They feature both assonances and
rhymes. Prior to singing a long narrative song, the performers recite a verse of poetry,
which is followed by an “Kaitang’ge (Opening Song)”, also referred to as a Xianjing
Song (a song inviting master singers of past generations). Then the singers will begin
the formal performance. “Gajin”, another form of narrative singing, is also popular in
Guizhou; performers accompany themselves while singing Dong legends and tales.
Zhuang people have a population of over 13 million, the largest among the 55
ethnic minorities. They live in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Yunnan. “Molun”, which is
popular in Guangxi, is sung in Zhuang language with the singer seated. The genre has
evolved from original witch tunes. Its lyrics use assonances and are mainly based on
Zhuang people’s historical stories and folklores. “Fenggu” is another form of narrative
singing popular among Zhuang people in Guangxi. The singers also play Fenggu
(a thin-waisted drum) and other percussion instruments while making simple dance
movements. The genre boasts many attractive melodies. Its traditional pieces include
Pangu Wang (King Pangu), Moyi Dawang (King Moyi) and some others based on
Han Chinese stories. The Zhuang people have also developed other forms of narrative
singing, such as “Changshi”, which is sung to ward off bad luck and for thanking the
gods. This is related to “Shigong Drama (Shigong’xi)” including “Kylin Tune”, sung
by a performer carrying a paper Kylin and holding an umbrella, and “Tanghuang Tune
(Tanghuang’diao)”, sung by a male seated performer on Han Chinese stories in the
Zhuang language. The Yao people inhabit in Guangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Yunnan
and two other provinces, and they have a population of over 1.4 million. The Yao
“Timbrel”, also known as “Tubie”, is a form of narrative music performed during
feasts, and its contents are improvised jokes and stories encouraging wine-drinking.
The performer narrates, sings and dances, with others playing the copper drum and
joining in singing. The Yao people also sing Panwang’ge (Song of King Pan) during
the Panwang Festival.
Many Tibetan people work on animal farms on the Tibetan Plateau and in Sichuan.
They have a long cultural tradition with their own spoken and written language. The
great Tibetan epic King Gesar is well-known both at home and abroad. It is extremely
voluminous and has been preserved by folk artists in the form of narrative music.
King Gesar performers, or “Zhongke” in Tibetan, wear hats that are four-sided with
eight corners, and decorated with thirteen kinds of feathers. Performers recite and sing
while swinging colourful arrows, usually with contents that are legendary. Another
Tibetan form of narrative music is “Lama Mani”, which means “a monk chanting
scriptures.” Nowadays, the performer of the genre does not chant scriptures, but uses
a thin stick to point at a painting scroll of stories while singing, similar to the use of
Bianwen in the Tang Dynasty. Some scholars believe that the genre was invented in
the Tang Dynasty by the eminent monks sent to Tibet, and they preached Buddhism
by reciting Buddhist stories with the help of Bianxiang (Paintings of Buddhist stories)
and Bianwen; others believe that it was created in the fifteenth century by Tangdong
Jiebu, an eminent monk of the Kagyu Sect (Jibai’jiao). Buddhist believers then sang
“Lama Mani” to raise money for building an iron rope bridge. Later, “Lama Mani”
was not just sung by monks but also by folk artists and secular Lamas. “Lama Mani”
arias are mainly based on Tibetan history and folklores. The Tibetan people have
yet another form of narrative singing called “Zhega”, sung by street artists (using
auspicious words) when they beg from door to door, and sometimes songs are sung
with a sense of humour.
There are also other forms of folk arts similar to narrative singing among ethnic
minorities, such as the “Bracket Harp Narrative Singing” (Niutui’qin Shuochang) of
the Wa people in Guangxi, Shi Chunniu of the Achang people in Yunnan, Baishou’ge
(Hand Waving Songs) and Dongdong’gui of the Tujia people in Hunan and Hubei,
and Mosu’kun of the Oroqen people in northeast Inner Mongolia.
B. Some Genres of Ethnic Narrative Singing
The diverse forms of ethnic narrative singing cannot be generalized easily, since
different cultures have their own historical and cultural background, as well as varying
aesthetic and social functions. These art forms can reflect the different stages of
development of all human societies, and provide a precious standard for measurement
of ethnological and anthropological state of the different groups, according to the
following categories.
1. The Creation of the World
Amongst genres of narrative singing of ethnic minorities, stories on the creation of
the world exist in large quantity, providing valuable sources for the scarce information
available for prehistoric human civilization. For example, many forms narrative
art in southwest China involve legends on the beginning of God’s creation. “The
Creation of the World (Kaitian Pidi)” is a common topic of narrative art in works
such as Haba of the Hani people, “Pipa Songs” of the Dong people and the “Lusheng
Words” of the Miao people; likewise, Guge (Ancient Songs) of the Buyi people and
Chuang’shiji (Genesis) of the Dulong people are extended works on the same topic.
The Yao people’s “Changshu (Book Singing)” song Panwang’ge (Song of King Pan)
also belongs to this category. It is based on Pangu, or Panhu, a god worshipped by the
Yao people. This legend is shared among the Miao, Yao ethnic groups and She people
in Fujian. The Yao people are also known as “Pangu Yao” owing to this mythical
story on their origin. Hence narrative singing is regarded as historical evidence for
the group’s early existence and totem worship, and the ethnic group regards dogs as
their totems. Ethnologists have discovered many ethnic groups around the Pacific
having mythical stories based on the dog totem. To a certain extent, the culture of
prehistoric Asian people and the clan societies of the period of Fuxi and Nuwa can
thus be preserved. Panhu in this myth is also called Pangu. In the period of Three
Kingdoms, Xu Zheng wrote Sanwu Liji and included this god in Han Chinese myths.
From then on, this god was regarded as creator in Han Chinese mythology, and was
named Pangu. In addition, there are many Haba songs of the Hani people praising
their ancestors, such as Legend of Heaven, Earth, and Man (Tiandiren Chuanshuo),
Legend of the Wind (Fengde Chuanshuo), Legend of the Cloud (Yunde Chuanshuo),
Legend of Fire (Huode Chuanshuo), Nine Suns (Jiuge Taiyang), Brother and Sister
Continue the Propagation of Mankind (Xiongmei Chuanren’zhong), Tapo Gets Seeds
(Tapo Quzhong), Legend of the Old Buffalo Beginning to Plow Farmland (Laoshuiniu
Kaishi Litiande Chuanshuo), The Origin of Worshiping the Village God (Jihu
Zhaishende Youlai), and Ezuo Mizuo. The last, Ezuo Mizuo, means the creation of sky
and earth, and a verse of this song is illustrated as follows.
In Chinese Translation
天地还没出现的时候， When there was neither sky nor earth,
主宰一切的是两个大神， two great gods dominated everything,
一个大神叫十遮， One great god was Shizhe,
带着聪明的儿子遮则； who had a clever son Zheze;
一个大神叫书则， The other great god was Shuze,
带着强悍的儿子则作。 who had a valiant son Zezuo.
要造天了， It was time to make sky,
造天在属龙的好日子。 Sky was made in a good day of dragon.
大神十遮传下命令， The great god Shizhe issued the order,
天神波卑摇动双臂， The celestial god Bobei shook his arms,
突然闪出万道金光， Suddenly a thousand rays flashed,
星光里显示出了辽阔的天庭。 In the starlight emerged the vast sky.
要造地了， It was time to make earth,
造地在属蛇的日子。 Earth was made in a day of snake.
大神书则传下命令， The great god Shuze issued the order,
天神破卑用尽全力关闭， The heavenly god Pobei closed with all his might,
突然一片漆黑， Suddenly darkness fell,
一片黑影中显出宽广的大地。 From the dark shadow emerged the vast earth.
显出的天庭一片清悠， The newly-made sky was azure,
爬来一只小妈蚁。 A little ant crawled over.
大神十遮的儿子赶来说： The son of the great god Shizhe came and said:
“快向四方传信吧， “Now spread the word in all directions,
这就是天了！” This is sky!”
显出的大地一片寂静， The newly-made earth was quiet,
走来一条壮实的黄牛。 A sturdy ox walked over.
大神书则的儿子赶来说： The son of the great god Shuze came to say:
“快向四方呼号吧， “Now bellow in all directions,
这就是地了！” This is earth!”
Illustration 3-2. Part of the Verses of Ezuo Mizuo (Sky and Earth) from Hani Ethnic Group
In these vivid lines, the beholder can regenerate the icons of primitive human
beings: they looked upwards to the colourful and changeable sky, and downwards
at the vast, black and mysterious earth. With the wisdom and imagination of human
beings in their childhood, they painted a picture of the creation of sky and earth, as
well as the mutual transformation between human beings and gods. These precious
narrative epics reflect mankind’s early naive view of the universe, world and
themselves.
The Yi people’s narrative singing Meige (Meige, a girl’s name) is also based on
the origin of the world. Both the Creation of the World and the Creation of Materials
(Zaowu’bu) use the main melody to describe the creation of heaven and earth, birth
of myriad things on earth, origin of the mankind, and how the Yi ancestors emerged
out of caves to hunt, graze and farm. A long narrative song is widely sung among
the Manchu people in Heilongjiang: a heavenly maid descends to earth and marries
a fisherman. They started to make stone implements, sew animal skins as garments,
preserve fire, and expanded the Jurchen Wanyan tribe, the Manchu ancestors. This
song also falls into the category of the Creation of the World (Chuangshi’bu).
2. Heroic Epics
Heroic epics, compared with ideas of origins of the world, are nearer to us. The
stories are based on heroes in national or state expeditions in the late clan, slave and
feudal societies. The heroes are often deified, so gods and human beings are mixed
in the plots, and eventually only the divine power could punish evil, and sustain the
light of justice. The most famous piece is the Tibetan epic King Gesar. Regarded as
the longest epic in world literature so far, this Tibetan story is fifty times longer than
Homeric epics. It praises Gesar, the son of the King of the White Brahma (Baifan
Wang). In order to save mankind, Gesar descended to earth and was reborn into the
family of a small tribe’s Chief. Later, he won a horse race and became the King of the
Ling Kingdom. After numerous battles, he led his soldiers to conquer various demons,
and finally saved all living creatures from torment. The epic includes three volumes,
namely “Book of Heaven (Tianjie Zhibu)”, “Book of Human World (Renjian Zhibu)”
and “Book of Hell (Diyu Zhibu)”. The work reflects the views on nature, gods and
human life of the primitive tribes on both sides of the Himalayas in late clan society.
This epic has a high ethnological and historical value, and it has also attained a great
artistic summit. It has absorbed and integrated ancient myths, poems and proverbs
of Tibetans, as well as outstanding folk sculptures, woodcuts, paintings, songs and
dances. It is a culmination of Tibetan arts and represents the essence of Tibetan
culture. In recent years, the rare treasure of King Gesar has caught the attention of
scholars all over the world.
The legend of King Gesar was disseminated to Mongolian people, and inspired
composition of the indigenous heroic epic “The Hero Geser Khan,” reflecting the
ethnic spirit of the Mongols. Another famous Mongolian narrative epic Jangar
describes how the hero of the song title led Mongolian ancestors to fight against nature
and devils. Additionally, famous stories such as Genghis Khan and Gada Meilin are
performed as heroic epics in form of Holboo. The Manchu’s Wanyan Aguda, the
Uyghur’s Yusuf Amat and the Kazak’s Arkalek accompanied by Dombra also fall into
the category of heroic epics.
The epics on the creation of the world and heroic feats are narrative forms
with rich cultural connotations, and and hence not exactly the same as similar
genres of the Han Chinese. These epics reflect early social conditions, production
activities, religions, ethnic relations, and tribal wars of different ethnic groups.
These voluminous works often cover ethnological and cultural history and are vital
means of preservation of their indigenous cultures. These epics are not performed at
casual events, but rather on more formal occasions, such as ethnic holidays, religious
ceremonies, weddings, funerals and other important events in life. They are sung by
established figures among the tribal people, such as “Bimo ” of the Yi people and
“Pimo” or “Beima” of the Hani people, who are second only to the Patriarch or tribal
Chief, and are senior figures. They can comment on serious topics, such as gods,
genealogies, tribal laws and ancestral rules. They can even exorcise evil spirits and
pray for well being of the tribes. Therefore, the Hani people say, “The village will
be unstable without a tribal Chief; the night will not be tranquil without a ‘Pimo’; all
trades will languish without craftsmen.57” In ancient times, “Beima” of the Yi people
was even an integral part of the Kingdom’s ruling class. Hence, the ancient kingdom
of Yi people was jointly ruled by the monarch, ministers and master singers, and the
same system existed in the Kingdoms of Dian and Nanzhao. These “Beima” were
down-graded to common people after the demise of these kingdoms. Some master
singers are also experts on medicine, calendars and production hence they have the
roles of enhancing national cohesion. They have a serious attitude towards delivering
their duties as narrators; the most noticeable aspect being the solemn expresson
when referring to the main characters in the epic poems; the slightest slip of the
tongue is considered as a profanation of their ancestors and gods. The audiences of
epic singing have opportunities to respond, regarding the performance as a kind of
ritual. The achievements of their ancestors are duly stated in the songs, which are
given due respect by the audience with primitive ancestors excelled in fishing and
hunting. Their artistry is a combination of poetry, dance, conducting sacrificial rites
and telling historical tales; this is a far cry from general literary output or works for
entertainment.
3. Folk Stories
When folk stories are involved in narrative singing of ethnic minorities, most are
related to courtship. An example is the famous folk story Ashima of the Sani tribe,
a branch of the Yi people. Its protagonist is the girl Ashima who is brave, clever,
beautiful and hardworking, and she is determined to pursue a free and happy life by
resisting forced marriage, and to launch unrelenting struggle against the authority
with her brother Ah Hei. This moving story is also widely spread among other ethnic
minorities and Han Chinese. Similar examples include the Dong people’s Pipa Songs
entitled Song of Meiniang (Meiniang’ge) and Xiuji and Yinmei, the Uyghur people’s
57 没有头人寨不稳，没有‘批莫’夜不宁，没有工匠百业不兴。
Airef and Synime, the Kazak people’s Saliha and Saman and The Legend of Sayram
Lake, as well as the Korean people’s The Story of Chunxiang.
Some ethnic groups have also developed love stories into a unique form of
narrative singing, such as the custom of singing “Ali” amongst Nisu people, a branch
of the Yi people. There is a beautiful legend on its origin: Once upon a time, there
were two lovers in Nisu. The male was the tall and handsome hunter Ashen, who
hunts in the mountain forest with his bow and arrows. One day he climbed over a high
mountain and crossed a torrential river. On the hillside by the river lived a girl named
Asuo. Her face was as lovely as camellia; her eyes were as bright as the moon; she
could sing beautiful folk songs. Ashen and Asuo met in the mountain and fell in love
with each other at the first sight. They asked a matchmaker to bring up proposals of
marriage to their parents, and Beima helped them choose a wedding day. At that point,
the tribal Chief discovered Asuo was beautiful, and decided to take her by force.
Ashen heard the news and rushed to the magistrate court, which was heavily guarded.
Ashen had no choice but to seek help from his friends. At court, the tribal Chief forced
Asuo to marry him, but had to detain her in a dark room after her refusal. Ashen sang
loudly in the mountain, conveying to Asuo the message that she will be rescued. Asuo
became even more determined to resist the forced marriage, even when she was to be
buried alive. Eventually, Ashen arrived at the court, but it was already too late. Ashen
cried and dug out Asuo from the ground with bare hands, carrying the corpse to the
mountain where they first met, and buried her there. Ashen also died from grief. A few
years later, a camellia bush grew out of Asuo’s tomb and bore many bright-coloured
flowers, drawing an industrious honey bee to fly around the flowers all day long.
According to legend, the camellia bush is the incarnation of Asuo, while the honey
bee is that of Ashen. There is now a tradition when youngsters in Nisu sing the piece
“Ali” together, they keep reiterating “Ashen, Asuo” to commemorate their ancestors,
and their loyalty to eternal love.
Folk love stories are often rooted in customs unique to different ethnic groups. The
form of narrative singing “Ali” originated from the custom of “group courting (Chihuo
Caoyan, literally meaning smoking together)” among Nisu young population. This
custom retains some traces of primitive communal marriages. When Nisu youngsters
dance and sing “Ali” on the playground, their purpose is to search for lovers.
However, the courting does not only focus on one pair of lovers, but among a group of
young people. When one person sings “Ali,” he or she actually expresses the feelings
of the whole group, and could lead to marriages of many pairs of lovers.
As a form of narrative singing, “Ali” is only sung in the evening in private temples
or public venures out of the sight of senior family members. Singing of “Ali” at home
during the day will be considered disrespectful for the elderly, and hence forbidden.
Thus, “Ali” is undoubtedly a custom unique to a particular culture, and in this case
relates to marriage.
Some stories in narrative music in ethnic groups throw light on history of clothing
customs. For example, the Hani people are fond of black hence they are mostly
dressed in the colour. The origin is that two Hani women used black colour to protect
human beings. In early days, the Hani people liked to dress in white and light blue,
and with dazzling ornaments. Their eye-catching costumes have led to attacks
by demons: the male became ill while female were harrassed. They were unduly
disturbed. One day, two young women working in the mountain were seduced by
demons, but they managed to hide in the woods and rolled in the shrubs, until the
indigo leaves dyed their clothes black, thus saving them from the sight of the demons.
Since then, the Hani people regard black as a protective colour. Stories like this are
preserved in narrative art, and are closely related to daily customs. Almost every
aspect of folk life is reflected in narrative music. For example, the Hani people sing
“Nuze’he Haba (Festival Songs)” during traditional festivities, “Shalabide Haba
(Congratulatory Songs)” on happy occasions, “Jiaonunu Haba (Sacrificial Songs)”
during sacrificial ceremonies, “Misha’wei Haba (Funeral Song)” on funerals and
“Sa’e Haba (Complaining Songs)” when people are suffering. These narrative forms
reflect many aspects of folk life. Through these, millennium-old traditional cultures of
different ethnic groups are preserved, allowing a good linkage from past to present.
Last but not least, narrative arts of ethnic minorities have referred to many Han
Chinese stories, such as The Romance of Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi), The Water
Margin (Shuihu’zhuan), Journey to the West (Xiyou’ji) and Story of Butterfly Lovers
(Liangzhu Gushi). Some of these stories are translated into ethnic languages for
narrative singing, and others are performed in Chinese, reflecting the close cultural
ties between the Han Chinese and ethnic minorities. The outstanding narrative singing
of different ethnic groups add much colour to Han culture; they have become an
indispensable part of Chinese culture. In short, culture of ethnic groups provides
inspirations for preservation and development of Chinese culture and that of mankind.
CHAPTER IV
MUSIC OF CHINESE
OPERA ( XIQU )
SECTION 1 OVERVIEW
I. Definition of Music of Chinese Opera (Xiqu)

1. What is Xiqu?
Definition: Chinese Xiqu is a form of stage art integrating music, dance, literature,
poetry, martial arts, acrobatics, choreography and other Chinese traditional folk
arts. Chinese Xiqu, Greek tragedies and comedies, and Indian Kuttiyattam are
collectively referred to as the world’s three old operatic forms. The famous Chinese
ethnomusicologist Wang Guowei made a concise definition of the Chinese art, “Xiqu
tells stories through songs and dances1”.
Chinese Xiqu has many characteristics, the first being comprehensive.
Traditionally, when Xiqu is introduced overseas, the most common translation of the
term was “Traditional Chinese Opera,” hence translating Jingju as “Beijing Opera”
or Chuanju as “Chuan Opera.” It is somewhat misleading to draw a simple analogy
between Xiqu and Western opera, because the former is far more comprehensive than
its Western counterpart.
China has been, until relative recently, an agricultural society. The subtle influence
that the self-sufficient natural economy exerts on Chinese psychology is intrinsically
and causally connected with Xiqu’s comprehensiveness. In the long span of Chinese
history, many peasants have never left their villages, performing all daily duties by
themselves, such as building houses, growing crops, weaving and dyeing cloth, and
making clothes. Versatilities in skills have led to enrichment of their lives, particularly
in making wine, sauce, vinegar and pickles, as well as mastering other living skills. It
was a typical self-sufficient natural economy, a self-contained system, in which people
did not rely on others. In some villages, there were mills for rice, oil, vermicelli,
dyeing; regular fair was held for bartering goods. These facilities were early forms
of circulation links, even though they were still at a relatively low level. Bartering,
which was not uncommon, was still a supplementary form of the self-sufficient natural
economy. The system of commerce was restricted to the ruling class; it was not
considered relevant by humble peasants, who would rather develop their potentials to
improve their rural lifestyle, rather than exchanging goods with others.
Therefore, peasants did not pursue fanciful development, but would persistently
develop a “small but complete” system. After a long period of development, this
culture of economics developed into a national psychology of pursuing something
“small but complete” and “big and complete”. Therefore, it is not inappropriate to say
1 戏曲者，谓以歌舞演故事也。See Wang Guowei: Historical Origins of Chinese Opera (Xiqu Kaiyuan).

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270 CHAPTER IV MUSIC OF CHINESE OPERA (XIQU )
that the integration of singing and dancing in Chinese folk music is closely related to
the self-sufficient natural economy. One would argue that Xiqu, as a composite form
of Chinese folk art, is precisely a form fulfilling the demand of the notion of “small
but complete”. The comprehensiveness of Xiqu is precisely the art form for the closed
form of self-sufficient economy.
The second characteristic of Chinese Xiqu is its Formalization (Chengshi’hua).
The Encyclopedia of China: Xiqu and Narrative Arts reads, “to formalize is to set up a
certain standard to be followed2”. In “Cihai”—The Dictionary of Chinese Characters
and Vocabularies, the entry of “formalized action(s)” reads, “standardized performing
action(s) that are refined from life and artistically exaggerated.3” One can regard Xiqu
formalities as the condensation and crystallization of Chinese aesthetic experience.
The aesthetic experiences of Xiqu involve the accumulation of feelings and
inner impressions that Xiqu artists and audiences obtain from countless relevant
activities. Aesthetic experience may be gained through travelling, daily routines, joys,
sorrows, partings and reunions in real life; it may also be absorbed subconsciously
by being exposed to events such as birds chirping, fish swimming, flowers blooming
or withering, and rising and setting of the sun and moon; they may also cover art
forms other than Xiqu, such as calligraphy, painting, architecture, sculpture, dances,
acrobatics, folk songs, and narrative singing; and of course, they involve Xiqu itself.
In other words, myriad of things can be translated into aesthetic experiences of
Xiqu, which generate images to be interpreted by artists, who contemplate these into
artistic forms. When the inherent aesthetic experiences are translated into an art form
like Xiqu, the somewhat abstract entities would have to be exaggerated in order to
facilitate communication to the audience. This is understandable, as exaggeration is
a means of artistic processing, or “abnormalization” in the words of the Formalist
School. Notwithstanding the somewhat negative implication of the terms “artistic
exaggeration”, “artistic processing” or “abnormalization”, the ultimate purpose
is to convey something intangible to an audience through some kind of external
channel, even in an unnatural manner. Artistic exaggeration requires a high degree of
abnormalization and deformation; hence art forms should not be bound by formalities.
One can regard that art forms encompass some kind of formalities, which are
developed entities that have accumulated many aesthetic experiences, and are fixed as
paradigms.
Yet the process is not unique to Xiqu; the pianist needs to complete some
procedures in transmitting aesthetic concepts to the audience; a composer has to
overcome skills in handling music techniques such as harmony, counterpoint and new
concept of composition before developing a style; a painter will need to have a strong
perception of colour, proportion and distance before conveying aesthetic ideas to the
beholder; a dancer’s role is somewhat similar to a musician, which involves mastering
2 立一定之准式以为法，谓之程式。See The Encyclopedia of China: Xiqu and Narrative Arts (Zhongguo

Dabaike Quanshu-Xuqu Quyi). Beijing: Encyclopedia Publishing House, 1989.
3 Cihai—The Dictionary of Chinese Characters and Vocabularies. Shanghai: Shanghai Encyclopedia
Publishing House, 1979.
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of certain techniques before conveying thoughts to the audience. The uniqueness of

Xiqu is not to have programmes, as the genre is stylized.
“Formalities (Chengshi)” and “formalization” are different but related.
“Formalities” are unitary while “formalization” is universal. A “formality” is just a
specific unit. “Formalization” is unique in quality and universal in quantity, hence
has a larger scope than formalities, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Yet the
two cannot be completely separated; the latter relies on the existence of the former.
Formalization is a general state with fundamentals attained by adhering to formalities.
In other words, formalization is the result of an aggregation of formalities leading
to qualitative change, hence producing another entity, with a special formalized
characteristic.
The existence of formalization in Xiqu is inseparable from another major
characteristic of the genre, “comprehensiveness”. Xiqu relies much on integrating
singing and dancing to convey intricacies of a story to the audience, and its various
elements have a strong link to one another. There is a coordinating force governing its
performance - ubiquitous regularity - which is invisible.
The existence of formalization in Xiqu is inseparable from the unique psyche
of the Chinese, who have an extremely strong standardizing ability, and have an
inclination towards establishing and following norms and rules. These two qualities
are intrinsically connected with the formalized characteristic of Xiqu.
It should be noted that the strong standardizing ability in China is partly due to the
extensive “normalizing” period of its ancient civilization. “Norms are a wonderful
shield to maintain archaic aesthetic ideal. Early civilization involves our ancestors
creating art by intuition or instinct, without the need to grasp the laws of beauty by
reason. Primitive works of art that are want of norms, hence give an impression of
being free and crude. Norms involve a subjective understanding of a set of rules,
and are standards when art attains a certain height.4” Therefore, poems composed
according to certain language tonal patterns possess artistic features of rhythmic flow;
Chinese calligraphy could not have become so exquisite and standardized without the
“normalizing” requirements of the three-by-three grid system (Jiugong’ge, paper with
sets of nine squares for each character). “It is progressive when it can reflect some
aspects of the rules.” The above reasons are the positive side of formalization in Xiqu.
The drawback is that once the norms achieve some kind of stability, such as the
establishment of a steady structure, there is a tendency of inertia and conservative
forces that lead to a blind belief in norms.
Art formalities are the art forms established as a result of condensing many
aesthetic experiences, and are artistically exaggerated, fixed as paradigms. The wide
use of these formalities leads to conspicuous overall characteristics of Xiqu art. For
example, when two soldiers confront each other or a maiden laments her fate in the
boudoir on stage, performers need to grasp all opportunities to practise all forms of
presentation - the smallest move, delicate facial expression, singing and speech - are
4 Zhu Dake: On the Alienation and Anti-alienation of Western Arts, Fourth Issue of Xinhua Digest, 1986, p164.
thoroughly rehearsed till they feel exquisite. Compared with films and dramas, the
obvious higher-than-life characteristic in Xiqu broadens the aesthetic distance between
the audience and stage. The word “broaden” instead of “create” is used because
whenever people enter the aesthetic state, a certain psychological distance already
exists. Therefore, when The White-Haired Girl (Baimao’nu) is performed on stage,
nobody will wish to rescue Xi’er (a female role) or beat Huang Shiren (a villain). The
difference between aesthetic sympathy and moral sympathy lies on whether aesthetic
psychology exists. The formalization of Xiqu is undoubtedly enhanced in this respect,
because the formalities are generated through artistic exaggeration, and the artistic
processing and exaggeration of Xiqu follow a principle of searching for beauty. The
Xiqu master Mei Lanfang once said, “You shall never ignore the condition of ‘beauty’ ”
on the stage.
Talking about the opera Drunken Beauty (Guifei Zuijiu), Mei said, “when a
drunken person vomits and walks unsteadily, we actually find him/her disgusting
and unsightly; a drunken person on the stage cannot generate this adverse feeling.
Therefore, a whole set of dance and music formalities is deployed to make the drunken
Yang Yuhuan still amazingly beautiful on the stage, without losing the charm of her
‘flowerlike face, cloudlike hair and golden-headdress.” On the other hand, broadening
the aesthetic psychological distance does not mean preventing the audience from
feeling personally on the scene and showing empathy for the characters; the essence
is to allow the audience to be at the scene and involved, but allowing them to stay
in the aesthetic context. Another example is the action of boat rowing on stage may
arouse some degree of dizziness from some audience, yet they can still obtain artistic
enjoyment without worrying the hassle of falling into water. The ingenious success
of Xiqu in broadening the aesthetic distance is precisely the result of applying the
principle of formalization effectively. In fact, the above examples also show that
“formalization” implies people’s attitude towards the use of formalities. People can
think differently. While Xiqu artists successfully create beauty through formalities, the
inappropriate abuse of formalities and the exaggeration of the regularity of formalities
are widespread, resulting in the negative effects of formalization, including close
imitation, stereotyping, monotony, conservatism and stagnancy.
The formalization of Xiqu music has dual implications, one positive and the other
negative. The former refers to the tendency to nurture artistic characteristics, while the
latter reflects conservative views of treating formalities as golden rules, and applying
them mechanically. In other words, formalization can lead to unique artist path, but
can make the genre lack in vitality, stagnant, or even extinct.
It is possible to view any art form from two perspectives, positive against negative,
yet factors governing these are interdependent in their development. At times, there
have been attempts to separate them. In the 1950s and 1960s, a group of Chinese Xiqu
reformers were instructed to “improve” the art by preserving the formalized artistic
features of Xiqu music, while suppressing the negative factors.
The positive side of the formalized artistic features is the strengthening of Xiqu’s
position in contemporary China–it still attracts a big audience, and will continue to do
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so–but Xiqu also has a good cause for development, judging from the current global
view of stressing forms.
The third characteristic of Chinese Xiqu is the symbolism of stage performance.
As a dramatic genre, Xiqu seems to be more inclined to use symbolic means of
representation than dramatic genres in other cultures. On the Xiqu stage, a “small bed
curtain” is a sedan chair; two “carriage flags” stand for a carriage; and swinging a
horsewhip means galloping on horseback; a “drinking cup” contains no water; a “door”
has no door leaf; holding an oar represents “crossing the river”; an actor “ascends the
stairs” by lifting the front of his rope while taking a few quick short steps. Hence, on
the Xiqu stage, both acting and props are highly symbolic. From the perspective of
receptive aesthetics, these somewhat “incomplete” representations leave the audience
with more room for alluring their imagination.
According to theory of semiotics, symbols similar to real objects or phenomena
were first created, while symbolic signs did not emerge until the development of
abstract thinking. Therefore, a stage art characterized by regular use of symbolism
must be geared at audiences whose abstract thinking is well developed. Of course, this
may only be one reason for symbolism on Xiqu stage. One might consider economic
factors as well as sheer convenience when a small cast performs on a make-shift stage
in a village: realism will not be a primary concern, as the audience focus more on the
arias sung.
2. Definition of Xiqu Music
Xiqu music is an indispensable part of genre as a composite art form, and it
includes vocal and instrumental music.
Vocal Music: The Changqiang (Vocal Melodies) is the main component of Xiqu:
they can be sung as solo, duet, ensemble, chorus, unison chorus, backup voices and
“Bangqiang (Vocal Accompaniment or Vocal Support)”. Vocal solos and duets are by
far the most common.
Instrumental Music: Instrumental music in Xiqu is referred to as “Civil and Military
Sections (or Changmian, Scene)”. Civil Section usually involves Di flute, Erhu fiddle,
Pipa lute, Yangqin dulcimer, and other wind and string instruments. Military Section
usually refers to percussion instruments (“heavy” instruments such as Suona cornet
is also grouped into this section in some Xiqu genres). The traditional instrumental
ensembles in Xiqu troupes are small, usually comprising two to seven instruments in
“Civil Section”, of which one or two must be main melodic instruments. For example,
Xiqu genres adopting Pihuang melodic type uses Jinghu (fiddle used in Beijing opera)
as the main instrument, those of Bangzi (clapper) melodic type uses Banhu (two-String
fiddle with wooden soundboard) as the main instrument, and Kunqu (Kun Opera)
melodic type uses the Di flute as main instrument.
3. Roles and Functions of Music in Xiqu
Music plays a vital role in the composite genre Xiqu. First, the leader of the
instrumental ensemble is the commander of the entire performance on stage. The
singing, speaking, acting and acrobatics are coordinated according to certain rhythms
and melodies. Second, music is the most important factor in distinguishing over 300
Chinese Xiqu genres in the country. In other words, one may not be able to distinguish
one Xiqu genre from another by just watching the performance, without listening to
the music. It is, however, possible to recognize regional differences of the genres by
noting their musical styles. Third, Xiqu is different from drama largely because Xiqu
narrates stories and expresses emotions by means of music. Mencius said, “Benevolent
words do not have as profound an effect on people as benevolent music.5” Music adds
charms to Xiqu stories. Fourth, music serves to create certain atmospheres on stage,
so as to allow the audience to perceive the background of the story, a potential fully
exploited by Wagner in the nineteenth century, and perhaps an artistic notion where
the East meets the West.
II. Historical Evolution of Xiqu Music

A. Xiqu’s Infancy: Music before the Tang Dynasty (618–907)
When discussing the origin of Xiqu as kind of art or just focusing on Xiqu music,
historians often associate the genre with the primitive songs and dances in antiquity.
Like other societies, ancestors of the Chinese created both material and spiritual
wealth in their endeavour to survive and multiply in various ways. Singing and
dancing is one of the earliest forms of art.
Of course, in the early days of songs and dances, all people in the primitive society
took part, as performers and audience. “Specialists” began to surface when there was
advancement in culture, leading to certain roles assigned, such as “witches” (Wu) and
“sorcerers (Xi),” who sang and danced on sacrificial rites, with the principal task of
entertaining ghost spirits. Later, there emerged actors and actresses, called You, who
entertained human beings.
Since music and dance in antiquity were highly integrated, recitation, singing
and dancing cannot be treated as separate entities. The passage of Chinese classical
text aptly illustrates this idea, “If words are not enough to express feelings, they are
expressed by exclamation; if exclamation is not enough to express feelings, they are
expressed by singing; and if singing is still not enough to express feelings, they are
expressed by dancing.” There are some ancient records referring to pre-Qin dances
over two millennia ago accompanied by vocal and instrumental music. According
to Lyu’s Spring and Autumn Annals - Ancient Music (Lyushi Chunqiu - Guyue),
“When music was played in the period of Getianshi, three persons held the tail of
an ox, danced to music, and sang eight songs.” From classical texts, we can also
get a glimpse of some large-scale songs and dances praising the rulers’ political and
military achievements, such as Yunmen Dajuan in the period of the Yellow Emperor,
Daxian in the period of Emperor Yao, Dashao in the period of Emperor Shun, Daxia
in the period of King Yu of Xia, Dahuo in the period of King Tang of Shang, and
Dawu of the Zhou Dynasty. Following this path of evolution, ancient Chinese dances
accompanied by vocal and instrumental music were integrated with poetry. By the
5 Mencius: Jinxin Zhangju (first part), in Selected Chinese Ancient Views on Music (The first edition), 1961, p68.
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Tang Dynasty, the court music suites (Daqu) were already spectacular and highly
developed. The great poet Bai Juyi vividly depicted the hectic scene in a poem, “There
are tens and thousands of songs and dances; my favorite is the Nichang Dance.”
Meanwhile, dramas derived from songs and dances were developing slowly.
From the early costumed performances (Changyou, Song and Dance Entertainer),
and Paiyou (Acrobatics Entertainer) to the Baixi (Variety Shows) in the Han and Wei
Dynasties, the proportion of story-telling increased. By the Tang Dynasty, some songs
and dances had absorbed much dramatic elements, and gradually evolved into dramas
featuring songs and dances. Among these, song and dance dramas Daimian and Botou
were spread to Japan, and still partially exist in the present Gagaku.
B. Xiqu Music in the Song (960–1279) and Yuan (1206–1368) Dynasties
The major genre of Chinese literature in the Tang Dynasty was five- and seven-
character octaves or quatrains, while Changduan’ju (Long and Short Verses) prevailed
in the ensuing Song Dynasty. Therefore, the Song music suites adopted Changduan’ju,
and they were different from the Tang music suites, owing to the difference in
organization of texts. In other words, changes in one form of art had some kind of
domino effect on another. In order to accommodate changes to structure of verses,
Labelled Pieces in the Song Dynasty were subject to modifications, such as increase
or decrease in speed, and prolonging or shortening in rhythm. Technically, it involved
Tousheng (reducing one character), Jianzi (reducing several pitches), Tiansheng
(adding characters) and Tanpo (changes in metre and number of characters). Tang
music suites were much freer in treating musical forms, and many devices were
introduced to break its regular structure. Other techniques such as Cupai (hurrying
beat), Po (broken form, or fastening tempo) and Fandiao (transient modulation)
were employed to enhance flexibility. These innovations laid the foundation for the
diversified expressions of Xiqu music.
Of course, the composite music in the Song Dynasty was different from that of
the previous Tang Dynasty not just in forms, lyrics and melodies. More importantly,
the dramatic content of the music in the Song Dynasty increased so considerably
that quantitative changes finally led to qualitative changes, and music suites were
gradually transformed into Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performance).
The emergence of Xiqu in the Song and Yuan Dynasties was related to the
development of Narrative Singing. During this period, the genre developed as a result
of the increased prosperity of fast growing urban culture. According to Dongjing
Menghua’lu (Records on Entertainment in the Eastern Capital), Mengliang Lu
(Records of Mengliang), Wulin Jiushi (Old Stories from Hangzhou) and other literary
sources, there existed great varieties of narrative arts in the Song Dynasty, such as
stories on history, story-telling, religious scripts-telling, folk stories, joking, song
with dance (Hesheng), riddle performance (Shangmi), Taozhen (True Story, a kind
of narrative singing), Yaci (Elegant Words), Guzi’ci (Words Accompanied by Drum),
Changzhuan (Narrative Singing Popular in Song Dynasty) and Zhugong’diao (Tunes
in Multiple Modes).
Narrative genres such as Guzi’ci and Changzhuan were already developed, and
with some adjustment of modes and singing styles, their flexible formal structures
allowed them to amalgamate Labelled Pieces, adding preludes and epilogues where
appropriate, to develop a new genre Zhugong’diao. Since narrative art involves
dramatic presentation of spoken and sung verses, the singing is closer to Xiqu music
than other genres of folk vocal music, such as folk ditties or songs associated with
dances. It is therefore natural that there is a smooth transition from narrative singing
to Xiqu music.
In the Song Dynasty, Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performance) thrived in the
north, while Nanxi (Southern Plays) rose in the south. Music of the latter had mixed
origins, such as folk ditties in the south, tunes of Song poems, composite music,
Changzhuan music, and music of other genres of narrative arts. Nanxi melodies
seldom include padding characters, folk adages or spoken parts; a typical section
consists of a prelude, main body and epilogue. The same Labelled Pieces had turned
into different identities by “changing the opening”; it was no longer necessary to
adhere to established conventions of pitches and modes, but more of an emphasis on
the art of elucidating the plot and facilitating characterization. While Zaju in the north
was sung by one person, Nanxi had all roles singing on the same stage, hence besides
solo singing, there were different forms of vocal ensembles, such as duet, small group,
round and chorus. The development of Nanxi was greatly influenced by Zaju; there
was a tendency for the former to refine itself, hence had an opportunity to develop its
own characteristics. The general impression is that Zaju has an unrestrained masculine
character, while Nanxi a graceful feminine beauty. The sharp contrast in style was
due to differences in regional cultures. This trend changed after middle of the Yuan
Dynasty, when there was a desire to combine styles of the north and south. The idea
was for southern and northern Xiqu genres to combine without losing their respective
styles and characteristics.
Scholars have different views on the origin of Xiqu: there are suggestions on the
dates of its early form, such as the Yuan, Song, Tang, Han Dynasties, or even the pre-
Qin period. In any case, most of Xiqu theorists agree that the infancy of Xiqu was not
necessarily later than that of the ancient Greek tragedies and comedies, and the Indian
Kutiyattam, but Xiqu matured later than its counterparts in ancient civilizations. The
somewhat belated development of Xiju could be due to China being a self-sufficient
natural economy for a long period, with large cities emerging later than Greece or
India, and that the traditional Chinese culture was largely non-commercial. In any
case, modern economic theories have proved that in order for performing arts to
prosper, there must be some form of viable monetary link between the stage and
audience, as witnessed by the existence of Arts Councils in Western industrialized
nations, or similar state-subsidized units in socialist countries.
C. Xiqu Music in the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) Dynasties
In the Ming Dynasty, the somewhat potpourri nature of Nanxi was ready to absorb
different dialects, folk customs and musical traditions, leading to the development
of a variety of Xiqu tunes. The most influential of them were the “Four Old Xiqu
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Melodic Types”, including Yiyang Melodic Type (Yiyang’qiang), Yuyao Melodic Type
(Yuyao’qiang), Haiyan Melodic Type (Haiyan’qiang) and Kunshan Melodic Type
(Kunshan’qiang), named according to their places of origin.
1. Yiyang Melodic Types (Yiyang’qiang)
Yiyang Melodic Type originated in Yiyang, Jiangxi, and the most prominent feature
is its drum accompaniment to a solo singer and a vocal ensemble. It originated from
Yangge dancing music celebrating harvest: a solo singer is joined by a group of singers
providing vocal accompaniment. The genre is related to work songs that became
performances involving singing and dancing, an example being Tayao’niang, a play-
let of the Sui and Tang Dynasties involving “noisy” singing. Yiyang Melodic Type has
rustic charm, hence popular in villages, and it was spread to Beijing, Nanjing, Hunan,
Guangdong, Fujian, Guizhou and Yunnan, amongst other places.
2. Yuyao Melodic Type (Yuyao’qiang)
Yuyao Melodic Type originally existed in Yuyao and Cixi, Zhejiang, and it was
popular in Shaoxing, Changzhou, Zhenjiang, Yangzhou, Xuzhou, Guichi and Taihu
Lake area of Anhui, amongst other places. Few sources have referred to the style and
characteristics of the melodies. In the book of legends Xiangdang’ran (Thinking the
Inevitable) of the late Ming Dynasty, Jianzhi Zhuren mentioned Yuyao Tune in the
Preface entitled Chengshu Zaji (Notes for Writing the Book), “It uses a lot of vulgar
and plain words. Mixed with spoken parts, the singing is sometimes close to reciting.”
According to the description, the melodies should be simple, lively and popular.
3. Haiyan Melodic Type (Haiyan’qiang)
Haiyan Melodic Type is believed to be the oldest amongst the four old Xiqu Tune
Patterns, and it could be dated to the Song and Yuan Dynasties (618–1279). During
Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty, Haiyan Melodic Type (from Haiyan, Zhejiang)
was already very popular, part of the reason being the use of “Mandarin Chinese”
that was understood by both southern and northern inhabitants. Its melodies were soft
and exquisite, with “a voice as slender as hair but it vibrates in the air. Each character
takes a long duration to articulate.” Hence it is quite different from the style of Yiyang
Tune Pattern, and owing to its gentle nature, it was the popular with scholars and
bureaucrats across the country. Prior to Wanli reign (1573–1619) of the Ming Dynasty,
it had been a rival of Yiyang Melodic Type, and was widely spread in Beijing and
Nanjing. There is no evidence that Haiyan Tune had an ensemble accompaniment.
4. Kunshan Melodic Type (Kunshan’qiang)
The original home of Kunshan Melodic Type was Kunshan and Taicang of Suzhou
Prefecture. The melodies were based on folk songs of the regions, and they developed
later than the other three old Xiqu tunes. However, its popularity surpassed the
other three older counterparts, owing to the music being “beautiful and melodious.”
Stylistically, it is similar to Haiyan tune, as both of them considered “serene and
taking a beat as a metre.” The most outstanding feature of Kunshan Tune is its
instrumental ensemble accompaniment, an entity not available to other tunes of Nanxi,
as illustrated by this well-known saying, “now some wind and string instruments
accompany Nanxi in Kunshan… this is also an excellent thing for people in Jiangsu.6”
The more sophisticated accompaniment may indicate the desire of performers of
Kunshan Tune to surpass their predecessors.
Among the four ancient tune patterns, Haiyan and Kunshan Melodic Types were
favoured by scholars and bureaucrats for being elegant and melodious; Yuyao and
Yiyang Melodic Types were popular amongst the general public, owing to their
simple and rustic character. Kunshan Tune had undergone some reform, and became
established, while Yiyang Tune suited the popular taste; Yuyao and Haiyan Melodic
Types gradually faded out.
By the middle of Ming Dynasty, Kunshan Melodic Type began to dominate the
Xiqu circles. With the support of an upper-class audience, it was recognized as the
authentic tune of Xiqu. Yiyang Tune Melodic Type continued to propagate to ordinary
people and gradually evolved into a diversified Gaoqiang (High Melodic Type)
system7.
The rivalry between Kunshan and Yiyang Melodic Types was typical of the combat
between elegance and vulgarity in Xiqu circles. It became “the rivalry between Huabu
(Coloured Section) and Yabu (Refined Section)” in the Qing Dynasty. The distinction
of Huabu and Yabu began in Qianlong reign (1736–1795). The passage from Yangzhou
Huafang’lu (Collection of Painted Leisure Boats in Yangzhou) indicates some of the
conflicts, “The salt merchants in Huainan-Huaibei area have been supporting Huabu
and Yabu performers. Yabu refers to Kunshan Melodic Type; Huabu refers to Beijing
Tune Pattern, Shaanxi Tune Pattern, Yiyang Melodic Type, Bangzi Melodic Type,
Luoluo Tune Pattern and Erhuang Tune Pattern, which are collectively referred to as
Luantan (Miscellaneous Performances).8”
Here, Luantan is a generic term for Xiqu genres other than Kunshan Melodic Type.
The main thrust of Huabu was performance of Bangzi (Clapper) Melodic Type and
Pihuang (Xipi and Erhuang, or Skin and Yellow) Tune Patterns, as well as Gaoqiang
(High Melodic Type) evolved from Yiyang Melodic Type. Imperial officials and the
upper class always tried to “advocate Ya (refined) and restrain Hua (coloured)”, but
Huabu, full of vitality, refused to accept inferiority. Finally, in Jiaqing and Daoguang
reigns of the Qing Dynasty (1796–1850), the theatrical circles were re-organised, and
performers of Kun Melodic Type had the authority to administer all aspects of Xiqu
performances, meaning that the artists of Gaoqiang Melodic Type, Pihuang Melodic
Type and Bangzi Melodic Type (Four New Xiqu Melodic Types) originally from
Huabu, had to adapt to the unwelcomed change.
6 Xu Wei: Nanci Xulu (Taling about Southern Tunes), a historical book printed in 1559.
7 During the translation, “Melodic Type” is used particularlly for the four types of ancient operatic music,
namely: Yiyang, Yuyao, Haiyan and Kunsha, as well as the four types of current operatic music, namely:
Pihuang, Bangzi, Gaoqiang, and Kunqiang; where as “Tune Pattern” is used for any other kinds of music used
in Chinese operas. “Melodic Types” and “Tune Pattern” reflects also different levels. For exmaple, Pihuang
Melodic Type contains Xipi and Erhuang two melodic patterns. Both are named as Tune Patterns.
8 Li Dou: Yangzhou Huafanglu (Records at Colorful Boat in Yangzhou). Historcial book writing during the Qing
Dynasty.
Position
Position of Xiqu Art in Traditional Chinese Culture
of Xiqu 279
III. Position of Xiqu Art in Traditional Chinese Culture

As an agricultural society where the literacy rate has been extremely low, almost
everyone–except children of tender years–knows the moral values of the patriarchal
society, such as “one should be loyal, filial, chaste and righteous,” “not producing an
heir is the gravest offence against filial piety,” and “the monarch, minister, father and
the son should keep their respective positions.” These are the core values of ethical
humanity. Morality is the contract of the entire society; its restrictive function affects
everyone. What made the morality of the patriarchal society so widely spread? People
find that in the vast rural areas of China, there is a theatrical stage even in a small
village, and it is often the most eye-catching building in the vicinity. In the south,
some theatrical stages are wooden or bamboo structures; in the north, they are mostly
masonry structures; in some poor places, the stages are merely built with adobes.
Watching Xiqu has been an important aspect of Chinese farmers’ spiritual life, and it
even made them forget to eat or sleep, or other aspects of daily routines. Xiqu, as an
integrated art unique to China, interprets stories in the most vivid manner (involving
music, dance and acrobatics) and undertakes the task of promoting human relations.
Traditional Xiqu has a large repertoire: Jingju (Beijing Opera) alone has a selection
of 1,800 plays, with contents encompassing tales of ancient kings and princes,
anecdotes of famous people, historical events, love stories between talented scholars
and beautiful ladies, and legends of deities and spirits. Of course, the most common
repertoire focuses on human stories; only a small portion of works are on deities and
ghosts. By contrast, in the neighbouring India, almost all traditional folk tales are
inseparable from mythology. This is the difference between a patriarchal society and
a religious society when handling opera. Chinese arts have a tendency to be secular,
even though there are references to the three major religions, Confucianism, Taoism
and Buddhism. The idea of Xiqu is to provide entertainment comprehensible to the
general public; the combination of acting and singing can deliver the task effectively,
especially in implanting ideas of the patriarchal society. Of course, art forms like Xiqu
can only fulfill some objectives; it can only contribute to the establishment of some
aspects of social contract. Nevertheless, the key is dissemination of the established
core values of “loyalty, filial piety, chastity and righteousness” by distinguishing
“good” and “evil,” with the former rewarded, and the latter punished. Such kind of “soft
sale” technique benefits both sides: the ruling class considers Xiqu as an effective tool
of mass education, while those ruled realize the merit of suppressing selfish desires
while cultivating an idealistic quality of altruism.
For example, characters such as Su Wu and Yue Fei have become the models of
“loyalty” because these heroes put the national interest above personal safety; Zhao
Wuniang in The Story of Pipa (Pipa’ji) has been honoured as “filial” because she
suffered hunger and hardships to look after her mother-in-law while her husband
was away for years; the “chastity” of Sun Shangxiang in Mourning by the River
(Jijiang) is touching because she died for her husband Liu Bei when she could have
led a noble life in her parents’ home; the “righteous acts” in The Orphan of the Zhao
Family (Zhaoshi Guer), For Life or for Death (Shengsi’bei) and Zhou Ren Sacrifices
His Sister-in-Law (Zhouren Xiansao) are examples of extreme altruism (the heroes
sacrificed their own life, son, or wife). Therefore, the message of moral values in a
patriarchal society has helped stabilize social order, as well as undeniably cultivated
the traditional virtues of kindness and gentleness, a social interpersonal relationship
derived from the blood ties of families and clans. Some Neo-Confucianists believe
that “human nature of forsaking evil and promoting virtue, elucidating natural cycle
of life and connection between humanity and heaven have the same ontological basis.
Therefore, humanity cultivation and moral enlightenment is the foundation of social
existence and development; social crises reflect the downfall of social morality, and
such degradation is the result of the proliferation of lust and desire.” Only “restraining
selfish desires, preserving morality and promoting humanity” is “the fundamental
Neo-Confucianist road to avoid social crises and rejuvenate national spirit.” Xiqu can
certainly play a part in publicizing a high social and moral standard9.
In the integrated art of Xiqu, music has the role of creating and maintaining the
right atmosphere for a dramatic scene, at the same time introducing and shaping the
personalities of characters. The close relationship between folk songs and Xiqu music
has, for generations, helped maintain an interest on rather routine outcomes of its
stories; the majority of the audience do not attend opera performances to pursue the
storylines, but would appreciate the music. In any case, music has a unique advantage
as a vital component of Xiqu in portraying a scene, expressing emotions and clarifying
attitudes. Aesthetically, it is specific, perceivable and effective in maintaining the
concentration of the audience; its immediate appeal makes it more effective than
verbal or visual arts. For a lover of Xiqu, its music “attacks” the mind, rather than
affecting it slowly. Xiqu music is well known for creating a more lasting impression
than art forms involving spoken or written languages.
Xiqu music is a regional art form, and the melodies are an artistic exaggeration of
dialects. While following the stories, the audience can appreciate familiar dialects in
the music, hence providing an appropriate background to accommodate their aesthetic
habits. On the other hand, the music can at most shadow the spoken language, hence
it leaves certain gaps for the audience to exercise their imagination, and in the event
it produces artistic freshness. Different performers can, of course, interpret their roles
and sing in their own styles, adding surprises to the same piece. The same performer
may also perform the same song differently when the venue or set up is changed. This
flexibility is due to the absence of prescriptive scores as found in Western opera. Xiqu
singers only work on skeletal descriptive scores. The richness in music of Xiqu has
made it much more appealing than its sister art narrative singing.
Since its birth over one millennium ago, Xiqu has undergone three phases of
development, namely Zaju (Miscellaneous Dramatic Performance) of the Yuan
Dynasty, Kunqu Opera of the Ming Dynasty, and Jingju (Beijing Opera) of the Qing
9 Chen Shaoming: The Change of Confucius Ideology in the Modern Times. Changchun: Liaoning University
Press, 1992.
Position
Position of Xiqu Art in Traditional Chinese Culture
of Xiqu 281
Dynasty. Xiqu reached its peak in the early twentieth century with numerous masters
and diversified schools. It has dominated the Chinese theatrical stage over a long
period since its inception.
As an integrated art mainly characterized by formalization, Xiqu occupies a
unique position among similar genres in other cultures. It is an art form deeply
rooted in Chinese culture, and in a sense akin to the position of Religious Taoism
or Confucianism amongst other world religions. Hence Xiqu should be appreciated
in its own context: the large number of regional genres has made it difficult for an
individual to fully understand their idioms, in particular with reference to music. The
division of melodies roughly into northern and southern styles may provide some
clues to the style of expression, yet it will be a life-long experience to tackle the issue
of differing languages of regional genres. One thing for sure is through Xiqu, one can
see the evolution of Chinese aesthetic taste. Ironically, such changes will eventually
project onto the genre, making it an ever vibrant art form.
SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND

CHARACTERISTICS OF XIQU MUSIC
I. Classification of Xiqu Music

There are several ways of classifying Xiqu music, namely according to musical
structure, Xiqu genre or vocal music system, and these are discussed as follows:
A. Classification by Musical Structure
Xiqu music has two basic structures based on how melodies are linked or
developed: Banqiang Form (Banqiang’ti) is a structure based on a set of melodies
effected as a result of metrical change of the same melody; Qupai Form (Qupai’ti)
is musically mixed, and based on juxtaposing a number of stock melodies–Labelled
Pieces–linked according to certain conventions. The advantage of the former is the
convenience for maintaining a singing style or designated atmosphere of a scene,
while the latter provides an opportunity for a more rapid change in mood.
1. Banqiang Form (Form Based on Metrical Change)
Banqiang Form refers to music based on a single melodic pattern: different
versions of the melody will be evolved by changing the position of strong beats,
metre, rhythm, speed, dynamics or even the length of the song texts. A series of tunes
of different metrical patterns will be generated, including Yuanban (Original Beat),
Manban (Slow Beat), Sanban (Scattered Beat) and Yaoban (Rocking Beat). It is also
possible to introduce changes to the register, mode, structure, melodic embellishment,
voice production, order of notes (most common being reversing the order of notes in
a melody). The structure of the melodies is classified as Banqiang Form when these
devices are used. The lyrics of songs in Banqiang Form usually comprise paired
verses in seven or ten characters, presumably to provide some sort of textual regularity
to accommodate changes to the melody10.
Banqiang Form is used in the two relatively recent tunes of the New Four Melodic
Types, namely Bangzi Melodic Type and Pihuang Melodic Type; it is also adopted
by Xiqu genres such as Beijing Opera, Qinqiang Opera (opera popular in Shaanxi
Province), Yueju Opera (opera popular in Zhejiang and Shanghai) and Pingju Opera
(opera popular in Hebei, Beijing and Tianjin), etc. Characteristics of Banqiang Form
and Qupai Form are outlined as follows:
10 Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995, p38.
Classification
Classification of Xiqu Music
of Xiqu 283
Banqiang Form
(1) Different melodic patterns are prefixed with the names of different roles, tune patterns and
metrical patterns such as Erhuang Original Beat (Erhuang Yuanban) for the vocal type of old male
role and Xipi Two-Six (Xipi Erliu) for the vocal type of young female role.
(2) Lyrics in rhyme mainly comprise neat, antithetical seven-character or ten-character (sometimes
five-character) phrases.
(3) A pair (sometimes several pairs) of phrases form a stanza as the basic ideographic unit.
(4) Banqiang music of each stanzaic form has its own structure, phrase pattern, pitch level and
mode, this being the charm of the melodic form. For example, the Yuanban (Original Beat) of
Erhuang is used for old male role in Beijing Opera sung in Shang (second degree re) mode, which
is solemn and steady, and suitable for narration; Yaoban (Rocking Beat) of Erhuang melody is also
sung in Shang mode (re), and is ideal for expressing dramatic emotions that are vehement, intense
inside but relaxed outside.
(5) Melodies of the whole drama portray characters and disclose the plot according to the changes,
connection, and interaction of different roles, tune patterns and metrical patterns. The structural
hierarchy is as follows:
Aria Single-melodic type or multi-melodic

type.
Stanza Stanza Each stanza consists of one pair or

several pairs of phrases.
Melodic Melodic Each melodic phrase comprises seven or ten

phrase phrase characters; sometimes five-character phrases
and other phrase patterns are possible.
Melodic Melodic Each melodic segment, or “sub-phrase,” contains

segment segment one rest.
Musical Musical A musical motive, a structural sound segment within a

motive motive motive of lyrics, can be smaller than or equal to a phrasal
segment.
Musical Musical A musical pattern, a structural sound segment punctuated by a

pattern pattern rest, can be smaller than or equal to a musical motive.
Musical Musical A musical colour, the smallest melodic unit, can be smaller than or
colour colour equal to a musical pattern.
(6) There is a close relationship between the linguistic structure of the lyrics and the music set.
Hence the elements of the lyrics, such as motive, phrase and stanza are duly considered when an
appropriate melodic pattern is identified, as well as in the process of setting music to lyrics.
Illustration 4-1. Outlines of the characteristics of Banqiang Form11
11 Cited from Jiang Jing: Introduction to Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House,
1995, p39-40.
(7) The various components of a melody, such as stanzas, phrases, segments and motives are often
injected with short melodic fragments, and pauses are introduced in relevant places to indicate
subtle changes of mood.
(8) In organizing music for Xiqu, the main thrust is, of course, to choose a melody conducive to
the generation of a right atmosphere or aptly expressing the sentiment of the singer. Some forms
of melodies are flexible hence allow setting for lyrics with changes in emotion. In the event of
a desire to introduce changes in atmosphere when using a basic melody, it is possible to apply
Qianger (Tune Adding) to enhance its expressive power.
Illustration 4-1 (continued). Outlines of the Characteristics of Banqiang Form
2. Qupai Form (Form Based on Labelled Pieces)

Qupai Form is based on linking a number of independent melodies called Qupai
(Labelled Pieces) with different characteristics. It is possible to use one or two Qupai
repeatedly or combine a set of them to create an atmosphere for a scene or shape the
characters12.
The lyrics in Qupai Form do not have a fixed number of characters for each verse,
and the text is a combination of long and short verses, or verses of irregular lengths.
Qupai Form is adopted by some early folk songs, such as Kunqiang melodies and
Gaoqiang melodies; it is also used in Xiqu genres originated from folk songs and
dances, such as Tea-picking, Flower-drum and Yangge dances.
Qupai Form is used in the two relatively recent tunes of the New Four Melodic
Types, namely Gaoqiang Melodic Type and Kunqiang Melodic Type; it is also
adopted by Xiqu genres such as Chuanju Opera (opera popular in Sichuan Province)
and Southern Kunqu Opera (Kunqu Opera branch popular in Jiangsu Province) and
Northern Kunqu Opera (Kunqu Opera branch popular in Beijing). Characteristics of
Qupai Form are outlined as follows:
Qupai Form
(1) Different melodies of Labelled Pieces have prefixed names, such as Bubu’jiao (Walking
Gracefully) and Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows).
(2) Rhymed lyrics do not have fixed numbers of characters in each verse, hence the term “Long
and Short Sentences”.
(3) A Labelled Piece is the basic ideographic unit.
(4) Each Labelled Piece is independent, having its own form, pitch-mode, and possessing a
basic character conducive to music setting. For example, Chaoyuan’ge (Chaoyuan Song) is
sung in Shang mode (used in ancient vocal music) and is suited for gentle and touching feelings;
Xiaotao’hong (A Little Red Peach) is also in Shang mode, but is more appropriate for expressing
grief and sadness.
(5) Music of the Xiqu is based on careful selection of different Labelled Pieces and combining
them into suites according to certain convention in order to portray the characters and unfold the
plot. Qupai forms can be divided into the following three categories, where A, B, C, D… represent
independent melodies:
Illustration 4-2. Outlines of the Characteristics of Qupai Form13
12 Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995, p38.
13 Cited from Jiang Jing: Introduction to Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House,
1995, p39-40.
Classification
Classification of Xiqu Music
of Xiqu 285
Single Labelled Piece, repeated (Introduction) + ||: Single labeled piece: || + (Epilogue)
Main Labelled Piece, recurrent (Introduction) + A + B + A + C ... + (Epilogue)
Multiple Labelled Pieces, connected (Introduction) + A + B + C + D + ... + (Epilogue)
(6) There are no fixed rules in handling music setting of the lyrics: depending on the dramatic and
musical need, the setting can be syllabic or melismatic. The former allows a quicker dramatic flow,
while the latter facilitates a stronger expressive power. Phrase lengths of the lyrics may or may not
correspond to those of the melody, but in the event they do not coincide, some kind of tension is
generated, similar to an urge for a resolution (like resolving dischords in Western harmony). Care
is taken in ensuring the right pitch-mode is chosen for the melody.
(7) Melodies tend to follow one another with little break or interlude; they are linked subduely by
one or two notes, so as to make a smooth transition.
(8) The advent of Qupai Form raises the potential of music expression of Xiqu, owing to the
variety of melodies available. In the course of development, names of Labelled Pieces have
become more complex.
Illustration 4-2 (continued). Outlines of the Characteristics of Qupai Form
B. Classification by Chinese Xiqu Genres

Different Xiqu genres (Juzhong, or Local Operatic Genres) are fairly independent
from one another, taking into consideration pertinent factors such as places of origin,
prevalent regions, literary forms, stage performance, pronunciation and language
tones, and vocal and instrumental melodies. The over 300 Xiqu genres in China are
classified from different perspectives, depending on the attributive words before the
character Ju (Opera). For example, in the Xiqu genres of Jingju (Beijing Opera), Yuju
(Henan Opera), Huju (Shanghai Opera) and Chunju (Sichuan Opera), the attributive
words before the character “ju” refer to different places, and the basis of defining these
Xiqu genres lies on location; in the Xiqu genres such as Daiju (Opera of Dai People),
Dongju (Opera of Dong People), Zhuangju (Opera of Zhuang People) and Baiju
(Opera of Bai People), the attributive words before the character “ju” refer to different
ethnic groups, hence the perspective of definition lies on ethnic cultures. Some Xiqu
genres, however, do not have names falling in the two categories mentioned, and
these include Jinbei Daoqing (Taoist Expressions in North of Shanxi), Hebei Bangzi
(Clapper Opera of Hebei) and Hunan Caichaxi (Tea Picking Opera of Hunan). These
Xiqu genres are named with some historical or stylistic reasons, as in the case of
Jinbei Daoqing, which refers to the region (Jinbei, North of Shanxi) and the music
style (Daoqing, Taoist Expressions).
C. Classification by Melodic Pattern
Melodic pattern is associated with the convention of singing in Xiqu according
to some kind of framework, including consistency in singing styles, accompanying
instruments and musical structures. For example, in the Beijing Opera song Dayu
Shajia (A Fisherman’s Struggle), the lyrics read:
In Chinese: 老爹爹，清晨起，前去出首，倒叫我

Chinese Romanzition: lǎo dīe dīe, qīng chén qǐ, qan qù qú shǒu, dào jìao wǒ
桂英儿挂在心头
gùi yīng ēr gùa zài xīn tōu
English Translation: I am worried about my aged father, who went out early in
morning to give himself up to prosecution.
Another example is from the song in Zhuge Liang, which reads:
In Chinese: 我这里城楼观景，却听得四处
Chinese Romanization: wō zhè lǐ chéng lóu guūan jǐng, qùe tīng dē sì chù
乱纷纷。
lùan fēn fēn
English Translation: Looking around on the city tower, I hear mixed messages
coming from all directions.
These two songs are obviously different in metrical patterns, melodic details and
lyrics, but they use the same melodic pattern, Xipi. One notices that Gaoqiang (High
Melodic Type) melodic pattern is an exception in this respect because it is not bound
by the usual framework, but it just adheres to an overall style and structure (see the
section on Gaoqiang).
D. Distinction of Shengqiang (Vocal Melodic Pattern)
The folk origin of Xiqu has led to its concepts being “fuzzy.” For a general
audience, the concept of Shengqiang is polysemous. For example, Xipi (West Skin)
and Erhuang (Two Yellows) are two melodic patterns, but they are often jointly
referred to as “Pihuang Melodic Type.” That is to say, the term “Tune Pattern” can
be used in a narrow sense, as in Xipi or Erhuang patterns; it can also be used in a
broader sense, as in “Pihuang Melodic Type”. Given the the somewhat ambiguity,
it is desirable to handle the terms “Type” and “Pattern” with care. In order to make
clear difference, “Melodic Types” are used to indicate the Four Melodic Types namely
Pihuang’qiang, Bangzi’qiang, Gaoqiang, and Kunqiang, where as all other melodies
used in various Chinese operas are named with “Tune Patterns”.
There is actually a cross relationship between Xiqu genres and melodic types or
tune patterns. Some Xiqu genres such as Chuanju (Sichuan Opera) and Jingju (Beijing
Opera) involve various melodic types and tune patterns. For example, Chuanju
uses Kunqiang (Kun Melodic Type), Gaoqiang (High Melodic Type), Huqin’qiang
(Pihuang Melodic Type), Tanxi (Plucking Opera, a kind of Clapper Melodic Type),
Dengxi (Local Folk Dance Tune Pattern), and other tune patterns; Jingju adopts
Pihuang Melodic Type, Siping (Smooth Tune Pattern), Chuiqiang (Blowing Tune
Pattern), Gaobozi (High Plucked Tune Pattern), Nan Bangzi (Southern Clapper Tune
Pattern), and other melodies. These Xiqu genres use multiple melodies in their music
setting. Kunqu, a very important Xiqu genre, uses only Kunqiang (Kun Melodic Type),
so it is rather restrictive in the choice of melodies. Some melodic types and tune
patterns are used in many Xiqu genres, so the Xiqu genres using the same melodic
types or tune patterns are named accordingly. That is to say, the principal-subordinate
relationship that exists between Xiqu genres and melodic types or tune patterns is not
absolute. The concept of Xiqu genre may encompass more than that of melodic type
Four
Four Major Xiqu Melodic Types and Their Characteristics
Major Xiqu 287
or tune pattern (as in a Xiqu genre of multiple melodic types and tune patterns); the
reverse can also happen (as in a “melodic type or tune pattern system” of multiple
Xiqu genres). Therefore, Xiqu genres and melodic types or tune patterns often form
a cross relationship. Take Jingju as an example, it is not just a Xiqu genre of the
Pihuang Melodic Type system (here, the concept of Melodic Type is larger than that
of Xiqu genre), it also adopts multiple Melodic Types (in addition to Pihuang Melodic
Type, hence the concept of Xiqu genre is larger than that of Melodic Type). Care must
be taken if one is pursuing the logic of name a Xiqu genre by its melodic pattern used.
II. Four Major Xiqu Melodic Types and Their Characteristics

A. Kunqiang (Kun Melodic Type) and Kunju (Kun Opera)
1. An Overview of Kunqiang and Kunju
The predecessor of Kun Melodic Pattern is Kunshan’qiang (Kunshan Melodic
Type) which was conceived in the late Yuan and early Ming period (late fourteenth
century). When Yongjia Zaju (Miscellaneous Plays of Yongjia) disseminated from
Wenzhou, Zhejiang to Kunshan, Jiangsu; it was combined with the local dialect and
folk melodies to form this new operatic genre, and its success was largely due to the
effort of the singer Gu Jian and his peers. It came into being in Kunshan, hence its
name Kunshan’qiang (Kunshan Melodic Type). Kunshan Melodic Type in Jiangsu,
Yiyang Melodic Type in Jiangxi, and Haiyan Melodic Type and Yuyao Melodic Type
in Zhejiang are collectively known as Four Major Melodic Types of southern operatic
genres. As an early form of Kunqiang, Kunshan melodic pattern was mainly popular
in middle Jiangsu.
Roughly between the tenth and twentieth year of Jiajing reign of the Ming
Dynasty (1531–1541), the singer who was an expert on the northern style Labelled
Tunes Wei Liangfu migrated to Taicang, Jiangsu, where the literati there advocated
northern music style of recent dynasties and despised southern music, yet Wei saw
a potential for Kunshan Melodic Type (particularly in abandoning the southern rule
of not involving wind or string instruments in the accompaniment); he was liberal
enough to accompany these melodies with Di flute, Pipa lute and Sheng mouth organ
making them the most refined of the Four Major Melodic Types. He spent over ten
years integrating southern opera, northern music and local folk songs to create a new
music style almost completely different from the original Kunshan melodic style. This
second generation of Kunqiang features delicate and reserved melodies, sophisticated
diction and an elegant style, hence it was affectionately referred to as Shuimo’diao
(Water Mill Tune).
Initially, Wei Liangfu’s Water Mill Tune was sung without accompaniment, and
his successors continued to compose new melodies on this basis. Liang Chenyu
(1521–1594), a legendary musician-writer in Kunshan, succeeded Wei in contributing
to Kunqiang by writing new tunes, as well as a famous play entitled Huansha’ji (c.
1566), which created a great impact on Xiqu circles. Liang Chenyu demonstrated
in the work his new approach to Kunqu melodies, on the basis of Wei Liangfu,
combining the essences of southern and northern operatic styles. Huansha’ji consists
of forty-five scenes, of which forty-one use melodies of Shuimo’diao (Water Mill

Tune), two adopted northern tunes, and the other two employed both southern and
northern tunes to form a contrast. As a result, Kunju (Kun Opera) was immediately
hailed by both southern and northern audiences, greatly enhancing the status of the
genre. The music Liang Chenyu used in Huansha’ji is regarded as the third generation
of Kunqiang.
With the advent of Huansha’ji, Kunju entered its mature period. It was being called
Kunju in the 1920s, replacing the original term Kunqu.
2. Overview of Kunju (Kun Opera)
Kunju is a genre using only Kunqiang Melodic Type. Its emergence was a symbol
of maturity for its music, and it was also a milestone in the development of Chinese
opera. Kunju is recognized as the most refined genre of Chinese opera, and before the
advent of Beijing Opera, it had been entertainment for the literatic and ruling class,
notwithstanding there were hundreds of operatic genres. Kunju is a refined form of
opera integrating music, dances, acrobatics, martial arts, literary recitation, dramatic
performances and other traditional Chinese arts. Once recognized as China’s “national
opera genre” both at home and abroad, it is also known as “the ancestor of all operatic
genres” or “the milk of all operatic genres.”
The supreme position of Kunju is due to the following reasons:
First, Kunju is consummate in its comprehensiveness. It has elevated Chinese
operatic art of “singing and dancing” to the summit of “every sound is melodious and
each movement is part of dancing”; this supreme status is still held at present. Thus,
Kunju (Kun Opera) is a model for other operatic genres integrating singing, speaking,
acting and acrobatic movements. Its superb stage performing arts are often fully
reflected in some selected single scenes (about four hundred of these plays are still
performed).
Second, Kunju’s stage performance and singing techniques are extremely refined.
Present actors and actresses of other operatic genres have to include famous Kunju
songs as core repertoire for learning, and these include Youyuan Jingmeng (Romantic
Dream in Garden), Xunmeng (Finding the Lover in Dream), Sifan (Fancying Secular
Love), Yeben (Escaping at Night), Duanqiao (Broken Bridge), Cihu (Assassinating
Tiger) and Jiamei (Marrying the Younger Sister Out). This foundation proves to be
necessary for all Xiqu performers, somewhat similar to the need for a classical scholar
in the West to study Latin and Greek. This is referred to as Kunxun (Training of
Kunqu Opera), perhaps a pun on Junxun (Military Training).
Third, Kunju has a large repertoire, because it has inherited numerous folklores
from many sources, hence is a useful pool of resources for other Chinese operatic
genres. Among them, the northern miscellaneous (Zaju) arias reformed on the basis
of Kunqiang Melodic Type are still performed on the Kunju stage. These include
Xunzi Daohui , a scene from Guan Hanqing’s Dandao’hui (Joining Enemy’s
Banquet Alone), Saoqin, a scene from Kong Wenqing’s Dongchuang Shifan (To be
Punished after Death), Fangpu, a scene from Luo Guanzhong’s Fengyun’hui (Heroes
Gathering), and Bixiu, a scene from an anonymous playwright’s Yuqiao’ji (Story on
Four
Major Xiqu 289
a Fisherman and Forrester). Southern Opera arias and legends of early Ming Dynasty
transformed using Kunqiang and are preserved, and repertoire includes Gao Ming’s
Pipa’ji (The Story of Pipa), an anonymous playwright’s Yougui’ji (Story of Fair
Maiden), an anonymous playwright’s Baitu’ji (Story of White Rabbit), an anonymous
playwright’s Jingchai’ji (The Romance of a Thorny Hairpin), Su Fuzhi’s Jinyin’ji
(The Story of the Golden Seal), Li Rihua’s Nanxi’xiang (Romance of the Southern
West Chamber), Xue Jinyan’s Xiuru’ji (Story of a Scholar and Geisha), Wang
Yufeng’s Fenxiang’ji (Wang Kui Betraying Guiying’s Love), Li Kaixian’s Baojian’ji
(The Tale of the Sword), Shen Cai’s Qianjin’ji (Story of Han Xin) and Wang Ji’s
Lianhuan’ji (Story of Chain of Rings). Works based on stories of the Ming and
Qing Dynasties include Wang Shizhen’s Mingfeng’ji (Story of Cai Mingfeng), Tang
Xianzu’s Mudantin (Love Story of the Peony Pavillion), Zichai’ji (Story of Purple
Hairpin), Handanji (A Vanished Dream in Handan) and Nanke’ji (Emperor’s Son-in-
law in Dream), Shenjing’s Yixia’ji (Chivalry Story), Xu Zichang’s Shuihu’ji (Story
of Water Margin), Gao Lian’s Yuzan’ji (The Tale of Jade Hairpin), Wang Tingne’s
Shihou’ji (Roar of a Lion), Wu Shimei’s Jinghong’ji (Tang Minghuang with his Two
Concubines), Shi Pang’s Hudie’meng (Dream of Butterfly), Li Yu’s Yipeng’xue (A
Handful of Snow), Qingzhong’pu (Eradicating Disloyal Officials), Qilin’ge (Qilin
Chamber), Li Yu’s Fengzheng’wu (Mistake of Kite Flying), Yuan Yuling’s Xilou’ji
(Story of West Pavillion), Zhu Suchen’s Shiwu’guan (Fifteen Chains of Coins), Zhu
Zuochao’s Yujia’le (Happiness of a Fishing Family), Ruan Dacheng’s Yanzi’jian (Love
Story of Huo Duliang and a Prostitute Hua Xingyun), an anonymous playwright’s
Lanke’shan (A Divorced Couple to Re-marry), Qiu Yuan’s Hulang’tan (Story on
Lu Zhishen), Hongsheng’s Changsheng’dian (Long Life Hall), Kong Shangren’s
Taohua’shan (Fan Inscribed with Peach Blossom), Zhang Dafu’s Tianxia’le (Happiness
World), an anonymous playwright’s Tongtian’xi (Story between Warlords of Ming
Dynasty and Miao Ethnic Group ) and Leifeng’ta (Story of Leifeng Pagoda). Since the
literati have been involved in writing lyrics for Kunju, these works are of great literary
value, in addition their established status in Xiqu.
Fourth, Owing to the previous status of “National Drama” of Kunju, preservation
of its music is much more comprehensive than other Xiqu genres. The compendium
Jiugong Dacheng Nanbei Cigong’pu (A Great Collection of Songs in Nine Modes
from North and South) contains 4,466 entries of its melodies.
Fifth, Kunqu singing has very strict rules for phonation, articulation and melodic
embellishment. Wei Liangfu’s Qulu (Principles of Labelled Tunes), Xu Dachun’s
Yuefu Chuansheng (Sound from Music Bureau), Shen Chongsui’s Duqu Xuzhi (Essence
of Composing Music) and Yu Sulu’s Duqu Chuyan (Discussion on Composing Music)
are important treatises on the art of singing Kunqu in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
These works are valuable resources for Xiqu and other genres of folk vocal music.
The classification of Kunqu roles became more sophisticated as the genre
developed: Laosheng (aged male role) is divided into Fumo (the male role who
gives a speech to start performance), Laowai (rich man) and Laosheng (aged male
role); Xiaosheng (young male role) is divided into Guansheng (official male role),
Xiaosheng (young male role) and Jinsheng (educated young male role); Jing (painted
face, male role) and Chou (clown) roles are divided into Damian (full painted face, or
Zhengjing, authentic painted face), Baimian (white face), Ermian (secondary painted
face, or Fu14) and Xiaomian (small painted face, or Chou, clown); Dan (female role)
roles include Laodan (aged female role), Zhengdan (principal female role), Zuodan
(young female role, or Wawa’dan, role of young girl), Cisha’dan (acrobatic female
role), Wudan (fifth female role, also known as Guimen Dan role of unmarried girl,
and Xiaodan, role of young girl), Liudan (sixth female role, also known as Tiedan,
maidservant and Huadan, colourful female role) and Erduo’dan (ear girl, or Zadan,
supporting female role).
Yu Zhenfei was an outstanding Kunqu performer in the twentieth century. He was
taught the art of singing Kunqu at the age of six by his father Yu Sulu, a renowned
artist of the genre. He soon had high accomplishment on singing, reciting and
performing, techniqes he was able to apply to his knowledge of literature, poetry,
calligraphy and painting, allowing his recognition amongst the literati. As a Kunqu
performer who was fully exposed to Jingju, he was able to make the best of the two
genres, and gave a new dimension to the former, highlighting refinement, elegance,
strength and vitality. His profile as a classical scholar was revered in the professional
circle. This was, of course, due to his versatility, as he was excelled in a lot of roles,
such as Li Bai in Taibai Zuixie (Drunken Poems of Li Taibai), Liu Mengmei in
Youyuan Jingmeng (Romantic Dream in Garden), Emperor Xuanzong in Jingbian
Maiyu (Story of Tang Minghuang and His Concubine Yang Guifei), Pan Bizheng in
Qintiao (Serenading by Guqin), Jian Wenjun in Bayang (Buddhist Script) and Xu
Xian in Duanqiao (Broken Bridge). His performances have left a lasting impression
on the audience.
Other influential recent Kunqu performers include Zhang Jiqing and Lin Jifan of
Jiangsu, Hua Wenyi, Ji Zhenhua, Yue Meiti and Cai Zhengren of Shanghai, Li Shujun,
Hou Shaokui and Hong Xuefei of Beijing, Wang Shiyu and Shen Shihua of Zhejiang,
and Lei Ziwen of Hunan.
Owing to the high social status of the audience of Kunju, the genre has been
in an advantageous position for gathering community resources. However, rapid
social changes in the last two centuries or so have led to an expansion of audience
for popular art forms, hence leading to its demise. In any case, the strict rules for
performing Kunqu have made it hard for the general audience to appreciate the art,
and of course, there have been difficulties for its transmission, owing to its allusive
lyrics and sophisticated music. Its downfall was largely caused by emerging Xiqu
genres, especially Jingju (Beijing Opera), entertainment favoured by the Empress
Dowager in the nineteenth century, in addition to the rivalry between Huabu (Colourful
Section, of local operas) and Yabu (Refined Section, of Kunqu Opera) amongst the
professonals.
After the 1950s, new Kunqu pieces emerged, providing some impetus to the genre.
14 Fu 付
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Major Xiqu 291
A famous piece was Shiwu’guan (Fifteen Chains of Coins) composed by Chen Jing
in 1956; it was based on Shuangxiong’meng (The Dream of Two Bears), drawing
an enthusiastic audience after its first performance. The People’s Daily published an
editorial entitled “A Play Saves a Xiqu Genre,” referring to some kind of revival of the
aesthetic taste for Kunqu.
3. Kunqiang (Kun Melodic Type)
(1) Characteristics of Music and Lyrics of Labelled Pieces
Kunqiang adopts Qupai form in organizing its music. This means using a series
of independent melodies (Labelled Pieces) that are linked according to certain rules.
Unlike Western operas, which involve composers working closely with librettists
(composing music for existing libretto)–as in the case of Mozart and Da Ponte–
Chinese Xiqu professionals normally do the other way round, that is, compose lyrics to
fit existing melodies. Labelled Pieces refer to the melodic patterns that are often used
to compose lyrics; their origins are very mixed, and may include folk songs, ditties,
Zaju, Changzhuan (Narrative Singing Popular in Song Dynasty), Zhugong’diao
(Tunes in Multiple Modes) and even melodies from ethnic minorities. It is sometimes
difficult, if not impossible to trace the origins of names of some Labelled Pieces, but
their titles may throw some light on their roots. For example, Liangzhou’xu (Liangzhou
Prelude) and Yizhou’ling (Yizhou Song) are probably related to the suites of the Tang
and Song Dynasties; Tangwudai and Ruolagu are very likely to have ethnic origins.
The names of Labelled Pieces serve as easy references for certain melodic patterns,
and do not have implicit meanings.
Some Labelled Pieces of Kunju are purely instrumental–serving to create an
atmosphere or match body movements–and these include Xiao’kaimen (Opening
a Small Gate), Wannian’huan (Myriad Years of Happiness), Liuqing’niang (A
Slender Lady), Liuyao’jin (Gold Swung by Slender Willow), Jiejie’gao (Getting
Higher) and Dasi’jing (Four Scenic Views). Of course, Kunqu uses a large number
of Labelled Pieces with lyrics, such as Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor),
Duanzheng’hao (Proper Etiquette) and Fendie’er (A Pink Butterfly). These melodies
have certain framework, as well as linguistic conditions for accommodating lyrics.
For example, the lyrics of Chaotianzi should comprise eleven verses, with the number
of characters in each verse assigned as 2, 2, 5, 7, 5, 4, 4, 5, 2, 2, 5 respectively; the
lyrics of Duanzheng’hao should have five verses, with the number of character in each
verse 5, 5, 7, 7, 5 respectively; the lyrics of Fendie’er should have eight verses, with
the number of character in each verse in the order 4, 7, 7, 3, 3, 4, 4, 7. The language
tones of the lyrics of a Labelled Piece should follow the rules of Ci poem. Since many
padding characters have been added to the lyrics of Labelled Pieces, it is hard to
revert to their original state. For instance, the Labelled Piece Chaotianzi used in the
Act Hunting of the play Huansha’ji (a story of Conflicts between Wu and Yue States)
goes like this:
In Chinese: 遍江南独我尊,
Romanization: biàn jiāng nán dú wǒ zūn,
Translation: I am dominating in the southern region,
In Chinese: 气凌去湖海吞,
Romanization: qì líng qù hú hǎi tūn,
Translation: Putting out all clouds, swallowing lakes and the sea,
In Chinese: 看威行四海声名振。
Romanization: kàn wēi xíng sì hǎi shēng míng zhèn.
Translation: Power and prestige, and threatening whole world.
In Chinese: 英豪勇猛说什么楚秦,
Romanization: yīng háo yǒng měng shuō shén me chǔ zòu,
Translation: Hero is brave and fierce; no need to think about Chu and Qing
States.
In Chinese: 半乾坤皆投顺。
Romanization: bàn qián kūn jiē tóu shùn.
Translation: Half of the world has been capitulated.
In Chinese: 你萧萧一身 ,
Romanization: nǐ xiāo xiāo yī shēn,
Translation: You alone,
In Chinese: 些些儿海郡小君,
Romanization: xiē xiē er hǎi jùn xiǎo jūn,
Translation: Are only the King of a small State,
In Chinese: 羡君臣夫妻恭谨,
Romanization: xiàn jūn chén fū qī gōng jǐn,
Translation: Admiring the respect between Monarch and minister, husband and
wife,
In Chinese: 夫妻恭谨 ,
Romanization: fū qī gōng jǐn,
Translation: Husband and wife respects one another,
In Chinese: 放他归全恩信,

Romanization: fàng tā guī quán ēn xìn,
Translation: Let him return home, and this is based on trust,
In Chinese: 放他归全恩信。
Romanization: fàng tā guī quán ēn xìn.
Translation: Let him return home, and this is based on trust.
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Major Xiqu 293
The number of phrases in this stanza complies with the rule, but the number of
characters in each of the eleven verses greatly exceeds those prescribed.
Although Labelled Pieces are melodic patterns designed for accommodating lyrics,
they have certain flexibility in the juxtaposition. In other words, the same Labelled
Piece (for example, Chao’tianzi) will not be exactly the same even if it appears twice
in the same opera.
Example 4-1. Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor), version 1. Unison chorus in Act
Hunting of the Play Huansha’ji15

Horses are in rows,
Infantry soldiers walking one after another,
Flag is hung at the Western suburban district.
The red silk and embroidered umbrella,
Wait for the King to return.
Dressed in Dragon robe, yellow golden belt,
Thousands of people hunting together,
Thousands people spread in rows to cheer,
Bustling with noise and excitement,
Excitement,
Dogs run rapidly, rapidly.
15 Transcripted from Selected Traditional Labelled Pieces of Kunqu (Kunqu Chuantong Qupai Xuan). Beijing:
People’s Music Publishing House, 1981: pp 158-160.
Example 4-2. Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor), version 2. Unison chorus in Act
Hunting of the Play Huansha’ji16
English transaltion of the lyrics:

I am dominating in the southern region,
Putting out all clouds, swallowing lakes and the sea,
Power and prestige, and threatening whole world.
Hero is brave and fierce; no need to think about Chu and Qing States.
Half of the world has been capitulated.
You alone,
Are only the King of a small State,
Admiring the respect between Monarch and minister, husband and wife.
Husband and wife respect one another,
Let him return home, and this is based on trust,
Let him return home, and this is based on trust.
When these two melodies are compared, there are obvious similarities: the trend is
even more evident if the same Labelled Piece is used in different operas.
Example 4-3. Shanpo’yang (Sheep on Hill), version 1. Vocal melody sung by Wu Feixia (female
role) in Act Cangzhou (Hiding the Boat) of the Play Yujia’le (Happiness of A Fishing Family)
(to be
continued)
16 Example 4-1., 4-2. are 4-3. are taken from Selected Traditional Labelled Pieces of Kunqu (Kunqu Chuantong
Qupai Xuan). Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1981: p75, p76, p78.
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Major Xiqu 295
Example 4-3 (continued). Shanpo’yang (Sheep on Hill), version 1. Vocal melody sung by Wu
Feixia (female role) in Act Cangzhou (Hiding the Boat) of the Play Yujia’le (Happiness of A Fishing
Family)
English translation of the lyrics (Example 4-3.):

Tears become a flower of nature,
Despondency becomes a solitary goose in the Sky.
Crying becomes an insect on the stone,
In no time, one can become a leave of poplar tree on the slope.
Example 4-4. Shanpo’yang (Sheep on Hill), version 2. Song sung by Du Liniang (female role) in
Act Jingmeng (Waking Dream) of the Play Mudan’ting (Love Story of the Peony Pavillion)
(to be
continued)
Example 4-4 (continued). Shanpo’yang (Sheep on Hill), version 2. Song sung by Du Liniang (female
role) in Act Jingmeng (Waking Dream) of the Play Mudan’ting (Love Story of the Peony Pavillion)
Four
Major Xiqu 297

When I am calm, the yearn for love will not disappear,
In a strange place, I feel sad.
I am just a little girl,
Born in a famous family, and treated as a fairy.
I spend my youth age longing for a good marriage,
Who knows my life in my dream?
I am shy even if I want to have love,
Thinking of the dream: who he is?
As time goes by,
Who can I talk to?
I am suffering,
And use the rest of my life to ask the Sky!
The fact that Labelled Pieces can be used with such flexibility is due to allowance
given to artists when handling melodic framework. For a genre like Kunqu that has
evolved since the Ming Dynasty, Labelled Pieces have accumulated enough changes
for usages in different conditions. A Labelled Piece can develop many variations
sharing the same name but may differ greatly. Even so, there are certain melodic
characteristics which will never disappear.
(2) Metrical Patterns
Kunqu’s metrical patterns (Banshi) should be viewed from three perspectives:
First, Metre: Kunqu melodies, like other Chinese folk genres, are presented in
different forms of simple metrical types, such as one strong beat and three weak beats
(or three weak beats, similar to 4/4); one strong beat and one weak beat (or one weak
beat, similar to 2/4); strong beat only (or flowing beat, similar to 1/4); scattered beat
(free rhythm); three weak beats with bestowed beats (similar to 8/4).
Second, Metrical Patterns: The division of Kunqu into South and North sub-genres
has led to different rules for incorporating metrical patterns. South Kunqu is stricter
in this respect. There are certain conventions to follow, such as the number of beats
(measures) in the whole Labelled Piece, the position of each word in a measure, and
how paired phrases or Labelled Pieces are connected. North Kunqu is relatively freer.
The juxtaposition of lyrics and rhythm is treated flexibly, especially when there are
padding words, hence the saying, “the tune is rigid but the beats are flexible.17”
Third, Names of Beat Applications: In Kunqu, the application of strong and weak
beats is related to the rhythmic framework of the music. When words are set to music,
there are various terms for indicating how a word is sung in relation to strong or weak
beats. When a downbeat coincides with a pitch, it is called Zhengban (Authentic Beat)
or Shiban (True Beat); when a pitch is sung at the second half of a strong beat (or
upbeat), it is called Xianban (Dangerous Beat) or Shanban (Off Beat); when a strong
beat falls on a sustained note, it is called Yaoban (Waist Beat) or Cheban (Pulling
17 死腔活板
Beat); when a beat falls at the end of pitch sound, it is called Jieban (Stopping Beat)
or Jueban (End Beat).
(3) Melodic Patterns
The advent of Kunqu in the Ming Dynasty was an indication that Chinese Xiqu had
reached a stage of maturity, notably the setting of words to music, after various stages
of development. Chinese language is pronounced in different tones, and it is vital to
have some rules in fitting words to music, so as to avoid ambiguity in converying
the meaning of sung lyrics. Kunqu pays special attention to the “Opening Vowel”
(Chukou’qiang, or Vowel Head, Qiangtou), since the audience will need to distinguish
which of the four possible language tones are enunciated at the very beginning of the
melody, as in the following example18:
Example 4-5. Possible melodic flow for the Chinese character “(yin)” in level tone used in Kunqu
opera
The first character “yin” is a level tone. If a character of rising tone19 is chosen, the
opening pitch “C” will need to be lowered (to “A” in this case), allowing it to rise to
the original pitch, and in the process changing the rhythm of a minim to two crotchets
as shown:
Example 4-6. Possible melodic flow for the Chinese character “Yang” in rising tone used in Kunqu
opera
This slight change of the opening pitch allows the choice of characters of level or
rising tones.
Melodies of Kunqu are able to accommodate the four language tones of Putonghua,
which is called Sisheng Qiangge, meaning four tones and melodic patterns, since the
genre has absorbed language styles of the south and north; they can, of course match
verses sung in Suzhou dialect. Hence, the relationship between melody and text is not
absolutely rigid, as show in the following example:
18 The example 4-5 and 4-6 are taken from Wu Junda: Research on the Vocal Music of Kunqu Opera. Beijing:
People’s Music Publishing House, 1993, p99.
19 阳平
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Major Xiqu 299
Example 4-7. The relationship between melody and text in Mandarin and Suzhou dialects
The melody coincides with the four language

tones of Mandarin
The melody coincides with the four language
tones of Suzhou dialect
The “Four-tone Melodic Pattern” of south Kunqu is listed in the following illustration20:
Tone Level Tone Rising Tone

1. A single pitch is lengthened. For 1. Begin low and ascend a second. For
example: example:
2. After starting, ascend or descend by 2. Begin low and ascend by a third or

Melodic a second or third before returning to the fourth. For example:
pattern original pitch. For example:
Falling-rising Tone, containing Yin (35) and Falling Tone, containing Yin (45) and Yang
Tone
Yang(13) two types (21) two types
1. The melodic pattern for rising tone also 1. For Yin type, begin high, use a Huo’qiang
applies to Yin and Yang two types. That is, (rear acciaccatura) and then descend. For
begin low and ascend by a third or fourth. example:
For example:
Or descend continuously. For example:

2. For both Yin and Yang two types, first
pitch is followed by Huo’qiang (rear
Melodic appoggiatura) and then ascends. For
pattern example: 2. Yang type often ascends abruptly and
then descends. For example:
3 For Yin type, a Hanqiang (front

appoggiatura) is often used; it descends
abruptly and then ascends. For example:
Illustration 4-3. The “Four-tone Melodic Pattern” of south Kunqu
20 The Illustration 4-3 is taken from Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing
House, 1995, p 66.
The melodic pattern of north Kunqu has a broader range than south Kunqu, and
the former uses the heptatonic scale (verses pentatonic scale for the latter). When the
melodic pattern of falling-tone characters in south Kunqu is , ,
its northern counterpart will be , .
(4) Method of Pronunciation
Another major contribution of Kunqu as a genre of vocal music is its sophisticated
manner of pronunciation and the outcome of enhancing the aesthetic level of spoken
Chinese. Singing Kunqu involves the most basic step of delivering three components
- head vowel (Tou), main vowel (Fu) and tail vowel (Wei) - of a word clearly. For
example, the character “ 圆 ” is pronounced as “iuan”; “i” is the head vowel, “u” is
the main vowel, and “an” is the tail vowel (The Pinyin transliteration system was not
yet invented, and the pronunciation of each character is divided into segments using
the “trichotomy method (Sanyin Qiefa)”. Each character should begin with a plosive,
the main vowel should be full, and the tail vowel should be accurate and neat, so as to
achieve an optimal effect of “fullness of articulation (Zizheng Qiangyuan).”
(5) Pitches and Modes
The concept of pitches and modes (Gongdiao) in Kunqiang is intrinsically
connected with but deviates from the concept of same term found in ancient Chinese
music theory.
Ancient Chinese music theory defines Gong mode as a gamut (scale) using the first
degree Gong as final in a primarily pentatonic system. When other degrees, such as
Shang (second degree), Jue (third degree), Zhi (fifth degree) or Yu (sixth degree) are
taken as finals, the music will be in the modes of these respective degrees. In addition,
each of these modes can be set to any of the twelve absolute pitches (Shier Lulu),
named, in ascending order, Huangzhong, Dalyu, Taicu, Jiazhong, Guxian, Zhonglyu,
Ruibin, Linzhong, Yize, Nanlyu, Wuyi and Yingzhong, in some kind of chromatic order
similar to the twelve semi-tones in Western music. Hence the nomenclature Linzhong
Gong (Linzhong as first degree) or Ruibin Gong makes references first to the absolute
pitch, then the degree of the final.
In “Five Gong and Seven Diao (Wugong Qidiao) of Kunqiang, Gong indicates
the first degree of the scale, while Diao refers to other degrees in a scale,”
hence encompassing a slightly different scope. The former refers to Zhenggong,
Xianlu’gong, Nanlu’gong, Zhonglu’gong and Huangzhong’gong (absolute pitches),
while the latter to the Shuangdiao, Yuediao, Dashi’diao, Xiaoshi’diao, Yudiao,
Shangdiao and Banshe’diao (degrees of finals).
The pitches and modes in Kunqiang are not merely technical entities in music, but
their use is related to the aesthetic aspects of its music, as indicated in the following
list:
Zhenggong: “melancholy and powerful”; Xianlyu’gong: “fresh and winding”;
Nanlyu’gong: “lamenting and sorrowful”; Zhonglyu’gong: “fluctuant and subtle”;
Huangzhong Gong: “majestic and lingering”; Shuangdiao mode: “sprightly and
vehement”; Yuediao mode: “intoxicating and lyrical”; Dashi’diao: “graceful but not
showy”; Xiaoshi’diao: “gentle and charming.”
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Major Xiqu 301
The idea of using pitches and modes to set the mood of the music (Yigong
Dingxing) have existed since the inception of north Kunqu in the Yuan Dynasty, but it
has not been adhered to strictly.
(6) Jiqu (Taking Music Phrases from Different Pieces to Form a New Piece)
Jiqu (Tune Combination) is a common device used in arranging music for Kunqu.
It involves choosing part of a Labelled Piece and joining it with a similar section of
another piece, effectively making a new piece from existing materials. An example is
the combination of Liangzhou’xu (Liangzhou Prelude) and He’xinlang (Congratulating
the Bridegroom), making a new Labelled Piece Liangzhou Xinlang (Bridegroom of
Liangzhou). Jiju (Jilin Opera) can either be used as a verb and a noun, hence one can
say “Jiqu method is used in combining tunes” or “Liangzhou Xinlang is a Jiqu”.
Using Jiqu as a means of composition was originally known as Fandiao (Transient
Modulation). Jiqu cannot be applied indiscriminately, and segments of two melodies
can only be combined if they are in the same pitch mode, known as Fanben’gong;
sometimes this technique can be used if the Dizi flute passages in the melodies share
the same pitch of the Gong degree (Dise, literally the colour of bamboo, an alternative
name for the seven modes of the folk Gongche notation in operatic music), but have
different finals.
(7) Taoqu (Suite Composing)
Taoqu is the most common technique of treating Labelled Pieces in Qupai
form, when a number of such melodies are joined as a suite according to certain
conventions, distinguished according to styles, as South, North, and North-South
Suites.
South Suites (Nantao): All Labelled Pieces found in South Suites are south Kunqu
melodies, which are organized in the order of Prelude, Main Body (Guoqu, several
Labelled Pieces) and Epilogue (Weisheng). The Prelude and Epilogue may be omitted.
North Suites (Beitao): All the Labelled Pieces of North Suites are north Kunqu
melodies, which begin with a Labelled Piece in lieu of Prelude, leading to an unfixed
number of Labelled Pieces, and an Epilogue (Shawei, the meaning is the same as
Weisheng in South Suite).
The South and North Suites described are just the cores of the music for Kunqu,
and one needs to note that when dealing with a complex art form like Xiqu, there are
unforeseeable circumstances which demand certain flexibility. Afterall, it is an art
form that serves to narrate a story as well as expressing emotions.
North-South Suites (Nanbei Hetao): the basic principle is to alternate north and
south Labelled Pieces in order to get the best of the two melodic styles, in line with
the principle of contrasting strong and weak, and Yang (masculine) and Yin (feminine).
The northern Qupai is the basis, while the added southern melodies need to have the
same fundamental pitch.
(8) Differences between South and North Kunqu
South and north Kunqu share many common features, even though they have been
developing independently. There are differences between the two sub-genres, which
are outlined as follows:
(i) Scales: In Gongche notation, north Kunqu is presented in heptatonic mode,

while its southern counterpart uses pentatomic mode (without Yi and Fan, or Si and Fa
degrees), even though Yi and Fan often appear as passing notes and embellishments in
the performance.
(ii) Pronunciation: North Kunqu follows Zhongyuan Yinyun (Central China
Phonology), its four tones being level tone, rising tone, falling-rising tone, and falling
tone, and its pronunciation is mostly the same as that of Mandarin. South Kunqu
follows Hongwu Zhengyun (Phonology Compiled during the Hongwu Peirod in the
Ming Dynasty) and the pronunciation is based on Suzhou dialect.
(iii) Mode and rhyme: A north Kunqu play uses one system of rhyming and one
scheme of pitch mode, while its southern counterpart allows modulation and changes
in rhyming scheme.
(iv) Relationship between lyrics and music: North Kunqu is more narrative (more
characters in the lyrics) and involves less singing (fewer dragging tunes). South
Kunqu is the exact opposite, focusing more on music, as seen in the wide-spread of
melismatic style of setting words to music; the singer tends to utter a word for a long
span with music accompaniment before the next is pronounced.
(v) Melodic contour: North Kunqu melodies tend to have more leaps, such as the
degrees of a fourth, fifth or over an octave to achieve a vehement, unrestrained and
heroic effect; south Kunqu melodies often proceed stepwise in the pentatonic system,
generating a lingering and reserved mood.
(vi) Vocal style: The singing style of north Kunqu is rigid, direct and vigorous,
while southern style emphasizes flexibility of breath and fine sentiments from the
meandering melodies. In addition, melodies of south Kunqu often accommodate
words with “falling tone”, which are essentially short and transient. Hence there is
some kind of linked staccato effect, which is a feature of southern style.
(vii) Performing style: North Kunqu is usually sung by a soloist; the same
performer will be in charge of the whole play, and other participants can only narrate.
South Kunqu has more variety in singing styles, such as solo, relay, duet, chorus and
antiphony.
(viii) Repertoire: North Kunqu plays include a lot of acrobatics, while those in the
south focus on singing and acting.
The eight points outlined above help distinguish differences between north and
south Kunqu. Other features worth mentioning include the contrasting approach of
introducing padding words (South Kunqu has more restrictions, such as they cannot
be set to a strong beat while limiting the number to three; north Kunqu is freer in this
respect, and padding words may occupy a strong beat), or there are diffences in the
approach to composing suites (see the section on “Taoqu Suites Composing” above),
or using melodic patterns (see the section of “Melodic Patterns” above), and forms.
(9) Accompaniment and Sanqu (Individual Song) Songs of Kunqu
Kunqu is the most elegant form of Xiqu genre, hence has avoided all percussion
instruments other than Clapper to mark the strong beats. South and north genres use
the same melodic instruments for accompaniment, led by Qudi flute and supported by
Four
Major Xiqu 303
Sanxian, Pipa, Yueqin and Erhu.

Sanqu songs, or Labelled Pieces independent of the plot, may be introduced as
instrumental music at appropriate junctures to enhance expression, depict sceneries or
narrate events.
(10) Melodic Embellishments of Kunqu
Performance of Kunqu involves acquiring the skills to embellish a melody,
which are means to ensure the delivery of the most elegant style of singing. Adding
ornaments to a melody will lead to a subtle change in tone colour, which may involve
techniques such as Duo (or Zuo, one pitch sung twice without changing its duration),
Die (doubled pitches), Dai (adding an embellished pitch between two skeletal
pitches), Sou (vibrations), Han (adding downward embellished pitches), Tiao (adding
an embellished pitch after the skeletal pitch two or three degrees above), Huo (adding
an embellished pitch before the skeletal pitch two or three degree above) and some
others. Application of the techniques and the distinction between them are based on
the intonations of the Chinese characters of the lyrics.
4. Kunqu Song for Appreciation and Analysis
Act Yeben of the Play Baojian’ji (The Tale of the Sword - Night Escape) is a most
treasured piece of Kunqu. The play was written by Li Kaixian, a scholar-official in
the Ming Dynasty, who was dismissed in his forties after speaking bluntly to his
superiors. He was, of course, a man of letters, and he had an interest in poetry and
music, particularly Xiqu. His masterpiece Baojian’ji was based on the story of Lin
Chong in The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan). However, his image of Lin Chong was
a great stimulus to the general public to rethink the society and life in general. Yeben
is the most wonderful scene in Baojian’ji: it portrays the complex psychology of
the protagonist Lin Chong when he was persecuted, and had no choice but went to
Liangshan, where criminals aggregate.
Yeben of Baojian’ji is a suite in the typical style of north Kunqu, with music
organized in Shuangdiao mode, providing a sprightly and vehement background. It
uses a series of Labelled Pieces, including Xinshui’ling (Fresh Water Song) as prelude;
the main body comprises Zhuma’’ting (Halting the Horse to Listen), Zhegui’ling (Song
for Picking Scented Osmanthus), Yaner’luo (The Wild Geese Alighting), Desheng’ling
(The Song of Victory), Gumei’jiu (Tasting Good Wine), Taiping’ling (Song of
Peace) and Shou Jiangnan (Recovering Jiangnan); and there is a Shawei (Ending
Tune) as Epilogue. In order to fully depict the emotions of the characters in the play,
an introductory Labelled Piece Dianjiang Chun (Putting on Red Lipstick) in the
refreshing mode Xianlu Gong was added to the beginning of the whole suite. Hence,
the play has two preludes, and the pitch mode of the introductory piece is different
from the other nine Labelled Pieces. Putting aside this aspect, the music style of Yeben
is typical of the northern suite: the rhyme of the lyrics is yao-tiao (ao); the pitch is set
to do = C; melodies have to accommodate many words and Dragging Tunes are rare;
there is only one martial character on stage, who sings throughout the play.
The metrical pattern of the music is as follows: two preludes and an epilogue are
in scattered beats; in the main body, one Labelled Piece uses scattered beats, three
Shangban (On the Beats) pieces feature one strong beat and three weak beats (4/4
metre) or one strong beat and one weak beat (2/4 metre), and the other three Labelled
Pieces alternate 2/4 metre with scattered beats. Such a flexible metrical structure is
not only representative of north Kunqu but also very appropriate for setting the mood
for Yeben. Lin Chong was a tragic figure, as he had hoped to stay loyal to his country,
but was forced to join the rebels. The protagonist was different from other characters
such as Li Kui, who was glad to join the Liangshan Marsh. Lin Chong has to adjust
his psychology in order to settle with the large group of culprits; his deflection was
accompanied with a fierce inner struggle. Hence some flexibility has to be sought in
handling Kunqu form.
Zhegui’ling (Song for Picking Scented Osmanthus) is the main Labelled Piece in
Shuangdiao mode, and also the only melody featuring one strong beat and three weak
beats (4/4) in the suite. It includes eight phrases, each set to the number of words
six, four, four, four, four, four, seven, and seven, respectively. However, four four-
character phrases are added to the middle (after the fifth phrase) as needed, hence this
Labelled Piece is expanded to twelve phrases. Yeben is, of course, a piece demanding
a high degree of proficiency in singing, acting and acrobatics, and it has become a set
piece of Kunxun (Training of Kunqu Opera) for students learning the art.
B. Gaoqiang (High Melodic Type) and Chuanju (Sichuan Opera)
1. An Overview of Gaoqiang:
Gaoqiang, Kunqiang, Pihuang and Bangzi are collectively known as Four Major
Melodic Types (Sida Shengqiang) of contemporary Xiqu. There is a belief that the
predecessor of Gaoqiang is Yiyang Melodic Type (Yiyang Qiang), one of the Old Four
Melodic Types in the Ming Dynasty. According to Yulin Yehua (Night Talk in Rainy
Woods) by Li Tiaoyuan in the Qing Dynasty, “Yiqiang was born in Yiyang. Now it
is known as Gaoqiang.21” This is the most relevant evidence of Gaoqiang in literary
sources.
Gaoqiang is disseminated broadly in China: among some thirty genres of opera
in the south, Jiujiang Gaoqiang’xi (High Melo Opera of Jiujiang) and Fujian Daxi
(Great Opera of Fujian) are entirely based on these melodies, while many other rely
heavily on Gaoqiang, including Chuanju (Sichuan Opera), Xiangju (Hunan Opera),
Qiju (Qiyang Opera in Hunan), Guiju (Gui Opera in Guangxi), Ganju (Jiangxi
Opera), Wuju (Wu Opera in Zhejiang) and Chenhe’xi (Chenhe Opera in Hunan). It is
worth noting that Gaoqiang developed slowly in the Xiqu genres restricted to these
melodies, but it has led to many new artistic features in Xiqu genres accommodating
many melodic types, especially Chuanju.
Gaoqiang is rooted in the ancient Yiyang Melody Type, and it has inherited
the tradition of singing in local dialects and with different melodies (referring to
adoption of local folk songs). Hence, the application of Gaoqiang can be very
different according to locations, yet there are common features shared by genre
using the melodies, such as singing style, music organization, or even the advocacy
21 弋腔始弋阳 , 即今高腔。
Four
Major Xiqu 305
of unaccompanied singing. In addition, performance of Gaoqiang involves three

components: back stage supporting singers, percussion accompaniment and front
stage singers. The singing is characterized by high pitches and exaggerated emotion.
Gaoqiang music is based on connecting a number of Labelled Pieces to form a
suite; these melodies are based on folk songs in the north and south. Since Gaoqiang
singers have a habit of changing melodies to suit their style of performance, it is
hardly possible to revert to the authentic style of the original melodies.
Since Gaoqiang music is mainly accompanied by percussion instruments -
without melodic instruments—it is natural that its accompanying percussion music
is more developed than other melodic patterns. For most Xiqu genres, the gentle
“Civil Scene” (Wenchang) is accompanied by wind and string instruments, while
the “Martial Scene” (Wuchang) by percussion instruments. Gaoqiang is perhaps an
exception, because its “Civil” and “Martial” scenes are accompanied by percussion
instruments, even though lighter instruments are used for the former and heavy ones
for the latter. Gongs and drums are played in various ways, including softer playing,
louder playing, yin playing, yang playing, rigid playing and flexible playing22. There
is a close connection between percussion and singing: it has percussion instruments
to accompany singing, in addition to the opening percussion music, or Labelled
Pieces for creating an atmosphere, or percussive rhythms to introduce characters
for stage poses and movements,. The last is called Taoqiang Luogu (Percussion
Music Accompanying Voice) in Gaoqiang of Chuanju Opera and Qiangyun Luogu
(Percussion Music Accompanying Vocal Rhymes) in Gaoqiang of Ganju Opera. It is
fair to conclude that percussion music in Gaoqiang reflects an outstanding tradition of
percussion music in Chinese folk music.
Performance of Gaoqiang involves many forms of vocal accompaniment, and
they can appear in different forms with reference to the mainly melody, such as
before, after, in the middle of phrases, adding one-character phrases, adding multiple-
character phrases, adding half phrases, adding complete phrases, repeating phrases,
or repeating whole stanza. In early days, the percussionists also acted as vocal
accompanists, but since the 1950s, vocal accompanists began to be specially trained.
These singers are organized in groups, such as male accompanying male singers,
female accompanying female performers, and mixed vocal accompaniment.
Compared with Gunchang (Rolled Singing, or Reciting) of front-stage, the vocal
accompaniment is melodious, with short lyrics prescribed to the melody.
Vocal accompaniment has many functions, including “voice-over” as in films,
building up an atmosphere or artistic mood, and emphasizing the central theme of the
opera; it can also provide an interlude, hence allowing the front-stage singers some
breathing space, or support body movements, as well as background music to add
colour to the stage.
The existence of Gunchang (Rolled Singing, or Reciting) in Gaoqiang is a thought-
provoking phenomenon in the development of Xiqu. These are “extras” added to the
22 In Chinese as: 文打、武打、阴打、阳打、死打、活打。

framework of the original lyrics of south and north Kunqu; there is no restriction on
the number verses or their lengths. Through analysis on Gunchang passages with
verses in regular number of characters, as well as the metrical changes introduced, it is
possible to see a kind of rudimentary Banqiang structure evolving from genres based
on Qupai (Labelled Pieces).
2. An Overview of Chuanju (Sichuan Opera)
Chuanju, as the name suggests, is a Xiqu genre popular in Sichuan and Southwest
China influenced by culture there. Chuanju music has a broad ambit covering five
melodic styles, namely Kun (Kunqiang), Gao (Gaoqiang), Hu (Huqin Merlodic Type,
or Pihuang Melodic Type), Tan (Tanqiang, or Bangzi Melodic Type) and Deng (Lentern
Tune Pattern, or Local Folk Songs and Dance Music)23. Since Gaoqiang plays account
for 70 percent of Chuanju repertoire, the artistic levels of both percussionists and
performers are measured by their mastery of Gaoqiang. Needless to say, Gaoqiang
melodies are most developed in Chuanju, and they possess distinctive regional
features, the reason for scholars of Chuanju music focussing on Gaoqiang.
Chuanju roles are classified into Sheng (male), Dan (female), Jing (painted face,
male role), Mo (supporting male role), Chou (clown) and Za (others). Sheng is divided
into six sub-categories, namely Wensheng (civil male), Wusheng (martial male),
Daxiao’sheng (principal young male), Erxiao’sheng (supporting young male) and
Wawa’sheng (boy); Dan is divided into twelve sub-categories, namely Guimen’dan
(unmarried girl), Nudan (servant girl), Yaodan (vicious girl), Huadan (colourful girl),
Choudan (female clown), Laodan (aged female role), Zhengdan (principal female
role), Wudan (martial girl), Daoma’dan (military girl), Guihu’dan (female ghost),
Qingyi’dan (poor female role) and Pola’dan (ferocious girl); Jing (Painted Face, Male
Role) is divided into three sub-categories, namely Kaojia Hualian (military make-
up), Paodai Hualian (painted face as officer) and Caoxie Hualian (poor man painted
face); Mo is divided into five sub-categories, namely Laomo (old male role), Zhongmo
(middle aged male), Zhengsheng (positive male), Laosheng (aged male role) and
Hongsheng (red face male role); Chou is divided into five sub-categories, namely
Paodai’chou (clown as a King), Guanyi’chou (officer clown), Jinjin’chou (beggar
clown), Wuchou (martial clown) and Choudan (female clown). If miscellaneous roles
(Zahang) are counted, Chuanju involves thirty-one roles, among them the Sanxiao’xi
(three types of little roles)–Xiao Dan (little female), Xiao Sheng (little male), Xiao
Chou (little clown)–are distinctive. Perhaps the Chou role is most famous, as they
often leave a strong impression on the audience. They are “charmingly ugly” though
stylish. Chuanju’s high-skilled stunts, such as spitting fire and changing faces, are
very thrilling and unique among all operatic genres in China.
Chuanju is mainly divided into four Schools. The Western Sichuan School is
based in Chengdu, but covers all Counties in Western Sichuan, and it used to focus on
23 As mentioned earlier, Kunqiang, Gaoqiang, Pihuang’qiang, and Bangzi’qiang are the most important
melodic types used among Chinese local operas. These four kinds of melodies are called “Melodic Types”;
whereas other melodics used in various local operas will be called Tune Patterns, such as Lantern Tune
Pattern for the Deng melody.
Four
Major Xiqu 307
Gaoqiang and Lantern Tune Pattern; the Ziyang River School is active in Zizhong,
Zigong, Neijiang and areas of Southeast Sichuan, and it excels in Gaoqiang and
Kunqiang Melodic Types; the North Sichuan School is active in Xichong, Nanchong,
Santai, Suining, Langzhong and areas in Northeast Sichuan, and it is famous for Tanxi
Melodic Type (or Bangzi Clapper Melodic Type); the East Sichuan School is based
in Chongqing, and it focuses on Huqin Meloidc Type (or Pihuang), covering a wide
range of Xiqu, hence can perform music in many styles.
Chuanju has a broad repertoire. There were around 3,000 Chuanju plays in the
Tang Dynasty, 800 in the Song Dynasty and countless plays on The Romance of
Three Kingdoms and Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty24. In the early
years of the People’s Republic, there were suggestions from dramatists such as Hong
Shen, Tian Han, Laoshe, Zhao Shuli and Yang Hansheng that the Sichuan Provincial
Cultural Authorities should gather resources to collect and collate traditional Chuanju
plays. As a result, nearly 2,000 Chuanju plays were salvaged and about 1,000 of
them were documented. From 1955 to 1957, Chuanju professionals in Chengdu
and Chongqing appraised the collected sources, and managed to stage nearly 400 of
them. The repertoire includes Jing, Liu, Bai and Sha25, or more exactly Jingchai’ji
(The Romance of a Thorny Hairpin), Liu Zhiyuan Baitu’ji (Liu Zhiyuan and the
White Rabbit), Baiyue’ting (The Moonlight Pavillion) and Shagou’ji (Killing the
Dog to Rescue the Family); Five Pao (Five Robes), namely Qingpao’ji (Story of the
Blue Robe, or Liang Hao Came First in Imperial Examination Aged Eighty-one),
Huangpao’ji (Story of the Yellow Robe, or Emperor Taizu of Song Visits Zhao Pu
on a Snowy Night), Baipao’ji (Story of the White Robe, Weichi Gong Visits Xue
Rengui) and Lyupao’ji (Story of the Green Robe, or Xiao He Chasing Han Xin Under
Moonlight); the ancient myths and legends Sizhu (Four Columns), namely Peng
Tianzhu (Hitting the Sky Column, or Gonggong Hitting Buzhou Mountain with His
Head), Wuxing’zhu (The Mountain of Five Fingers, or Tathagata Buddha Putting the
Rebellious Monkey King Under the Mountain of Five Fingers), Shuijing’zhu (The
Crystal Column, Avalokitesvara Subdues the Turtle Spirit), Paolao’zhu (Cannon
Burning Punishment, King Zhou of Shang Kills the Loyal Minister Meibo). Other
plays include Nao’qiting (Uproar in the Court of Qi), Chunling’tai (Chunling Terrace),
Jiangyou’guan (Jiangyou Pass), Sanjin’zhong (Three Loyal Ministers), Chaishi’jie
(The Death of Wen Tianxiang at Chaishikou) and Yipin’zhong (The Story of Fang
Xiaoru), all of which advocate defiance of brutal suppression, justice, and patriotism,
and are of high moral value. The so-called Four Greatest Gaoqiang Plays (Sida’ben)–
Pipa’ji (The Story of Pipa), Jinyin’ji (The Story of the Golden Seal), Hongmei’ji (The
Story of Red Plum Blossoms), Toubi’ji (The Story of Ban Chao)–originated from the
Xiqu plays of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. Outstanding traditional Chuanju plays
collated and adapted in recent decades include Liuyin’ji (In the Shade of Willows),
Yuzan’ji (The Tale of a Jade Hairpin), Cailou’ji (The Tale of a Decorated Archway),
24 唐三千，宋八百，数不清的三、列国。
25 荆、刘、拜、杀。
Fenxiang’ji (Wang Kui Betraying Guiying’s Love), Funu’zhuan (The Story of Funu),
Tan Jier (The Story of Tan Jier), Jinshan’si (The Jinshan Temple), Lanma (Stopping
the Horse), Qiujiang (The Autumn River), Renjian’hao (The Beautiful Human World)
and Baihua Zengjian (Prince Baihua Offering his Sword for his Lover).
There are many famous Chuanju artists from old to young artists, which are listed
in the Chinese version of this book.
3. The Music of Gaoqiang Melodic Type in Chuanju
Gaoqiang music in Chuanju is based on Labelled Pieces: performers express their
emotion by the juxtaposition of lyrics with appropriate melodies. Different Labelled
Pieces are linked in order to provide freedom for expression. The rules for joining
melodies in Gaoqiang are not as strict as Kunqiang.
The most common metrical patterns for Gaoqiang in Chuanju are Yizi (one strong
beat and three weak beats 4/4), Erliu (one strong beat and one weak beat 2/4), Yaoban
(Rocking Beat 1/4) and Zouban (Walking Beat, scattered rhythm).
(i) Yizi: In vocal accompaniment, Yizi refers to one strong beat and three weak
beats (4/4). In the solo singing part, however, Yizi means scattered beats or beating
time according to the breathing space of lyrics. When the beat falls on a rest, it is
called Pengban (Concurrent Beat); when the beat anticipates singing, it is called
Yangban (Advance Beat). In order to avoid monotony, Pengban and Yangban often
appear in alternation. The clapper is usually played at breathing spaces of the lyrics,
but depending on the plot, sometimes the clapper is played more sparingly, such as
once every one or two phrases.
(ii) Erliu: In the vocal accompaniment, Erliu means one strong beat and one weak
beat (2/4). In the solo singing part, it is also notated in 2/4 metre, but its interpretation
is different according to the context. Singing melodies of Erliu are divided into “Erliu
of Concurrent Beat (Pengban Erliu)” and “Erliu of Advance Beat (Yangban Erliu)”;
the former refers to singing on beat, hence 2/4 metre is kept, while the latter with
singing off beat with the clapper beating on each beat of 2/4 metre, hence producing
the effect of 1/4 metre.
(iii) Yaoban (Rocking Beat): Yaoban is mainly used in the singing part, and rarely
applied to the accompaniment. Yaoban in Chuanju is similar to other tune patterns
and Xiqu genres, in spite of minor differences. The similarities are reflected in singing
and its instrumental accompaniment, as there is a heterogeneous contrast of the two
parts, scattered beat versus introductory beat. The differences lie in that for Yaoban
of other genres, the accompanying rhythm is usually steady with strong beats only; in
Chuanju, however, Yaoban accompaniment is not for supporting the singer, but allows
the percussionist to display virtuosity (some drummers can beat at metronome speed
of up to = 300). At the same time, the singer narrates and sings freely, forming a
sharp contrast to the fast beats, leading to tension. This metrical pattern is often used
at intense dramatic moments.
(iv) Zouban or Walking Beat: It is also known as Scattered Beat with free rhythm.
The gongs are played at the end of a phrase or two, which is mainly used for vocal
Four
Major Xiqu 309
accompaniment.
(2) Relationship between “Vocal Accompaniment (Bang), Percussion (Da) and
Singing (Chang)”.
Gaoqiang in Chuanju inherits the performing style of Yiyang Melodic Type
(Yiyang’qiang) based on solo singing with vocal ensemble accompaniment; when
percussion music is added, the genre comprises performers at three levels.
The established set up for performing Gaoqiang music of Chuanju including Bang
(vocal ensemble accompaniment), Da (percussion) and Chang (singing) is illustrated
as follows:
Vocal accompaniment Singing Vocal accompaniment
Gongs and drum Clappers Gongs and drum Clappers Gongs and drum
Percussion music
Illustration 4-4. Relationship of Bang (vocal ensemble accompaniment), Da (percussion) and

Chang (singing) in Sichuan Opera
The basic flow of performance of Gaoqiang in Chuanju is vocal accompaniment

(ensemble)–singing (solo)–vocal accompaniment (ensemble), a kind of ternary
mode. The percussion is played at the beginning, and then at the ending of each vocal
accompaniment ensemble. Certain flexibility in prolonging or shortening the phrases
in each section of the Qupai is allowed, so as to accommodate changes in mood.
There are different ways of changing the relationship between the parts for vocal
accompaniment and singing: it is possible to have more vocal accompaniment and
less singing, or vice versa. The general rule is to allow more opportunities for the
singer on stage, and Gaoqiang of Chuanju features this mode of performance. There
are very few examples of allowing the vocal accompaniment to dominate, but when
this happens, it will generate a special dramatic effect, such as “voice-over” or long
melodies accompanied by percussion. These special effects can arouse psychological
tensions or create a unique atmosphere, something not easily achieved by a singer
alone.
The roles of percussion and vocal accompaniment can vary according to the need
of the plot, and can deviate from the basic model presented in the diagram above.
When a character has vehement emotions, percussion may be prominent in the vocal
accompaniment; when a character is highly agitated, the percussion will go on and
off, to create a special effect; when a character is inward looking, the gongs and drums
will almost disappear.
Timbral and rhythmic contrasts between percussion and vocal accompaniment are
carefully designed. The timbre of gongs and drums can vary with different texture and
intensity, in order to create a gentle effect in “civil” or fiery atmosphere in “martial” or
“softer fighting (Xiaoda)” passages. Changes in rhythm can also alter the intensity of
the mood. Depending on the dramatic content, the magnitude of such changes can be
large, leading to exaggerated effects. Percussion instruments are therefore not merely
used in marking rhythms, but they help create the right atmosphere. It is therefore
vital that they blend well with vocal accompanists.
The potential of percussion instruments to introduce changes in timbre and
rhythm, coupled with the possible contrast generated when vocal accompaniment
joins in, provide the necessary musical support for the actor on stage to sing with
flexibility. This triangular relationship of music making can produce an artistic effect
with great exaggeration. One can feel drama evolves from a congenial environment,
accommodating challenges similar to sudden vibration, fall, impact and turn. Yet in
the context of drama, these musical devices are considered appropriate. It is ironical
that the best drama evolves out of seemingly contradictory entities.
(3) Gaoqiang Labelled Pieces in Chuanju and Their Structure
Labelled Pieces of Gaoqiang are very expressive. There are many examples that
the melodies are associated with certain sentiments, for example those relate to fervent
and excited emotions include Xinshui’ling (Fresh Water Song) and Bei Xinshui’ling
(North Fresh Water Song); melody for bitterness is Xiangluo’dai (Strap Made of
Fragrant Grosgrain); melodies for grief and indignation include Duanzheng’hao
(Proper Etiquette) and Yizhi’hua (A Flower); melody for the sorrow of parting is
Jiangtou’gui (Osmanthus Tree by the River); melody for imploration and lament is
Suonan’zhi (Locking Southern Branch); melody for tender and romantic sentiments
is Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows); and melody for narrating and
confiding is Hongluan’ao (Padded Jacket with Red Phoenix Patterns).
The musical structure of Gaoqiang in Chuanju comprises the beginning, main
body and ending.
The beginning is known as “Opening Tune (Qiqiang)”; the main body includes a
“Column (Lizhu)” and “Singing Melodies”; the end is referred to as the Tail (Saowei).
Each part has many ways of expression. There are five ways of introducing the
Opening Tune, namely Fangmao’zi (Releasing the Hat), Fangtou’zi (Releasing the
Head), Kuntou’zi (The Head with Kun Opera Tune), Fangqiang’qi (Releasing the
Voice Up), and Pingqi (Level Up). In addition to the basic melodies, a piece can end
in several ways, such as Fangqiang (Releasing Voice), Diuqiang (Quitting Vocie),
Liuqiang (Retaining Vocie), Weiqiang (End Voice) and Weisha (Ending Phrase).
Some Labelled Pieces of Gaoqiang have different names, but they are essentially
the same music, hence Xiqu professionals have to be vigilant in cross-checking the
musical content of each melody. Otherwise, there will be “Brother Melodies (Xiongdi
Qupai)” or “Shoulder Melodies (Bijian Qupai)” appearing in the core section of
Columns.
Labelled Pieces can be treated in different ways, such as Fanqiang (Intrusion
Phrase), Gunqiang (Rolling Phrase), Chongqiang (Repeating Phrase), Feiqiang (Flying
Four
Major Xiqu 311
Phrase) and Zuanqiang (Inserting Phrase). Fanqiang refers to real modulation, which
involves a transposition of the primary pitch a major second, and usually from re to
mi; Gunqiang refers to incorporating another melody of the same mode, similar to
Jiqu technique; Chongqiang refers to repeated phrase of the vocal accompaniment;
Feiqiang refers to three-character phrases that abruptly appear at the end of the
Labelled Piece, and these are also known as Feiju (Flying Phrase). Zuanqiang and
Feiqiang are basically the same, but the former is not necessarily used at the end of
the Labelled Piece, and these phrases are also known as Zuanju (Inserted Phrases).
The last three are different techniques used in vocal accompaniment.
4. Example of Chuanju for Appreciation and Analysis
In Gaoqiang style, the Chuanju play Baiyue Cihuan (Praying the Moon and
Offering a Ring) is based on the story Lyubu and Diaochan derived from Romances
of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi). When the female protagonist Diaochan comes
on stage, the Labelled Piece Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows) is used,
and it features the vocal accompaniment rather than the actress, with special treatment
of the parts for gong and drum in Taoqiang Luogu (Percussion Music Accompanying
Voice). The following analysis of this short Labelled Piece can illustrate the
relationship between the three-fold relationship between vocal accompaniment,
percussion and solo singing melodies of Gaoqiang:
Symbol Pronunciation Beating Method

壮 Zhuang Beat all musical instruments
克 Ke Beat small gong
次 Ci Beat small cymbals
才 Cai Beat small gong and small cymbals
乃 Nai Gently beat centre of small gong
台 Tai Heavily beat centre of small gong
采 Cai Beat big cymbals
尔 Er Quickly and repeatedly beat centre of the small gong
答 Da Use drumstick
Illustration4-5. Chuanju uses unique symbols, pronunciations and beating methods of its
notation for percussion music:
From the example of Labelled Piece below, it is possible to appreciate the vital role
of vocal accompaniment in Sichuan Gaoqiang; it is rather indispensable, as indicated
in its dominant role, and we can also appreciate the Taoda (Connected play) style of
the percussion music. Sometimes the percussion rhythms and melodies are in step,
but they may also proceed differently. The light and heavy percussion instruments and
their different beating methods produce a varied texture, hence this short song is both
static and dynamic, and is appealing to the audience26. (See Example 4-8)
26 Cited from Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995, p 120.
Example 4-8. Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows), a Labelled Piece of Chuanju
Gaoqiang
(to be
continued)
Four
Major Xiqu 313
Example 4-8 (continued). Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows), a Labelled Piece of
Chuanju Gaoqiang
(to be
continued)
Example 4-8 (continued). Lanhua’mei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows), a Labelled Piece of
Chuanju Gaoqiang
Four
Major Xiqu 315

Diao Chan walks slowly out from her room,
Brass water pot drops droplets which have become dew.
Wind blows roses and fills the garden with fragrance,
The beautiful room is very quiet with no visitor.
(Ai, a, a)
Moonlight shines on the window screen.
(Ya, a,)
Moonlight shines on the window screen.
C. Bangzi’qiang (Bangzi Melodic Type27), Qinqiang (Shaanxi Opera) and Yuju (Henan
Opera)
1. An Overview of Bangzi’qiang Melodic Type
a. Origin of Bangzi’qiang Melodic Type
There are different views on the origins of Bangzi Melodic Type. Some believe that
it has a single origin, while others think otherwise. Followers of the latter view argue
that Bangzi Melodic Type has distinctive regional styles in different Xiqu genres, yet
most professionals believe that the unique features of Bangzi Melodic Type are more
coherent than those of Gaoqiang system, hence different Xiqu genres adopting Bangzi
Melodic Type obviously have the same “ties of blood,” despite their regional styles.
There are three theories on the single origin of Bangzi Melodic Type:
First, Gansu origin: some believe that Bangzi Melodic Type originated from Xiqin
(West Shaanxi) Tune Pattern (Xiqin’qiang) evolved from Gansu Province. The term
Xiqin Tune Pattern first appeared in the manuscript copy Bozhong’lian (Lotus in the
Bowl) in Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty. Second, Shaanxi origin: some hold that
Bangzi Melodic Type originated from Xiqin Tune Pattern, also known as Gansu Tune.
Xiqin Tune Pattern dates back to the Ming Dynasty, and Gansu belonged to Shaanxi
in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, hence these two theories are actually similar. Third,
Shanxi origin: some suggest that Gouqiang of Puzhou, Shanxi is the predecessor of
Bangzi Melodic Type28.
All the above three theories concur that Bangzi Melodic Type originated from
Northwest China, which is undoubtedly the cradle of this passionate tune system.
After its inception in the northwest, Bangzi Melodic Type spread to other areas via
four routes.
Route 1: It was spread to southwest through Qinqiang to Sichuan, Yunnan and
Guizhou. Apart from the origin of Guizhou’s local Bangzi not being traceable, both
the Tanxi (Plucking Opera) of Chuanju and Sixian (Silk String, a type of local opera
in Yunan) have retained the distinction of Huanyin (Happy Scale) and Kuyin (Sorrowful
Pitch) of Qinqiang.
27 Bangzi is a kind of wooden clapper.

28 See Chang Jingzhi: Discussions on Clapper Melodic Type (Lun Bangzi’qiang). Beijing: People’s Music
Route 2: It was spread to northeast through Shanxi and Shaanxi Bangzi Melodic
Type. In Shanxi, it evolved into North Road Bangzi (Beilu Bangzi) and Middle Road
Bangzi (Zhonglu Bangzi); in Hebei, Beijing, and Tianjin, it evolved into Hebei Bangzi
(or Zhili Bangzi, Jing Bangzi and Wei Bangzi, Bangzi in Tianjin). The footprints
of Bangzi troupes were found in the north such as Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang,
Liaoning and Jilin, in the south such as Jiangsu and Shanghai, as well as cities along
the Yangtze River. These two routes reflect the respective characteristics of Qinqiang
and Bangzi of Shanxi and Shaanxi.
Route 3: Bangzi Melodic Type disseminated eastwards in forms of Qinqiang and
Bangzi of Shanxi and Shaanxi, giving birth to the Bangzi-based Xiqu genres in Henan,
southeast Shanxi, south Hebei, Shandong, north Jiangsu and north Anhui.
Route 4: Bangzi Meloidc Type was spread to the south in Xiangyang of Hubei in
forms of Qinqiang and Bangzi of Shanxi and Shaanxi. This has given rise to the genre
Nanyang Bangzi (also called Wanbang) in Henan, and has influenced Yuediao (Yuediao
Tune Pattern), Pihuang (Xipi and Erhuang, or Skin and Yellow), Chuibo (Wind and
Plucking), Luantan (Miscellaneous Performances) and other southern Huabu Tune
Patterns (Huabu Zhuqiang, Colourful Section) ready to incorporate other melodic
styles.
The rapid development of Bangzi Melodic Type, especially in the north, is not
only due to its melodic charm, but also facilitated by the peasant uprising led by Li
Zicheng in the late Ming Dynasty. Li’s rebellious troops set off from Shaanxi, and as
they advanced, Bangzi of indigenous Xiqu was brought to different areas, and merged
with local folk music.
b. Regional Distribution of Contemporary Xiqu Genres Adopting Bangzi Melodic
Type System
Six common characteristics of Bangzi Melodic Type as a system:
(i) Xiqu genres based on Bangzi Melodic Type can be sonorous, vigorous, tragic
and coarse.
(ii) The operatic genres must involve two accompanying instruments: hardwood
Bangzi clapper, a percussion instrument comprising a wooden block, hence the name
Bangzi Tune; the other is the main melodic instrument Banhu (two-string fiddle with
wooden soundboard), even though the instrument comes in slightly different forms.
(iii) Bangzi Melodic Type is usually set to lyrics with seven or ten words in each
verse, which are organized as paired phrases. Very often, a sub-phrase is made up of
two words, and this simple structure with catchy rhythm allows the melodies to be
memorized easily.
(iv) Bangzi Melodic Type is based on the heptatonic scale, with leaps of large
intervals, such as fourths, fifths, sixths or sevenths, hence a broad range of around two
octaves. The Zhi (Fifth Degree sol) mode is favoured, exceptions being Yuxi’diao (Tune
Style of West Henan), Yuju (Henan Opera, or, Clapper Opera of Henan) and Fandiao
(Modulated Tune) of Hebei Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Hebei).
(v) Female roles tend to develop well in Xiqu genres adopting Bangzi Melodic
Type, and songs are sung in natural voice, which can be robust, flexible and sonorous.
Four
Major Xiqu 317
Qinqiang (Shaanxi Opera)

Tongzhou Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Tongzhou,
Shanxi)
Handiao Guangguang (Clapper Opera with tune
from Hubei)
Puju (Puju Opera, Shanxi)
Jinju (Shanxi Opera)
Shanxi Beilu Bangzi (Northern Clapper Opera
of Shanxi)
Shangdang Bangzi (Clapper Opera of
Shangdang, Shanxi)
Hebei Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Hebei)
Laodiao (Old Tune) 22 Operatic Genres in different
Xidiao (West Tunes) areas using Bangzi Melodic
Wu’an Pingdiao (Pingdiao Tune of Wuan Type alone
County)
Pingdiao (Pingdiao Tune)
Yudiao (The Tune of Shandong)
Huaidiao (Huaidiao Tune)
Huaibang (Huaibang Clapper Opera)
Bangzi Wanbang (Wanbang Clapper Opera)
Melodic Shandong Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Shandong)
Type Zhangqiu Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Zhangqiu)
System Laiwu’bangzi (Clapper Opera of Laiwu)
Zaobang (Zaobang Clapper Opera, Shandong)
Shahe’diao (Tune of Shahe, North Anhui）
Jiangsu Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Jiangsu)
Chuanju Tanxi (Plucking Tune used in Sichuan
Opera)
Dianju Sixian (Silk String Tune used in Yunnan
Opera)
Bangzi Tune in Shuoxian Yangke (Clapper Tune
used in Field Dance Opera of Shuo County)
Bangzi Tune in Fanshi Yangge (Clapper Tune
Eight operatic genres in
used in Field Dance Opera of Fanshi)
different areas using the
Bangzi Tune in Guangling Yangge (Clapper
Bangzi Melodic Type as part
Tune used in the Field Dance Opera of
of the music.
Guangling)
Bangzi Tune in Yuxian Yangge (Clapper Tune
used in the Field Dance Opera of Yu County)
Anhui Bangzi in Ganju (Clapper Tune from
Anhui used in the Opera of Jiangxi)
Nanju Tanxi (Plucking Tune or Clapper Tune
used Nanju Opera)
Nan Bangzi (South Clapper Melodic Pattern) used in Beijing Opera, adopted but
changed to a new tune.
Illustration 4-6. A list of Xiqu genres based on Bangzi Melodic Type29
29 Cited from Chang Jingzhi: Discussions on Clapper Melodic Type (Lun Bangzi’qiang). Beijing: People’s
Music Publishing House, 1991, p17.
Operatic genre Instrument/ Names Tuning/Degree Size Timbre Remarks

ensemble with
Qinhu
Qinqiang soft and Erhu and Jinghu
or do-sol (fifth) medium
(Shaanxi Opera) bright (fiddle used in
Huhu
Beijing opera)
ensemble with
Huhu Ergu’xian
Jinju clear and
or la–mi (fifth) big (high-pitched
(Shanxi Opera) gentle
Hulu’zi instrument, with
tuning of la-mi)
Yuju Commonly known clear and ensemble with
mi - la (fourth) medium
(Henan Opera) as “Piao” resonant Erhu
Hebei Bangzi clear, high-
Commonly known with (with tuning
Clapper Opera la–mi (fifth) small pitched, and
as “Daxian” of do-sol)
of Hebei stiff
Illustration 4-7. Characteristics of Banhu fiddle in different operatic genres30
There is a special technique known as “ramming voice” which has a great impact on
the overall style. This word-uttering method produces a vigorous and smashing effect
hence the female voice of Bangzi Tune is powerful and imposing, fully reflecting the
coarse atmosphere cultivated in arts of north China.29
(vi) A Bangzi melody usually starts on a weak beat in 4/4 metre: for example, the
first word begins on the third crotchet (middle beat), with the last word falling on the
first beat, nomenclature being “middle, middle, downbeat, first upbeat.” That is, both
the first and second phrases start on the middle upbeat, the third on the downbeat, and
the last character on the first upbeat. In 2/4 metre, singing starts on upbeat and the last
character falls on the downbeat. In 1/4 metre, singing starts on the second half of the
downbeat (Shanban) and the last character falls on the downbeat.
2. An Overview of Qinqiang Opera
Qinqiang is not only the ancestor of Bangzi Melodic Type, it has also influenced
Pihuang, Yiyang and even Kunshan Modloeic Types, as well as tune patterns of
other Xiqu genres. Qi Rushan, a senior researcher of Chinese Xiqu, suggests that “all
Chinese Xiqu genres originated from Shaanxi.” He said, “To examine former (Xiqu)
practices, we should of course revert to the original sources, that is, Qinqiang in
Xi’an. If a Chinese wants to study Xiqu, he must go to the northwest; if a foreigner
wants to study Xiqu, he must also go to the northwest.31”
There are five theories on the origin of Qinqiang. First, the melodies originated
from Furang in the pre-Qin period. During the reign of Huhai, the second Emperor of
30 Cited from Luo Yinghui: Study on the Structure of the Vocal Music Used in Clapper Melodic Type Operas
(Bangzi’qiang Changqiang Jiegou Yanjiu). Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1994, p4.
31 Cited from Wang Zhengqiang: General Discussion about Appreciation of Qingqiang Music (Qinqiang
Yinyue Xinshang Mantan). Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1994, p1.
Four
Major Xiqu 319
Qin, ritual songs and dances to “frighten off ghosts and relieve people of epidemics32”
had become folk songs and dances with religious lyrics and musical accompaniment.
Second, Qinqiang originated from Yanzhao Beige (Sad Song of Yan and Zhao States)
in the Qin and Han Dynasties, like the Tragic Tune sung by Gao Jianli of the Yan
State (Part of Hebei Province) to the drum accompaniment by a girl of the Zhao State
(another part of Hebei Province) at a feast of the First Emperor of Qin. Lingshi (The
History of Xiqu) and The History of Chinese Drama (Zhongguo Xiju’shi) suggest
that Yanzhao Beige is the predecessor of Qinqiang. Third, Qinqiang is believed to
exist in the Tang Dynasty. In his book Qinzhi Xieying Xiaopu (Selected Music Scores
of the Qin Dynasty) written in the reign of Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty,
Yan Changming described the Pear Garden of the Tang Dynasty as the birthplace
of Qinqiang and Emperor Xuanzong as the founder of the genre. Fourth, Qinqiang
developed in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, and it evolved from Qinqiang and Gaoqiang
of northern Xiqu genres. This view is seen in Wu Changyuan’s Yanlan Xiaopu
(Yanlan Music Scores), Yang Maoguo’s Chang’an Kanhuaji (Watching the Flowers
in Chang’an), and Wang Zhizhang’s Qiangdiao Kaoyuan (Origins of Various Xiqu
Tunes). Fifth, Zhou Yibai, Chen Dengyuan, Ma Shaobo and Zhang Geng believed that
Qinqiang came into being in the Ming Dynasty.
Although there are different views on the origin of Qinqiang, it is undeniable that
it is the oldest among all Xiqu genres.
Owing to the long history of Qinqiang, it has developed a very extensive
repertoire. According to statistics in the early 1960s, there were over 8,000 Qinqiang
plays. Qinqiang Jumu’kao (A Study of Titles of Qinqiang Plays) compiled by Yang
Zhilie et al includes over 1,600 entries. Most of these plays focus on history, such as
Story of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (Lieguo’zhi), Romance of the Three
Kingdoms (Sanguo’xi), Romance of Sui and Tang Dynasties (Suitang’xi), Generals
of the Yang Family (Yangjiajiang’xi), Generals of the Yue Family (Yuejia’xi) and The
Water Margin (Shuihu’xi).
Qinqiang roles include Sheng (male), Dan (female), Jing (painted face, male role)
and Chou (clown); its repertoire includes serious dramas, tragedies, comedies and
farces.
There were outstanding Qinqiang playwrights in every period: those documented
since the Qing Dynasty include Li Guan, Li Fanggui, Wang Yun (female), Zhou
Yuanding, Cui Wenzuo, Zhang Zi, Zhang Jiongruo, Sun Renyu, Li Tongxuan, Fan
Zidong, Gao Peizhi, Ma Jianxiang, Huang Junyao, Zhao Boping, Zhang Jianying and
Tian Yirong. Early Qinqiang plays Eight Plays and Two Arias (Baben Erzhe, known in
Guanzhong of Shaanxi as “Li Shisan’s Ten Major Works”) by Li Fanggui of the mid-
Qing Dynasty were the most influential. “Eight Plays” are Chunqiu’pei (Li Chunhua
and Jiang Qiulian), Baiyu’dian (The White Jade Hairpin), Xianglian’pei (The Story
of Wei Jiangxiao), Zixia’gong (The Zixia Palace), Ruyi’zan (The Fortunate Hairpin),
Yuyan’chai (The Jade Swallow Hairpin), Wanfu’lian (also known as Xie Yaohuan) and
32 驱鬼逐疫
Huoyan’ju (The Flame Colt). “Two Arias” are Sicha Shaoshu (Misinformed Letter
Written by an Illiterate) and Xuanxuan Chugu (Hoeing Wrong Land). Some works
appeared after the Revolution in 1911, such as Yizi’yu (Execution for One Character),
Guer’ji (The Story of an Orphan), Sanhui’tou (Returning to Good), Guizhong’yuan
(The Tale of the Wardrobe), Jiangxiang’he (Lian Po and Lin Xiangru), Sandi’lei
(Three Tear Drops), Ruanyu’pin (Screen of Soft Jade), Gengniangzhuan (The Story
of Gengniang), Sanhe Posui (The Disintegrated Country), Bingyu’yuan (The Love
Story of Ice and Jade) and Shuangjin’yi (Two Beautiful Robes). In Shaanxi-Gansu-
Ningxia Border Region, Ma Jianling composed Xuelei’chou (Blood and Tears) and
Qiongren’hen (Hatred of Poor People).
Qinqiang performers were known as Yuehu (Music Family) in the late Yuan and
early Ming Dynasties. Professional troupes began to emerge in the mid-Ming Dynasty.
Outstanding Qinqiang performers in the Qing Dynasty included Wei Changsheng
and Wang Xiangyun. Famous performers since the Revolution of 1911 included
Chou (clown) actor Ma Pingmin, Xiaosheng (young male) actors Su Zhemin and Su
Yumin, Dan (female) performers Liu Zhensu and Wang Tianmin, Jing (painted face,
male role) actor Tian Denian, and Xu (middle aged man) actors He Jiayan and Geng
Shanmin. For a more comprehensive list of names, please refer to the Chinese version.
3. Qinqiang Music
Qinqiang is a single-tune Xiqu genre, meaning that melodies of other styles are
excluded. As the earliest ancestor of Bangzi Merlodic Type system, it displays many
of its typical features. Qinqiang has characteristics that distinguish it from Xiqu genres
based on Bangzi, and these are outlined as follows:
(1) Rhymes and Padding Words of Lyrics Based on Dialect
Like other northern Xiqu genres, Qinqiang mainly uses “thirteen rhymes
(Shisan’zhe),” but focuses more on yan/qian, zhong/dong, ren/chen and jiang/
yang four kinds of rhymes. Qinqiang uses rhymes according to the language tones
of characters, but it follows two different rhyming conventions. First, the padding
character uses the rhyme of the preceding character, as in the following example:
Example 4-9. The padding character using the rhyme of the preceding character33
In the tune, “o” follows “chao” and both characters belong to the “yao/tiao”
rhyme. Second, some dragging tunes must use the “an” rhyme, no matter what rhyme
the preceding character belongs to, as in the following example.
33 Cited from Wang Zhengqiang, General Discussion about Appreciation of Qingqiang Music (Qinqiang
Four
Major Xiqu 321
Example 4-10. Dragging tunes using the “an” rhyme34
This is because in the dialect of northern Shaanxi, the “an” rhyme is very heavy;
when pronouncing the characters with the “an” rhyme, an airflow runs between
the tongue root and the palate, and this pronouncing method does not exist in other
regions. That the dragging tunes need to use the “an” rhyme is precisely the feature of
this dialect set to melodies of Qinqiang.
In Qinqiang lyrics, the application of padding words shows the most distinctive
geographical characteristics in that reiterative locutions are often used, as in the
following example:
Example 4-11. The application of padding words displaying the most distinctive geographical
characteristics
This is because reiterative locutions are widely used in the dialect of northern
Shaanxi or northwest China. This characteristic exists not only in Qinqiang but in
Shanxi Bangzi as well.
(2) Huanyin (Happy Scale, also Huayin, Flowery Scale) and Kuyin (Bitter Scale,
or Sorrowful Pitch)
Qinqiang melodies inevitably share the same artistic characteristics with Xiqu
genres of the region, such as Meihu, Wanwan’qiang and other genres in northern
Shaanxi. They possess two contrasting melodic features, namely Huanyin (Happy
Scale) and Kuyin (Sorrowful Pitch).
“Happy Scale (Flowery Scale)” and “Bitter Scale” are two different entities that
co-exist in the same Xiqu genre. Both scales feature the Zhi mode (sol as final); their
second of the paired phrases hence ends with sol, with “backbone degrees” sol, do and
re. Happy Scale can also accommodate mi and la, and when fa and si are introduced,
fa is raised a little (less than a semi-tone) while si is usually in tune. Bitter Scale uses
a lot of fa and si (in addition to the “backbone degrees”), with the si slightly flattened.
34 Cited from Wang Zhengqiang: General Discussion about Appreciation of Qingqiang Music (Qinqiang
Such adjustment of intonation in handling the heptatonic mode is also found in other
folk genres, such as music in Chaozhou and Guangdong.
Happy Scale is also known as Flowery Tune or Hard Scale, and its style is bright,
lively and stern; Bitter Scale is also named “Crying Scale” or “Soft Scale”, and the
mood of the music is dull, desolate, and melancholic.
(3) Colourful Tune (Caiqiang)
Colourful Tune in Qinqiang is also called Laqiang (Dragging Tune), Eryin
(Harmonics), Bianyin (Side Sound), Guiyin (Ghost Voice) and Maodiao (Out of
Tunse). It is a kind of cadenza embedded in the basic phrase pattern of Qinqiang,
in form of a long dragging tune delivered with falsetto. The lyrics do not have any
specific meaning, and are usually an expletive or a vowel. These melodies are often
adopted for singing parts of the roles of Xiaodan (young girl role), Zhengdan (principal
female role) and Xiaosheng (young male role). Colourful Tune is notated as “+...” in
modern scores:
Example 4-12. Colourful Tune used in Qinqiang Opera

Everyday I go deep in the mountain to cut firewoods, (yi....)
As Qinqiang has a long history, it has undergone formalization. Colourful Tune

has a fixed structure, while adopting Flowery Scale and Bitter Scale. Typical melodies
using Flowery Scale include Hua’bangzi (Flowery Bangzi Clapper), Ying Sandi’shui
(Hard version of “Three Drops of Water”), Maxie’di (Soles of Hemp Shoes) and
Shisan’hai (Thirteen Hai syllabus); melodies in Bitter Scale include Ruan Sandishui
(Soft version of “Three Drops of Water”), Kuzhong’le (Bitter yet Happy) and Daqi
Banqiang (Clapper Tune of Great Neatness).
Various Metrical Patterns of Qinqiang:
Four
Major Xiqu 323
Category
Starting and ending
Metre and rhythm Name of metrical pattern of metrical
notes of the first phrase
pattern
Usually starts on the
upbeat and falls on the
downbeat; Regardless
of male or female roles, Notated as one
Original
the “up” phrase can fall downbeat and one Two-six beat
beat
on any degree of the upbeat (2/4)
mode, and the “down”
phrase falls on the final
(Zhi sol).
The singing starts on
the middle upbeat.
Each phrase has four
rests. The “up” phrases
usually follow the
pattern of “middle,
Notated as one
middle, downbeat, first Slow tempo, also known Slow
downbeat and three
upbeat”; the “down” as “Sigu’yan” tempo
upbeats (4/4)
phrases usually follow
the pattern of “middle, List of
downbeat, middle, first Qinqiang
upbeat.” The finals are metrical
the same as those of patterns
Two-six Beat.
Slow pile metre (Man
The singing starts on Notated as one
Duoban), double hammer
upbeat and ends on downbeat and one
Daiban metre (Shuangzhui
downbeat. upbeat (2/4)
Daiban)
The singing starts after Fast pile metre
Notated as Fast tempo
or on the downbeat and (Kuai’duoban), Daiban
downbeats only (1/4)
ends on the downbeat. (Tuoban) beat
downbeat and ends on Notated as 1/4 or Fast tempo (Daiban beat)
scattered beat.
Notated as free beat
Starting beat (Qiban)
and free tempo ( )
The singing starts and Sharp beat, also known Scattered
ends on scattered beats Notated as free beat as padding beat or beat
and free tempo ( ) intervening beat (Jianban,
or Dianban, Jieban)
Illustration 4-8. Classification and explanations of the metircal patterns of qinqiang35
35 Cited from Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995, p184.
Category
Starting and ending
Metre and rhythm Name of metrical pattern of metrical
notes of the first phrase
pattern
Recital-like metre
(Gunban)
Alternating scattered Notated as free beat Scattered
beat with downbeat only and free tempo ( ) Half-recital and half- beat
singing
(Ganbai)
First half-phrase
usually in 2/4 metre; Second leading beats (Er List of
true beat and ends
second half-phrase Daoban) Qinqiang
freely.
free beat. metrical
Reserved beat, also known patterns
as “Resting beat” or Others
“Bypassing beat” (Liuban,
Xieban, Raoban)
End beat, also known as
“falling beat” (Jieban,
Luoban)
Category
Expressive
Notes Other characteristics of metrical
function
pattern
① The recital-like
(Gunban) half-recital
and half-singing
(Gunbai) only uses
bitter scale; other
metres use both
happy and bitter
① It is so named because the basic structure
scales.
Suitable for of “up” and “down” (paired) phrases has six
② The ending of
narration; beats.
scattered beat and
slow Two-six ② It is the basis for the development of other
the “Jiaosan” at
Beat (Erliu) metrical patterns.
the stanza end of Original
is suitable for ③ It is widely used.
introductory beat beat
both narrating ④ There are slow and fast Two-six Beats. In
are natural endings,
events and addition to the difference in speed, the former
and no other special
expressing has interludes between phrases while the
names are used.
emotions. latter does not (but may have some padding
③ Regardless of
characters).
introductory beat or
scattered beat, the
finals of “up” and
“down” phrases are
generally the same
as those of Two-six
Beat (Erliu).
Illustration 4-8 (continued). Classification and explanations of the metircal patterns of

Qinqiang
Four
Major Xiqu 325
Category
Expressive
function
pattern
① It is divided into slow three-upbeat (Man
Less words
Sanyan) and fast three-upbeat (Kuai’sanyan)
and more
depending on the speed. The former often
vocal music,
uses long interludes of more than eight beats
mainly used
and removes a part; the latter often uses long
for expressing
interludes “Lan,” hence the name “Lantou.”
emotions. It Slow tempo
② When brass instruments (percussion
is achieved
instruments) are used for the interludes at the
by extending
beginning of an aria, it is called “collapsing
the Two-six
beat”; when brass instruments (percussion
Beat with
instruments) are not used, it is called “stable
ornamentation.
beat (Anban).”
① The recital-like
(Gunban) half-recital The double hammer Daiban metre
and half-singing (Shuangchui Daiban) is different from
Narrative and
(Gunbai) only uses the slow Pile Metre (Duoban) in that the
dramatic.
bitter scale; other drummer beats time with drumsticks instead
metres use both of the clappers.
happy and bitter This metrical pattern is usually called “fast
scales. Dramatic. flowing water (Kuai’liushui)” or
② The ending of “fast tempo (Kuaiban)” in other Xiqu genres.
scattered beat and
When used at
the “Jiaosan” at
the beginning,
the stanza end of Fast tempo
it is often
introductory beat
vigorous and It is faster than Daiban metre (
are natural endings,
vehement, = 200 or so); it can be fast instrumental
and no other special
just like the accompaniment with fast singing or fast
names are used.
Leading beat instrumental accompaniment with slowing
③ Regardless of
of Pihuang singing; the latter is like the Rocking Beat
Melodic Type; (Yaoban) of Pihuang Melodic Type in Beijing
scattered beat, the
the sharp beat Opera.
can express a
“down” phrases are
wide range of
generally the same
emotions.
as those of Two-six
Beat (Erliu). It is only used It is used at the beginning of an aria. It
for expressing can shift to Jianban (Sharp Beat) or other
sadness or metrical patterns, but it cannot independently
lamenting. form an aria.
It can independently form an aria. It is used
Lyrical and at the beginning, also known as “introductory Scattered
narrative. sharp beat” or “big starting beat beat
(Da Qiban).”
The lyrics have neat “up” and “down”
(paired) phrases, which rhyme strictly; the
singing also has distinct “up” and “down”
phrases.

Qinqiang
Category
Expressive
function
pattern
① The recital-like The lyrics are not neat and do not rhyme
(Gunban) half-recital strictly; it is often half reciting and half
Scattered
and half-singing singing; the number of characters and phrases
beat
(Gunbai) only uses is not fixed; the singing does not have distinct
bitter scale; other “up” and “down” phrases.
metres use both It is a separate “up” phrase and occupies
happy and bitter the position of an “up” phrase in the formal
scales. lyrics. It serves two purposes:
② The ending of ① It acts as the first phrase of an aria and
scattered beat and plays an introductory role.
the “Jiaosan” at ② It acts as a transition (from fast to slow)
the stanza end of between metrical patterns.
introductory beat
are natural endings, Not a metrical pattern but a temporary pause
and no other special in an aria or phrase reserved for the singer Others
names are used. him/herself or other roles to act; widely used
③ Regardless of in the introductory beat.
scattered beat, the
“down” phrases are Not a metrical pattern but a way to end the
generally the same introductory beat.
as those of Two-six
Beat (Erliu).

Qinqiang
4. Example of Qinqiang for Appreciation and Analysis

Qin Xianglian is a story from Baogong’an (Cases of Judge Bao), which is a well-
known story. The protagonist was Chen Shimei, a scholar, who succeeded in coming
first in Imperial Examination, and was chosen to be the Emperor’s son-in-law, even
though he already had a family. His crime was the attempt to kill his former wife
Qin Xianglian, when she took their children to see him. The case was brought to the
famous black-faced Judge Bao, who sentenced Chen to death, defying the wrath of his
new princess wife and empress mother-in-law.
The Qinqiang play Qin Xianglian focuses on depicting Qin Xianglian, the original
wife of Chen Shimei. There is a scene adopting Two-six beat, arranged as a duet
between Qin Xianglian and the princess when they first meet. The Two-six beat is a
basic metrical pattern (original beat) in Qinqiang, featuring one downbeat and one
upbeat (2/4), ideal for accommodating dialogues. In this scene, the princess mostly
sings with mi and la notes while avoiding fa or si, which is typical of the Happy Scale;
Qin Xianglian, however, sings with many si and fa, which is typical of the Bitter
Scale. Thus, there is a sharp melodic contrast between the nobility and arrogance of
the princess versus the sadness and resentment of Qin Xianglian.
Four
Major Xiqu 327
5. An Overview of Yuju (Henan Opera)

Yuju, also known as Henan Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Henan) or Henan Gaodiao
(High Tune of Henan) is an important constituent of the Bangzi Melodic Type System.
There are many theories on the origin of Yuju. Some suggest that it dates back to
the reign of Emperor Zhuangzong of the Tang Dynasty; others hold that it was born in
the Northern Song Dynasty; even more scholars believe that it came into being in the
Ming Dynasty. Some think that it evolved from Tongzhou Bangzi (Clapper Opera of
Tongzhou, Shanxi); others argue that it was derived from Xiansuo’qiang (String Tune
Pattern) in the north; the general trend is to accept that it was related to the uprising
of Li Zicheng in late Ming, when performers of Qinqiang were brought to Henan,
leading to the formation of Yuju based on Bangzi Melodic Type.
Yuju developed into a number of sub-genres in Henan. These include Kaifeng-
based Xiangfu’diao (Xiangfu Melodic Style); Shangqiu-based Yudong’diao (East
Shandong Melodic Style) or Donglu’diao (Eastern Region Melodic Style); Luoyang-
based Yuxi Tune (Tune Style of West Henan), also known as Xifu’diao (Western
Part Melodic Style) or Kaoshan’huang (Mountain Tune Style); Shahe’diao (Shahe
Melodic Style) or Bendi’bang (Local Bangzi) popular in the Shahe River basin in
Southeast Henan; and Gaodiao (High Melodic Style) or Xiao Bangzi’diao (Small
Bangzi Melodic Style) popular on North Henan Plains. These sub-genres have their
own characteristics owing to differences in dialect, custom and culture, as a result of
their geographic affiliations.
A doggerel describes a traditional Yuju troupe as comprising “four Sheng male
roles, four Dan female roles, and four Hualian painted face roles; eight instruments
(one drum, two gongs, three stringed instruments, one clapper, and one pair of
cymbals) in two boxes.” The four Sheng male roles are Dahong’lian (big red face, or
Hongjing, red painted face or Hongsheng, red face male role), Erhong’lian (second
red face, or Mashang Honglian, red face on horse), Xiaosheng (young male) and
Biansheng (also called Erbu Honglian, second supporting red face); four Dan roles
are Zhengdan (principal female, or Qingyi, blue clothes, indicating the women from
poor family), Xiaodan (young girl, or Huadan, colourful female, indicating young
lively girl, or Guimen Dan, unmarried girl), Laodan (aged female role) and Shuaidan
(military female role); four Hualian roles are Heitou (black head, or Fujing, male
painted face focusing on singing), Dahua’lian (big painted face), Erhua’lian (second
painted face) and Sanhua’lian (third painted face). Because Yuju has eight male roles
and four female roles, the four Sheng roles and four Hualian roles are collectively
referred to as “Eight Outer Roles (Waiba’jiao)”, while the plays mainly performed by
male roles are called “Plays of Eight Outer Roles (Waiba’jiao Xi)”.
There are many outstanding traditional Yuju plays, including Huamulan (Lady
General Hua Mulan), Mu Guiying Guashuai (Lady General Mu Takes Command),
Qin Xianglian (Lady Qin Xianglian), Kaohong (Interrogating Hongniang), Dajin’zhi
(Taming of the Princess), Baishe’zhuan (Legend of the White Snake), Sanku’dian
(Three Crying Hall), Pohongzhou (Capturing Hongzhou), Duihua’qiang (Pairing
Silver Spears), Taohua’an (Peach Blossom Nunnery) and Daji’zhuang (Big
Sacrifice Pile). Since the founding of the People’s Republic, a series of high-quality
contemporary Yuju plays have been composed, such as Chaoyang’gou (Chaoyang’gou
Village), Li Shuangshuang (Lday Li Shuangshuang), Gengyun’ji (Story of Farming),
Liu Hulan (Heroine Liu Hulan), Dongqu Chunlai (Winter Giving Way to Spring),
Renhua Majiao (People Bustling and Horses Neighing), Hao Duizhang (Good
Production Team Leader), Xinghua’ying (Xinghua’ying Township), Shagang’cun
(Shagang Village), Bibi’kan (Let’s Compete) and Jiao Yulu Song (Ode to Jiao Yulu).
There are also popular repertoire from other Xiqu genres arranged as Yuju,
including Luohan’qian (The Luohan Coin), Xiaoerhei Jiehun (Xiaoerhei Gets
Married), Liangxiong’di (Two Brothers), Xianglin’sao (Madam Xianglin), Wu
Guniang (Five Sisters), Hongshan’hu (The Story of Shanmei), Honghu Chiweidui
(Honghu Red Army), Keshan Hongri (Red Sun over Keshan Mountain), Nanhai
Changcheng (The Great Wall in South China Sea), Jinsha Jiangpan (By the Jinsha
River), Shanxiang Fengyun (Storm in a Mountain Village), Haixia (Heroine Hai
Xia), Hongshi Zhongsheng (The Bell Rings in Hongshi Village), Qionghua (Girl
Qiong Hua), Hongdeng’ji (The Red Lantern), Haigang (At the Seaport), and Hongse
Niangzijun (The Red Detachment of Women).
There are many outstanding performers of Yuju, which include Chang Xiangyu,
Cui Lantian and Ma Jinfeng. Brilliant Yuju performers growing up in the 1950s
include Wei Yun, Wang Shanpu and Gao Jie. For a more comprehensive list, please
refer to the Chinese version of this book.
The success of a Xiqu genre is often judged by its potential for development as
well as the potential to accumulate a huge audience. This depends much on the artistic
level of composers who have to give due consideration to abilities of performers.
The development of Yuju in recent decades has been remarkable, not only in over
100 Counties in Henan Province, but also in Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, Shaanxi,
Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, Anhui and Jiangsu. At present, it is regularly performed
in Beijing, and it has become a national Xiqu genre. This must be attributed to the
outstanding performer Chang Xiangyu and her affiliated artists.
6. Yuju Music
(1) Two Systems of Singing Melodic Styles
Music of traditional Yuju in Henan Province is divided into Yudong (Eastern
Henan) and Yuxi (Western Henan) melodic styles (see the illustration below):
Yudong Melodic Style (Eastern Part)

Xiangfu Melodic Style Yuxi Melodic Style
Yudong Melodic Style Shahe Melodic Style
Gaodiao Melodic Style
Illustration 4-9. Yudong Melodic Style
From the above table there are two systems of Melodic Styles, Yudong and Yuxi,
while in the middle column, there are three other melodic styles, including Xiangfu,
Shahe and Gaodiao. These three melodic styles can also be classified as Yudong
Four
Major Xiqu 329
Melodic Style.
The linguistic basis of Yudong Melodic Style is Yudong (Shangqiu-centered
region) language pronunciation that belongs to Zhongzhou tones (Zhongzhou Yinyun).
The performers usually sing in falsetto (Erben voice), which is high-pitched and thin;
its register is “Shang Wuyin (Five Upper Notes).”
“Five Upper Notes” means that the melodic flow of Yudong Melodic Style is sol-
la- re- si- la- sol- re- fa- sol; the melody usually ascends, and its principal note is sol,
usually within the range sol-re. The singing melody starts on an upbeat and ends on
the downbeat.
Example 4-13. Song of Cui Jinding in Sanshang’jiao (The Chaste Female Who Takes Revenge)
sung by Chen Suzhen36

Crying for the father-in-law,
Calling the mother-in-law,
My mother-in-law, my mother-in-law,
Mother, mother, mother....
The linguistic basis of Yuxi Melodic Style is Yuxi (Luoyang-centered region)

language tones that also have Zhongzhou accents (Zhongzhou Yinyun). The
performers usually sing in real voice (Daben’shang) and use a lot of Zhonghan rhyme
(Zhonghan’yun, a kind of local language tone), and Kuqiang (Bitter Tune). The
singing can be coarse, tragic, sombre and vigorous.
The basic melodic flow of Yuxi’diao is sol- do- la- sol- sol- mi- re- do; the melody
usually descends, with the principal note do, usually within the sol-do register.
Therefore, Yuxi Singing Tune is usually referred to as “Xiawu’yin (Five Lower Notes)”
singing method. The singing generally begins and ends on a downbeat.
36 Example 4-13 is taken from Wang Xiaoji: Introduction to Vocal Music of Yuju Opera. Beijing: People’s
Example 4-14. Song of Bai Suzhen in Baishe’zhuan (Legend of the White Snake) sung by Chang
Xiangyu

I weep, holding up my husband,
I will tell you, tell you,
What has your wife done wrong?
Original beat (1) Slow two-eight (Man Erba)

category: (2) Slow flowing water (Man Liushui, one downbeat and one upbeat)
Slow tempo
Slow tempo (also known as “Sigu’yan”)
category:
Four
metrical Fast tempo (1)Two-eight (Eerba, one downbeat and one upbeat)
patterns category: (2) Fast two-eight (Jin’erba)
(3) Fast instrumental music and slow singing (Jinda Manchang,
downbeats only)
Scattered beat Scattered beat is also known as “flying beat (Feiban)”
category: (2) Half reciting and half singing (Gunbai, speech song)
Illustration 4-10. Metrical Patterns of Yuju Opera
In addition to the four regular metrical patterns, Yuju also incorporates a lot of
derivative metrical patterns. Reader will find it very hard to understand the meaning
of these names. Some of them cannot be translated into English because there is no
clear meaning in Chinese. For the translations of these names the following are just
some references. The category of slow tempo includes Manban (Slow Beat), Medium
Manban (Medium Speed Beat, also known as Lianhuan’kou, Interlocked Chain) and
Kuai’sanyan (Fast Three Upbeats, also known as Jingou’gua, Golden Hook), but also
Four
Major Xiqu 331
derivative metrical patterns such as Daoban’tou (Head of Leading Phrase), Qizhe

(Seven Marks, also known as Qizhe, seven-fold), Wuyin (Five Sounds), Kujian (Crying
Sword), Inverted Jingou’gua (Fan Jingou’gua, Inversed Golden Hook), Guaitou’ding
(Zigzag Nail) and Daotuo’xue (Putting Boots Upside Down). The slow two-eight
category encompasses Erba’ban (Two-eight Beat), Slow Erba’ban (Slow Two-Eight
Beat), Medium Erba’ban (Medium Speed Two-eight Beat), Connected Erba’ban
(Erba Lianban, Connected Two-eight Beat), Fast Erba’ban (Fast Two-eight Beat),
Tight Erba’ban (Jin Erba’ban, Fastest Two-eight Beat) and Jinda Manchang (Fast
Instrumental Music and Slow Singing); it also includes Erban Luantan (Miscellaneous
Tune with Two-eight Beat), Duozi’ban (Piled Beat), Gousiyao (Connected Hooks),
Guada’ju (Biting Up and Down), Tijiao’kao (Foot Kicking) and Ban’bandeng (Moving
Wooden Bench); the derivative metrical patterns of Flowing Water Beat category
include Liangluo Zuanzi (Two Gongs Drill) and Daosong’fan (Bringing Meals Back).
(3) An Analysis of Famous Yuju Play Huamulan (Lady General Hu Mulan)
“Brother Liu’s Words Are Unfair37” is a famous song of the Yuju play Huamulan.
The heroine of the story Hua Mulan disguised herself as a man to substitute the
conscript her father in a war against the Mongolians. On her way to the battlefield, a
fellow soldier made sextist insulting remarks on women who stay at home while men
had to risk their lives in war. Hua Mulan spoke up against anti-feminism views, and
eventually managed to win the debate.
This song uses Erba’ban (Two-eight Beat) for the Wusheng (martial) role in
Yudong Melodic Style. It is sonorous, catchy and easy to learn, hence is widely sung
by the audience. From the lyrics “men fight battles on the frontier” to “they do all
the sewing by needle myriad times,” Connected Erba’ban (Erba Lianban) is used,
so that phrases are linked seamlessly, gathering much momentum. In the last phrase
“in which respect are women not as able as men,” the second half uses syncopated
rhythm, swinging tune and repeated padding characters “Heihei”, so as to generate an
air of heroism. The essence of Yuju–masculine and lively–is duly illustrated.
D. Pihuang Melodic Type (Pihuang’qiang) and Beijing Opera (Jingju)
1. An Overview of Pihuang Melodic Type
Pihuang Melodic Type refers to two forms of tune patterns, Xipi (literally
translation “West Skin”) and Erhuang (Literally translation “Two Yellows”). Even
though these melodies are long-term partners, they have different origins.
There are many theories on the source of Erhuang Tune Pattern, and the five most
common are outlined as follows38:
First, Erhuang Tune Pattern originated in Huangpi and Huanggang of Hubei, hence
the name Erhuang (Two Huangs, or Two Yellows).
Second, Erhuang actually means “Two Bamboo Reeds.” It means the melodies
must be accompanied by two bamboo flutes, hence its origin in Chuiqiang (Blowing
Melody) in Anqing, Anhui Province.
37 刘大哥讲话理太偏
38 See Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995, Pp215–216.
Third, Erhuang originated in Yihuang, Jiangxi Province. When the genre spread to
Jiangsu and Zhejiang in late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, Yihuang was mistaken
for Erhuang because “Er” and “Yi” have similar pronunciation in Wu dialect.
Fourth, Erhuang evolved from Siping Tune Pattern (Siping’diao, Smooth Melody),
melodies sung in the juncture of Hubei and Anhui Provinces.
Fifth, both Erhuang and Xipi were melodies from the northwest.
There are also several theories on the origin of Xipi Melodic Pattern:
First, Xipi was first sung in Huangpi, Hubei Province, and it has the same origin as
Erhuang.
Second, Xipi was derived from Qinqiang (Shaanxi Opera) from the northwest.
Third, Xipi is a variation of Chuiqiang (Blowing Melody).
The diversified opinions on the origins of Xipi and Erhuang–coupled with ideas
about their combined origin–make the issue more complex. While some believe the
two melodic types were conceived as a whole, it is more likely that they only appear
as a jointly in Xiqu after a period of separate development.
In order to understand why Xipi and Erhuang tune patterns can be combined
to form Pihuang Melodic Type System, it is vital to analyse their similarities and
differences.
First, their similarities:
(i) Both Xipi and Erhuang belong to Banqiang (Metrical Change Form) music with
transformation based on a melody subject to metrical changes.
(ii) The lyrics of both Xipi and Erhuang are based on symmetrical and antithetical
seven-character or ten-character paired phrases. Each of the seven or ten character
verses is punctuated three times. A seven-character phrase has a pattern of two,
two, three, hence the the verse “Qiū Fēng Sà Sà Jīng Yè Mèng”39 is punctuated
accordingly; a ten-character verse has a pattern of three, three, four, hence the basis of
the punctuation of the verse “Wǒ Xīn Zhōng Zhǐ Bǎ Nà Tāng Zéi Lái Hèn40”. The “up”
phrase (first of the pair) ends with an oblique-tone character, while the “down” phrase
(second of the pair) ends with a level-tone character. The last character of the first
phrase of the melody ends with a rhyme, which is referred to as “starting rhyme”; the
second phrase must also rhyme. In other words, the last characters of the first pair of
phrases must end with rhymes. After that, phrases of odd number do not need to rhyme,
while phrases with even number must end with rhymes, and with flat-tone characters.
(iii) Each Xipi or Erhuang music phrase is also punctuated three times,
corresponding to those of the lyrics.
Second, differences between Xipi and Erhuang:
Xipi and Erhuang are melodies with different frameworks. They are different in
how a melody begins and ends, as well as in modes and melodic contours. These
differences have led to melodies of contrasting characters, the most conspicuous
being how the melodies start and their rhythms. Erhuang melodies start and end on
39 秋风飒飒惊夜梦 (Autumn wind is strong and waken my dream in the night).

40 我心中只把那汤贼来恨 (I only hate evildoer Tang).
Four
Major Xiqu 333
downbeats, and the melodic flow is steady. Xipi melodies, however, start on upbeats
and end on downbeats, and they involve frequent use of syncopations. Hence these
melodies can be used in the same Xiqu to produce contrasts.
Contrast is the basic principle of art, and the stage art of Xiqu is no exception. On
the Xiqu stage, sheer contrast of styles is insufficient, because as a story unfolds, it is
necessary to create some kind of interactions between characters. The two melodic
forms, Xipi and Erhuang, accommodate one another by similarities in structure and
differences in expressive power. They complement and set off each other according to
the dramatic content, hence making an eternal bond.
Pihuang is similar to Bangzi Clapper Melodic Type because they are classified as
“Metrical Change Forms”. However, Xipi and Erhuang have taken different paths: the
former is more advanced in metrical changes, while the latter has a more complete set
of role-specific tunes and their derivatives.
There are over thirty Xiqu genres solely or principally adopting Pihuang melodies.
Among the former category, Fujian Beiluxi (Northern Style Opera of Fujian) and
Jiujiang Tanxi (Plucking Opera of Jiujiang) have not developed Pihuang as much as
more accommodating genres, such as Beijing Opera, Hanju (Hubei Opera) and Yueju
(Guangdong Opera), which may include other melodies.
2. An Overview of Jingju (Beijing Opera)
Among the numerous Xiqu genres adopting Pihuang Melodic Type, the melodies
are most developed in Beijing Opera.
Beijing Opera, as its name implies, is a Xiqu genre developed in the Chinese
capital. Its birth dates back to the eightieth birthday of Emperor Qianlong of the
Qing Dynasty in 1790, when Four Anhui Troupes performed in Beijing. In spite of
its relatively short history, Beijing Opera has modelled itself on older genres such
as Huiju (Anhui Opera) and Hanju (Hubei Opera), as well as selecting the best from
Kunqu Opera, Qinqiang (Shaanxi Opera) and other genres to establish its own system
in the context of Beijing culture.
Beijing Opera has been referred to as Pihuang Opera for a long period. The term
Beijing first appeared on Shenbao Daily in Shanghai in 1876. The genre actually
began to take shape during Xianfeng reign (1851–1861). By then, “Four Anhui
Troupes (Sida Huiban)”–Sanqing (Three Celebrations), Sixi (Four Happiness),
Chuntai (Spring Stage) and Hechun (Harmonious Spring)–the last was already
disbanded, and the other three troupes no longer specialized in Erhuang Huiju (Anhui
Opera with Erhuang Tune Pattern), but had merged with Hanju (Hubei Opera) troupes
that had long been using Xipi and Erhuang together.
In those days, Cheng Changgeng, Zhang Erkui and Yu Sansheng were leaders of
Sanqing, Sixi and Chuntai troupes respectively, and they were regarded as the three
best Laosheng (aged male role) actors.These first generation Beijing Opera performers
had their own strengths: Cheng Changgeng was famous for his Hui opera flavour,
Zhang Erkui for Beijing style, and Yu Sansheng for Hanju (Hubei Opera) background.
Hence they represented three fundamental components of Beijing Opera, and Cheng
Changgeng’s contribution to the development of Beijing Opera was most prominent.
Beijing Opera developed tremendously during Tongzhi and Guangxu reigns

(1862–1908). The most influential performers during that period included the new
generation of “Three Best Laosheng Actors” (Tan Xinpei, Wang Guifen and Sun
Juxian), Xiaosheng (young male role) actor Xu Xiaoxiang, Dan (female) actors/
actresses Mei Qiaoling and Yu Ziyun. Among them, Tan Xinpei was most famous,
and his Tan School became a milestone in the history of Laosheng role. The numerous
Schools of Laosheng role in later generations have evolved from Tan School, so there
is a saying, “all tunes originated from Tan.”
By the turn of the twentieth century, Beijing Opera (also known as Pingju because
Beijing was once renamed Beiping) was not only enthusiastically received by the
general public, but also by the upper class. Beijing Opera troupes were often invited to
perform in the Imperial Palace, and the genre gradually took over Kunqu’s dominating
position on the Xiqu stage, and became the most influential Xiqu genre in the country.
Beijing Opera, as a late comer, succeeded in overtaking other Xiqu genres not only
because it was developed in the capital, but it managed to absorb the essence of music
and culture of all areas, the opportunity provided by outstanding artists and culturally
motivated audience.
Just as the new generation of Three Best Beijing Opera Actors (Sanding’jia)
represented by Tan Xinpei rose to the height of their careers, Mei Lanfang, another
important figure who truly turned Beijing Opea into a national Xiqu genre, had
begun his career as a promising Dan performer, and of course, to be followed by a
distinguished professional life in China and overseas.
At the time of Mei Lanfang’s birth in the late Qing Dynasty, Laosheng (aged male
role) actors had the highest artistic status in the professional circles, while Dan (female)
actors were not respected, owing to prejudice on the somewhat licentious role. There
was a tradition then all actors had to be male, and women were not allowed into
theatres, a kind of restriction imposed on traditional societies, or even in the West41.
Hence Dan roles in Beijing opera were taken by men, who were trained as Qingyi (blue
clothes) or Huadan (colourful girl): the former had a voice, and sang continuously,
serving those who “listen” to Jingju, while the latter had to play a lot of gimmicks to
capture attention.
Male audiences were not attracted to Qingyi singers because of the lack of appeal,
when female roles were male in disguise. Huadan roles were more attractive, because
the audiences gathered in theatres in Qianmen (a commercial and cultural area in
Beijing) were mainly tradesmen away from home, and apart from visiting brothels,
they had found an outlet for dirty jokes told by these singers. Therefore, the Dan role
could not artistically compete with that of Laosheng.
Mei Lanfang began his career as a Qingyi (blue clothes) role, and managed to
develop his own style of singing by combining the strengths of Qingyi and Huadan
(colourful girl) in Beijing Opera, such as Fenhe’wan (Fenhe River Bay) and Taizhen
41 Women were not admissible to Oxford or Cambridge Universities in the United Kingdom, nor given their
rights to vote until relatively recently; another example is men giving up seats to women in public transport.
Four
Major Xiqu 335
Waizhuan (The Anecdotes of Taizhen). This innovative role was Huashan (Flowery
Dress), which integrated the dignified appearance, beautiful voice and rich feelings of
Qingyi with the changeable expressions and postures Huadan. His efforts put an end
to the bad habits of “listening to Qingyi” and “watching Huadan”, while elevating
the Dan role to a high artistic level. In his later roles in Bawang Bieji (Farewell My
Concubine) and Yuzhou’feng (The Sword), Mei Lanfang began to work towards
perfection. He began to rank equal with Yang Xiaolou and Tan Xinpei. Mei Lanfang’s
career entered a new milestone in 1921, when he became one of the four leading
Dan actors with Cheng Yanqiu, Shang Xiaoyun and Xun Huisheng. This was a non-
reversible trend that Dan roles had taken over Laosheng as the essence of Beijing
opera, and Mei Lanfang has contributed much to the outcome.
Since the founding of the Republic of China, there was a trend to lift the ban on
female audiences and opera singers, as a sign of accepting Western social values.
However, this had little influence on the popularity of Mei Lanfang and other male
Dan peers, presumably owing to their fully established artistry, and the difficulty in
surpassing their public images, even though there were talented female singers.
The Mei School of Beijing Opera founded by Mei Lanfang is famous for its
graceful, dignified, and elegant style. Mei did not use excessive florid embellishments
nor display virtuosity for its sake, but pursued an elegant taste in singing, hence
keeping a temporal and spatial aesthetic distance from real life. The overall effect is
the search for beauty through artistic simplicity, subtleness and gentleness, leaving
much room for the audience for freedom of appreciation.
Professionals of Beijing Opera of the time thought it was impossible to imitate
Mei’s style. This was a real sentiment, owing to the difficulty in acquiring the basics
of his art, as it seemed straight forward, yet implied a combination of assiduous
effort in searching for virtuosity in the context of real sentiment. The commentator
Xu Jichuan said, “The most difficult art of the Mei School is coming on stage. From
raising the curtain to approaching the proscenium, Qingyi just walks without any other
action, and has to stand still to demonstrate the temperament of the character. This is
impossible for a performer without profound artistic profile. Therefore, one must go
beyond the plays themselves to capture the essence of the Mei School.
Mei School’s famous repertoire includes Yuzhou’feng (The Sword), Guifei Zuijiu
(Drunken Beauty), Duanqiao (Broken Bridge), Qishuang’hui (Horse Trader) and
Bawang Bieji (Farewell My Concubine). These plays demand a high proficiency on
the expressive power of the female part, and performers who could face the challenge
are real artists.
Mei Lanfang had opportunities to perform overseas during his career, and managed
to create a sensation wherever he performed. His most successful tours include those
to Japan in 1919, 1924 and 1956, to the United States in late 1929, and to the former
Soviet Union in 1935 and 1957.
Foreign press and arts critics had high praise for Mei Lanfang. The general view
was that Mei’s dramatic skills were neither the German Brecht system (stressing
alienation effect) nor the Stanislavsky system (stressing combination of performers and
roles); it was a unique performing system (entering and exiting the reality freely). Mei
therefore had the same international standard as Brecht and Stanislavsky, and one may
argue that he was not only representing Beijing opera, but all Xiqu genres in China.
The reason for Mei Lanfang’s success was his enlightened views on all aspects of
Xiqu stage art. He constantly reviewed ways to elevate his art of singing, acting and
postures, at the same time creating many dances in opera (for which the International
Dance Association awarded him a Medal of Honour in 1957); he also offered insights
on lighting, stage positioning and costume design, while exploring instrumentation of
the accompanying ensemble (for example, he was the first to introduce Erhu fiddle to
the Beijing Opera play Xishi (Beauty Xishi), and soon it became a standard element of
“Civil Scene (Wenchang)”.
An even more important factor for Mei’s fame was his pursuit for high culture in
his plays. He was famous for admiring art and culture, and had many friends who were
men of letters. He boasted a high level cultural think tank (the most famous being
Qi Rushan, who wrote dozens of plays for him). This superb cultural environment
provided opportunities for him to develop his art of Beijing Opera to an unprecendented
level. This is the reason why Mei School’s performance of famous plays Bawang Bieji
(Farewell My Concubine) and Guifei Zuijiu (Drunken Beauty) was considered pinnacle
of Chinese culture. Mei alone has made Jingju a national opera, and he justifiably stood
out among numerous Xiqu artists, both nationally and internationally (Illustration 4-11
and photos 4-1, 4-2).
There are over 1,000 traditional Jingju plays in the current repertoire: some of
them are adapted from operas of other regions, such as Huiju (Anhui Opera), Hanju
(Hubei Opera), Kunqu (Kun Song) and Qinqiang (Shaanxi Opera); many have been
specially written by performers and folk playwrights. Since Beijing Opera possesses
the qualities for interpreting stories associated with wars and heroes, its literary
sources tend to relate to historical romances and novel–based scripts for story–telling.
For example, Jingju plays based on Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty
(Lieguo Yanyi) include Wenzhao’guan (Exiting Shaoguan Pass), Yuchang’jian
(The Assassin), Sougu Jiugu (The Story of the Orphan), Huangjin’tai (The Golden
Platform), Zengti’pao (The Robe of Peace) and Xishi (Beauty Xishi); repertoire based
on Romances of the Western Han Dynasty (Xihan Yanyi) and Romances of the Eastern
Han Dynasty (Donghan Yanyi) includes Hongmen’yan (Banquet at Hongmen),
Zhuihanxin (Chasing after Han Xin), Bawang Bieji (Farewell My Concubine),
Caoqiao’guan (The Caoqiao Pass) and Shangtian’tai (Ascending to Heaven Terrace);
those based on Romances of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi) include Lianhuan’ji
(Coordinating One Stratagem with Another), Zhuofang’cao (Capture and Release of
Cao Cao), Jigu Macao (Reviling Cao Cao While Beating A Drum), Zhan Wancheng
(The Battle at Wancheng), Gucheng’hui (Sworn Brothers), Changban’po (A Battle
at Changban’po), Qunying’hui–Jie Dongfeng (Gathering of Heroes–Borrow the East
Wind), Ganlusi–Huijin’zhou (Ganlu Temple–Back to Jingzhou), Shuiyan Qijun (Guan
Yu Floods Seven Armies), Zhan Machao (Two Generals), Dingjun’shan (Dingjun
Mountain), Yangping’guan (Yangping Pass), Lianying’zhai (Burning of Shu’s Camps)
Four
Major Xiqu 337
Illustration 4-11. Schools and transmission relationship of Beijing Opera

Illustration 4-11 (continued). Schools and transmission relationship of Beijing Opera

Four
Major Xiqu 339
Photo 4-1. Cheng Changgeng, Zhang Erkui and Yu Sansheng
Photo 4-2. Mei Lanfang. Cheng Yanqiu, Shang Xiaoyun and Xun Huisheng
and Kongcheng’ji (Empty Fort Strategy); those based on Romances of the Sui and
Tang Dynasties (Suitang Yanyi) and Tang’s Series Novels (Shuotang) include Qinqiong
Maima (Qin Qiong Sells the Horse), Sanjia’dian (Three Families Inn), Bailiang’guan
(Bailiang Pass), Suowu’long (Five Dragons Subdued), Luocheng Jiaoguan (Luo
Cheng Called at the Pass), Shasi’men (Saving the Emperor at Shouzhou), Fenhe’wan
(Fenhe River Bay), Fanjian’guan (Fanjiang Pass) and Xu Ce Paocheng (Xu Ce
Runs Around the City Wall); those based on Journey to the West (Xiyou’ji) include
Shuilian’dong (Cave of Water Curtain), Nao Tiangong (Havoc in Heaven), Nao
Longgong (Havoc in Dragon Palace), Huoyan’shan (The Flame Mountain), Wudi’dong
(The Bottomless Den) and Jinqian’bao (Gold Coin Spotted Leopard); those based
on Generals of the Yang Family (Yangjiajiang) include Jinsha’tan (Golden Beach),
Liling’bei (Li Ling Tombstone), Shen Panhong (Trial of Pan Hong), Yang Paifeng
(The Girl Yang Paifeng), Muke’zhai - Mutianwang (MuKe Walled Village - Fighting
Heavenly King Mu), Yuanmen Zhanzi (General Yang Liulang Executes His Son),
Pohongzhou (Capturing Hongzhou), Sancha’kou (Crossroads) and Hongyang’dong
(Hongyang Cave); those based on The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan) and The Water
Margin Sequel (Hou Shuihu) include Yezhu’lin (The Rescue in Wild Boar Forest),
Wusong Dahu (Wu Song Fighting the Tiger), Shizi’lou (The Lion Chamber), Shizi’po
(The Cross Slope), Wulong’yuan (Song Jiang Slew His Mistress Yan Poxi), Shiqian
Touji (Shi Qian Stealing Chicken), Daming’fu (Daming Prefecture), Yijian’chou

(Revenge), Dayu Shajia (A Fisherman’s Struggle) and Yanyang’lou (The Sunny
Mansion); those based on The Stories of Yue Fei (Shuoyue Quanzhuan) include Zhan
Jinshan (Battle at Jinshan), Bada’chui (Eight Hammers), Duanbi Shuoshu (The
Broken Arm of Wang Zuo), Tiaohua’che (Ramming Carts), Yuejia’zhuang (The Yue
Village) and Fengbo’ting (Death of Yue Fei). Other popular Beijing Opera plays
include Yuzhou’feng (The Sword), Wang Baochuan (The LadyWang Baochuan and
Her Husand Xue Pinggui), Guifei Zuijiu (Drunken Beauty), Hehou Madian (Empress
He Reviling at Court), Yuhou Longpao (Encountering the Empress and Beating the
Imperial Robe), Zhamei’an (The Case of Chen Shimei), Liuyue’xue (Snow in June),
Sijin’shi (Four Imperial Scholars), Shentou Citang (Interrogating the Head and
Assassinating Tang Qin), Shiyu’zhuo (Romance of the Jade Bracelet), Erjin’gong
(Second Visit to the Empress), Yutang’chun (The Story of Su San) and Daoyu’ma
(Stealing Imperial Horse).
In the early days, Beijing Opera had seven roles–Sheng (male), Dan (female), Jing
(painted face, male role), Mo (supporting male role), Chou (clown), Wuhang (martial
Role) and Liuhang (or Longtao, supporting “running” actors)–but these have been
streamlined into Sheng, Dan, Jing and Chou, each with its subdivisions:
Angong Laosheng (aged male role emphasizing on

singing)
Shuaipai Laosheng (aged male role emphasizing on
Laosheng (aged male
action)
role)
Kaoba Laosheng (military general dressed with
small flags on shoulder)
Hongsheng (red face male role)
Sheng Male Shanzi’sheng (young man holdng a fan as a scholar)
role Xiaosheng (young Qiongsheng (poor young man)
male role) Zhiwei’sheng (young man with two pleasant tails on
his head, a positive man)
Kaowu’sheng (male role dressed small flags on
Wusheng (martial shoulder, a military personnel)
male role) Duanda Wusheng (young man with acrobatic
abilities)
Wawa’sheng (boy)
Zhengdan or Qingyi (principal female role, or Blue Cloth female role,

female from a poor family)
Guimen Dan (unmarried girl)
Tiedan (maidservant)
Huadan (colourful girl)
Poladan (ferocious girl)
Dan Female role
Wanxiao’dan (joking girl)
Wudan (martial girl)
Daomadan (military girl)
Laodan (aged female
role)
Illustration 4-12. The Classification of roles of Beijing Opera
Four
Major Xiqu 341
Tongchui or Heitou (Brass Hammer, or Black Head, painted face role

emphasizing singing)
Jing (painted face,
Jiazi’hua (Stand,
male role), also Jianbai’lian (crafty while face)
the make-up role
known as Hualian Jiazi Hualian (standing painted face)
emphasizing actions)
(coloured face)
Wujing or Wuer’hua (acrobatic painted face, or second acrobatic
coloured face)
Chou (clown) Fangjin’chou (educated clown)

Also called Xiaohua’lian Wenchou (civil clown) Xiaochou (small clown)
or Erhua’lian (small Chou’pozi (old female clown)
coloured face, or second
coloured face) Wuchou, or Kaikou’tiao (acrobatic clown, or jumping clown)
Illustration 4-12 (continued). The Classification of roles of Beijing Opera
3. Beijing Opera Music

(1) Erhuang Tune Pattern
Melodies of male roles are the bases of those of female roles in the Erhuang Tune
Pattern of Beijing opera, and of course, its Yuanban (Basic Metrical Pattern) provides
the material for evolving into other melodies through metre change. It is therefore
most appropriate to approach Erhuang music through Yuanban of Laosheng role (aged
male role).
The tuning of the accompanying instrument Jinghu (fiddle used in Beijing Opera)
provides some clues for the melodic progression of Erhuang: its two strings are tuned
to sol-re, the two notes appearing most often in the vocal melodies, as well as in
the instrumental interludes. The Erhuang melody of aged male role in original form
comprises a number of paired phrases; in each pair, the first phrase usually ends on do,
while the second re (final). In the event that the last paired phrase is extended, its first
phrase usually ends on la, while the melody ends on sol (with addition of four beats),
implying a change in mode.
The structure of lyrics of aged male role’s Erhuang Original Beat has already been
discussed in the section comparing Xipi and Erhuang in “An Overview of Pihuang
Melodic Type” above.
The metrical pattern of aged male role’s Erhuang Original Beat is one downbeat
and one upbeat (2/4), and it has four basic phrase patterns:
a. A Long First of the Paired Phrases
The first and last characters of the Long Verse begin and end on a downbeat. All
sub-phrases also begin with a downbeat, as shown in the following example, which
comprises three sub-phrases, with the number of measures fixed as 2+3+3 (or eight
measures, excluding interludes)42 (Example 4-15).
Example 4-15. A Long First of the Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing Opera

My wife, don’t be too anxious.
b. Condensed Paired Phrases: tight “up” phrases and tight “down” phrases
The Condensed Paired Phrases (first and second phrase) of aged male role’s
Erhuang Original Beat also begin and end on a downbeat. The second sub-phrase,
however, begins on an upbeat or second half of a downbeat (Shanban, Off Beat),
while the third sub-phrase reverts to the pattern of beginning on a downbeat, with the
number of measures fixed as 1+1+3 (See Example 4-16).
Example 4-16. The Condensed Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing Opera43

If you insist not to confess,
The laws will be implemented without partiality.
c. A Long Second of the Paired Phrases

A Long Second of the Paired Phrase is a variation of the second of the Condensed
Paired Phrases, with a second sub-phrase comprising one measure (also starting on
weak beat or off beat), while the first sub-phrase is extend a measure or two, and the
third sub-phrase linked to a dragging tune. The Long phrase starts and ends on the
downbeat (See Example 4-17).
Four
Major Xiqu 343
Example 4-17. A Long Second of the Paired Phrases of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing Opera44

I am not feeling well, hence cannot help falling asleep.
d. “Ending Phrases” on Downbeat

“Ending Phrases” is the equivalent of a coda in Western music, and is a variation
of the second of the Condensed Paired Phrases, with the second sub-phrase extended
by inserted notes known as Qiangge’zi (Partitioned Notes). Here all sub-phrases begin
on the downbeat, providing some kind of aesthetic regularity, hence frequently used
as an ending for a passage (See Example 4-18).
Example 4-18. “Ending Phrases” of Erhuang Original Best in Beijing Opera45

Come today, I drink wine, and can be drunk.
Hence, Long and Condensed phrases are the most fundamental patterns of aged
male role’s Erhuang Original Beat.
Apart from Original Beat, there are other Erhuang metrical patterns, such as Manban
(Slow Beat), Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4), Erliu’ban (Two-six Beat, only used in modern
Xiqu plays), Sanban (Scattered Beat) and Yaoban (Rocking Beat, singing in free rhythm
to accompaniment with downbeat only, or 1/4 metre, meaning singing slowly to fast
accompaniment). These metrical patterns are the results of expanding (Manban),
breaking up (Sanban and Yaoban), and tightening up (Kuaiban) the original melody.
When Erhuang melodies are sung by roles using real voice–as in Jing (painted
face, male role), Laodan (aged female role), Chou (clown)–they follow the same
musical style of Laosheng (aged male role), including phrase pattern, ending note
and modal characteristics, even though there are subtle differences, according to
the status and character of each role. For example, melodies of Jing (painted face,
male role) are simple with a narrow range, and are treated with nasal resonance and
ramming (Hangyin) effect. On the other hand, Laodan’s has to be more feminine than
Laosheng, hence each sub-phrase often carries running or lingering notes, coupled
with unique methods of voice projection, such as lumpy and gargling tones.
When Erhuang is sung by roles in falsetto–such as role taken by Xiaosheng
(young male) and Dan roles apart from Laodan (aged female role)–some aspects of
performance are different from the style of Laosheng, even though they are sung to the
Jinghu (fiddle used in Beijing Opera) of the same tuning and similar interludes (Dan’s
interlude is more decorated, while sharing the same basic melody of Laosheng). It
is, however, vital to distinguish how male and female roles treat Erhuang melodies:
there are differences in melodic flow, mode and final notes, owing to the differing
ranges of the singers. Male singers tend to emphasize the degree re (lower open string
of Jinghu fiddle), while female singer sol (the higher open string of Jinghu fiddle). In
reality, Dan melodies are usually a fourth, fifth or even an octave higher than those of
Sheng, hence when they are singing in pairs, male and female roles can sing in their
comfortable ranges without the need to change the pitch of the tonic. This technique of
accommodating singers of different ranges in the same piece without real modulation
is found in many other Xiqu and folk genres in China.
In any case, Erhuang was the first kind of Xiqu melodies to be able to accommodate
different vocal ranges between male and female singers in the same song.
(2) Reverse Erhuang Tune Pattern (Fan Erhuang)
Reverse Erhuang Tune Pattern is derived from Erhuang melodies. The tuning of
the accompanying Jinghu fiddle for the former is do-sol, with tonic a perfect fourth
below Erhuang. Otherwise, they have the same melodic patterns, sharing the same
rules for ending each of the pair phrases. Since the key of Reverse Erhuang is lower
than its Erhuang counterpart, it has more potential to accommodate melodies of a
wider range, making it ideal for expressing emotions of great fluctuations.
The Reverse Erhuang for Dan female role is an octave above that for Sheng male
role. (See Illustration 4-13. Metrical Patterns of Erhuang)
Beat and Expressive

Metrical Pattern Others
Rhythm Characteristics
Medium tempo. Basic form for
Main metrical Phrases start and various roles
pattern (that One downbeat end on downbeats; and metrical
Introductory Original
can form and one upbeat, style is profound patterns; it
beat category Beat
independent or 2/4 and steady, suitable is called the
melody) for storytelling and Basic Metrical
expressing emotions. Pattern.
Illustration 4-13. Metrical patterns of Erhuang46
46 Cited from Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995, p 242-243.
Four
Major Xiqu 345
Beat and Expressive

One downbeat
When the tempo is
and three
slow, the melody
upbeats, or Original Beat is
is more decorated,
Slow 4/4, including expanded and
expressive, drifts
tempo slow, medium becomes more
away from spoken
and fast three- complicated.
language and more
upbeat metrical
melodious.
patterns.
One downbeat Original Beat
and two is expanded
Slow upbeats, or 3/4, and made more
(Same as above)
Introductory tempo including slow complicated;
beat category and fast Eryan only exists in
(two upbeats). modern plays.
Compressed
Appropriate for
Two- One downbeat Original Beat,
narration. Easier
six beat and one upbeat, more often
to unfold plot than
(Erliu) or 2/4 used in modern
Original Beat.
plays.
Faster than Two- Further
Main metrical six beat, suitable shortening of
pattern (that Downbeats
Fast tempo for expressing tense Two-six Beat,
can form only, or 1/4.
emotions, effective only used in
independent for creating a climax. modern plays.
melody)
The beats and
rhythm of
Singing in free beats the original
can accommodate metrical
different situations of pattern are
Scattered Free rhythm, the plot; applications broken, so
beat are wide, can known as
notated as .
highlight ardent “scattered
emotions or narrate beating and
the story in general. scattered
Scattered singing (Sanda
beat category Sanchang)”
Words uttered
quickly; alternation
Borrowed from
of rhythmic/
Bangzi tune,
Rolling unmeasured singing,
(Same as melodic shape
beat for expressing
above) and ending
(Gunban) sadness and
notes similar to
lament, also known
Erhuang.
as “Crying Beat
(Kuban)”.
Illustration 4-13 (continued). Metrical patterns of Erhuang

Beat and Expressive

Free rhythm
for voice, only
downbeats for Commonly
Main metrical
accompaniment; known as “fast
pattern (that Rocking
Mixed beat suitable for instrumental
can form beat 1/4 metre type
category expressing emotions music and slow
independent (Yaoban)
that are intense singing (Jinda
melody)
inside but relaxed Manchang)”
outside, or dramatic
and pressing.
Metrical Pattern Beat and Rhythm Expressive Characteristics and Others
Independent singing tune structure for second of paired
phrases; cannot form independent song, usually follows
One downbeat and
Introductory Beat; first half often lengthened with Duo
Huilong three upbeats; one
(Piled) characters, ends with a big swinging tune. Often
(Returning) downbeat and one
used at the beginning of a “suite (Liantao)” to produce
upbeat, or 4/4, 2/4.
an impassioned and forceful effect, just like Phoenix
Head (Fengtou).
Each phrase usually consists of three, four, or five
One downbeat and
characters; they are cascaded as layers, and words are
three upbeats, one
Pile metre sung in quick succession, suitable for telling story and
downbeat and one
(Duoban) enhancing dramatic effect. Mostly inserted into second
upbeat, downbeats
of paired phrases; sometimes can be quite extended, but
only, or 4/4, 2/4, 1/4.
it is still an added element.
An independent first of paired phrases at beginning of
song; plays a lead-in role, hence the name “Leading
Leading beat Beat.” It usually ends with the tonic re or sol; cannot
Free beat
(Daoban) form a song independently; must lead to Huilong
(returning) phrase, slow tempo, original beat, scatter
beat or other metrical patterns to form a complete song.
Clear beat Introductory beat or Borrowed from Yueju, see Yueju Opera (Zhejiang
(Qingban) scattered beat Opera) - Clear Beat on page 372.
Lyrics have additional phrases; melodies have low-
Crying phrase Introductory beat or pitched and winding inserted phrases. Rhythms
(Kutou ) scattered beat will adapt to Introductory beat or scattered beat as
appropriate, usually expresses sadness and lament.
Not a metrical pattern, but a traditional habitual name
for a form of introductory music or a way of starting
Dingban (On
singing. For example, the singing of Huilong can start
the beat)
with an Erhuang interlude, or start directly (Dingban,
on the beat).
Not a metrical pattern, but a way of starting singing.
Pengban
For example, the singing can start with Pengban. It can
(Concurrent
be used for slow tempo or original beat; singing can
beat)
start with the first or other sub-phrases.
Illustration 4-13 (Continued). Metrical patterns of Erhuang
Four
Major Xiqu 347
(3) Suona Erhuang (Erhuang accompanied by Suona shawm) Tune Pattern in

Erhuang Tune Pattern System refers to the accompaniment using Suona (shawm)
instead of Jinghu fiddle. Its phrase structure and melody is similar to Original Beat
of Erhuang of aged male role; the style is sumptuous and archaic owing to the
highlighting of the lower range of the Suona. It is not commonly used, apart from the
parts of Hongsheng (red face male role), Hongjing (red painted face), Laodan (aged
female role) and Xiaosheng (young male role). It only has a few metrical patterns,
such as Daoban (Leading Phrase), Huilong (Returning), Yuanban (Basic Metrical
Pattern) and Sanban (Scattered Beat).
(4) Xipi Tune Pattern
The two strings of main instrument Jinghu fiddle for Xipi melodies are tuned to la
and mi, a perfect fifth above tunings of Erhuang. Hence the Jinghu for Xipi is smaller
than that for Erhuang; it has shorter strings, a smaller sound box and tighter sounding
membrane, producing brighter and more piercing sound. The singing melodies and
interludes of Xipi centre on la and mi, and often involve big leaps (from low to high)
such as la-sol, mi-do and la-fa.
The first of the paired phrases of aged male role’s Original Beat for Xipi ends on
re, while its answering phrase on do; the former may also end on mi, sol or la, but
after a Dragging Tune, the latter has to return to do. Hence, most Xipi melodies for
aged male role are in do mode.
The structure of the lyrics for Xipi and Erhuang are the same, and the phrase
pattern of the former is similar to that of Bangzi Melodic Type. Aged male role’s Xipi
Original Beat is organized in paired phrases, each of which has about six beats. Other
than the fifth word of the second phrase being pushed back by one beat, others remain
the same.
Male and female Xipi are accompanied by the same Jinghu fiddle, including
interludes, yet they are different in melody, mode, ending note, register and range. The
first of the paired Dan phrase mostly ends on la, while the complementary phrase on
sol (male role’s first phrase on re, second phrase on do). The metres of melodies for
Exmaple 4-19. Comparison of the melodic, metric and modal structures between Original Metre
used by male and female roles
Original Beat of male role is one strong beat and one weak beat, or 2/4, while that for
Dan female role is one strong beat and three weak beats, or 4/4.
Xipi has more metrical patterns than Erhuang in traditional Xiqu (See the
illustration below)47.
Beat and Expressive

Medium tempo,
2/4 starts on the
Male role, one upbeat and ends
downbeat and on downbeat;
Basic form for
one upbeat, or 4/4 starts on
various roles
2/4. middle upbeat
and metrical
and ends on
Original Beat patterns,
Female role, downbeat. Style
hence called
one downbeat is bouncing
“basic metrical
and three and dynamic,
pattern.”
upbeats, or suitable for
4/4. storytelling
and expressing
Main metrical emotions.
pattern
Introductory When tempo is
(that can
beat category One downbeat slow, melody
form a song
and three is more
independently) Original Beat
upbeats, or expressive and
is expanded
Slow tempo 4/4, divided embellished,
and made more
into slow, more distant
complicated.
medium, and from spoken
fast 4/4 metre language, and
more melodic.
One downbeat
Original Beat
and two
is expanded
upbeats, or
and made more
Slow tempo 3/4, divided (same as above)
complicated;
into slow and
only used in
fast Erban
modern plays.
(two-upbeat).
Illustration 4-14. Metrical patterns of Xipi
47 Cited from Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995.
Four
Major Xiqu 349
Beat and Expressive

Two-six Beat
is a flexible
metrical pattern
frequently
Original Beat
used. Slow and
is simplified;
medium Two-six
Xiaosheng
Beats is suitable
(young male
for telling stories
Slow Two- role) tune
and expressing
six Beat and belongs to the
emotions; fast
medium Two- category of
Two-six Beat
six Beat; it is Dan (female
is for creating
Two-six Beat one downbeat role) tune,
a dramatic
(Erliu) and one but it usually
atmosphere.
upbeat, or 2/4; follows Sheng
Slow Two-six
Fast Two-six tune in the
Beat is divided
Beat, notated Two-six Beat;
into three sub-
as 1/4. vocal melody
phrases; medium
in high range,
Introductory and fast Two-
hence vigorous,
beat category six Beats are
energetic and
divided into two
heroic.
Main metrical sub-phrases,
pattern with no interlude
(that can but a padding
form a song link..
independently) Flowing Phrases are
Downbeats
Water Beat uniform, seven-
only, or 1/4.
(Liushui’ban) character verse
usually has
about six beats;
ten-character Two-six Beat
phrase has about is further
(same as nine beats; simplified.
Fast tempo suitable for
above)
narration and
argument, helps
push drama to a
climax.
Characteristics Even faster
Free Beat, same as those of than the
Scattered Beat
Scattered beat notated as . Erhuang with flowing water
category the same name. beat.
Rolling Beat (same as
(same as above)
(Gunban) above)
Mixed beat Rocking Beat
(same as above)
category (Yaoban)
Illustration 4-14 (continued). Metrical patterns of Xipi

Beat and Expressive

Traditional
Xipi only has
Huilong tune
One downbeat
but not tune
and one
for its ancillary
upbeat, or 4/4
Introductory metrical
Huilong One downbeat (same as above)
beat category patterns; new
and three
Xiqu developed
upbeats, or
it on the basis
2/4.
of Huilong in
Erhuang tune
pattern.
Scattered beat Free rhythm,
Leading Beat (Same as above)
category notated as .
Borrowed from
Ancillary Introductory Yueju Opera, see
metrical Clear Beat
or Scattered Yueju - Clear
patterns (Qingban)
Beat beat on page
(that cannot 372.
form a song
Lyrics often with function
independently)
words or additional phrases;
melodic phrases can be long
Introductory or short. When inserted into
Crying phrase
or Scattered introductory melody or music
(Kutou)
Beat of scattered beat, rhythm will
Other names
conform. Unable to form a song
independently, usually used to
express sadness and lament.
Different from newly composed
Huilong; an additional phrase
with a fixed melodic character;
Introductory
Huilong tune usually used to conclude other
or Scattered
(Huilong’qiang) metrical patterns or ancillary
Beat
tunes, such as Manban, Original
Beat, Two-six Beat and Crying
Phrase (Kutou).
Illustration 4-14 (continued). Metrical patterns of Xipi
(5) Wawa’diao (Kid’s Tune) and Reverse Xipi Tune Pattern

Xipi Tune Pattern System also includes Wawa’diao (Kid’s Tune). Its phrase
structure and finals are similar to those of the Manban (Slow Beat) of Xipi male’s
tune. Suona shawm is usually played as accompaniment and melodies are in high
register, so the effect is sonorous or brilliant. It can be used for aged male, young male
and Dan female roles.
Reverse Xipi Tune Pattern is not well developed; it only has Sanban (Scattered
Beat), Yaoban (Rocking Beat) and Two-six Beat. Reverse Xipi is different from that of
Four
Major Xiqu 351
Erhuang in nature, as the former involves no modulation. The accompanying Jinghu

is tuned to la-mi in both forms of Xipi, but Reverse Xipi is about a fourth lower than
Original Xipi; first of paired phrases of the former ends on do, while the second phrase
on sol. Reverse Xipi sung by female is higher than the melody in original form, hence
it can have great expressive power for impetuous emotions, and in this respect similar
to Reverse Erhuang.
(6) Siping Tune Pattern (Siping’diao, Smooth Melody)
The style of Siping Tune has traces of both Erhuang and Xipi, so it is frequently
used for music of Jingju fiddle. The strings of the accompanying Jinghu fiddle, as in
Erhuang, are tuned to sol and re; its interludes are also similar to those of Erhuang,
but its ending pitches are same as Xipi, with first of paired phrases ending on re, while
the second phrase, which begins with an upbeat, ends on do. Siping melodies often
incorporate Shanban (Scattered Beat) and syncopations, and big leaps akin to Xipi. It
has only two metrical patterns, Yuanban (Basic Metrical Pattern) and Manban (Slow
Beat).
The lyrics of Siping Tune Pattern are structurally complicated, and there are at least
two categories. The first is consistent with Xipi and Erhuang, with verses comprising
seven-character and ten-character antithetical phrases in pairs. The second is very free,
with no restrictions on the number of characters in each verse, nor how verses are
organized, such as the proportion of “question and answer” phrases, or even whether
phrasing of melody and lyrics should coincide. Hence Siping Tune Pattern has all the
freedom of Qupai (Labelled Piece).
(7) Nan Bangzi (Southern Clapper Tune Pattern)
Southern Clapper Tune Pattern has reserved and winding melodies, hence ideal
for expressing gentle emotions. Its melodies are mainly sung by roles in falsetto,
especially minor female character Huadan (colourful girl), but seldom used for
Zhengdan (principal female role) and Xiaosheng (young male role).
Southern Clapper Tune Pattern, like Xipi, is sung according to the tuning of Jinghu
strings la and mi. The ending notes of its paired phrases are the same as those of
female Xipi melodies, with the first ending on la and second on sol; the details of their
endings are different, with two phrases of the former as la-sol-la and la-sol-sol, while
the latter as sol (or re)-la (or mi)-la and sol (or re)-la (or mi)-sol.
The most distinguished feature of Southern Clapper Tune Pattern is the front part
of the third sub-phrase (last section) of each verse ends on la. In other words, the later
part of the same sub-phrase (last two words) starts on the upbeat also on la.
Southern Clapper Tune Pattern only has a few metrical variations, including
Yuanban (Basic Metrical Pattern, 2/4), Fast Original Beat (2/4) and Daoban (Leading
Phrase). The last starts with an introductory beat and ends on Scattered Beat (Sanban),
similar to Second Leading Beats (Er Daoban) of Bangzi Melodic Type; the sub-
phrases end with the pattern sol-do- do (higher octave).
(8) Gaobozi (High Plucked Tune Pattern)
Gaobozi, also referred to as Bozi, originated from Huiju (Anhui Opera). Its main
instrument is the Bozi Huqin, a fiddle with a large sound box and unique timbre, hence
the name of the melodies. The distinct feature of Gaobozi is the division of each verse
into two sub-phrases; hence there are fewer pauses than other melodies. The strings of
the accompanying Bozi Huqin are tuned to do-sol, and the songs are sung in the usual
paired phrases, with each sub-phrase beginning on a down beat. The first of the paired
phrases ends on sol (sometimes on do, re, mi or la), while the second on do (higher
octave), or sometimes on sol, re or do.
Gaobozi has developed many metrical patterns, including Daoban (Leading
Phrase), Huilong (Returning), Yuanban (Basic Metrical Pattern), Sanban (Scattered
Beat) and Yaoban (Rocking Beat). It melody is very vigorous, featuring the higher
octave do, including interludes; the music tends to reiterate the previous sung melodic
fragments in one form or another.
(9) Chuiqiang (Blowing Melody)
Chuiqiang is so named because its main accompanying instrument is the Dizi
flute. There are different views on its origin, but many associate it with Kunqiang
(Kun Melodic Type), owing to their similarities in melodic style, and the inclusion
of Changduan’ju (poetry set to music with strict language tonal patterns and rhyme
schemes, with fixed number of lines and words). Chuiqiang distinguishes itself from
Kun melodies as it contains interludes between phrases, while the latter involves
singing a complete song without such breathing spaces. Lyrics for Chuiqiang do not
have a strict structure, but most verses comprise either seven or ten characters, and are
organized in pairs. Its melodies are derived from changes in metre, which only include
one strong beat and three weak beats 4/4, one strong beat and one weak beat 2/4, and
Sanban (Scattered Beat); the first phrase usually ends on re, while the second on do.
(10) Other Musical Elements in Beijing Opera
Beijing Opera has inherited some elegant features of Kunqu, especially in the
incorporation of different folk melodies, which consititute the section of Qupai
(Labelled Pieces) melodies, adding variety to the principal Banqiang (Metre Change)
melodies of Xipi and Erhuang.
The instrumental ensemble of Beijing opera plays a vital role in accompanying
singers, but it also performs interludes in a play to create an atmosphere for drawing
attention to the stage. These instrumental Qupai (Labelled Pieeces) appear in large
numbers, including over a hundred melodies for Big Suona shawm, a few dozens for
Haidi (small Suona), Dizi flute and Huqin fiddle. In short, these are indispensable
elements of Beijing Opera music.
4. Key Beijing Opera Play for Appreciation and Analysis
Kongcheng’ji (Empty Fort Strategy) is an excerpt from the Beijing Opera classic
Romances of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi). The famous line of Laosheng song
“I watch mountain views on the gate tower” reflects the demeanor of Zhuge Liang as
a strategist. It is sung by performers of all Beijing Opera Schools, who use the same
metrical structure, but with slight differences on melodic decorations. Tan Fuying’s
version is discussed here.
Tan Fuying is the grandson of Tan Xinpei, the founder of Tan School of Beijing
Opera. He came top among students of Fu Class at Gao Liancheng Beijing Opera
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Regional Xiqu 353
Training School, and has acquired the essences of Tan and Yu Schools of Beijing
Opera to create the New Tan School. His voice is clear, high and powerful, hence
possesses the natural qualities to narrate and sing in a full and vigorous style.
While singing or speaking, he has a habit of forcefully raising the pitch to achieve a
vigorous, straightforward, decisive and agile tone. His low register is delivered with
power and agility, but without raucity.
This song features the Two-six Beat (Erliu’ban, one downbeat and one upbeat,
or 2/4) with no interludes, but with some added padding characters. However, this
particular Two-six Beat is faster, and akin to slow Flowing Water Beat (Liushui). To
reflect the eloquence of Zhuge Liang, Tan Fuying sings gracefully and smoothly; he
uses a heavy portamento on the word “ambush (Mai)” in the verse, “there is neither
ambush nor soldiers.48” The key word “ambush (Maifu)” is sung with a sense of
humour, successfully portraying the great composure of the protagonist when he was
under the threat of a great army of his enemies.
III. Introduction to Selected Emerging Regional Xiqu Genres

As a composite Chinese traditional art form, Xiqu has given an impression that
it will become a “museum” piece, yet in the past four decades, many new opera
genres have emerged, while older genres continue to attract a large audience. This
trend of artistic development is a testimony of how enhanced communication has
led to a healthy cultural mix, including changes made to existing genres (what an
ethnomusicologist calls acculturation). Most of these new Xiqu genres are based on
Banqiang (Metre Change) melodies with application of other compositional skills to
achieve the desired dramatic effects.
A. Northern Xiqu Genre: Pingju
In the past century, dozens of Xiqu genres have emerged in North China, and these
include Quju (Beijing Narrative Opera), Jiju (Jilin Opera), Xincheng’xi (Xincheng
Opera, Manchus people in Jilin), Huanglong’xi (Huanglong Opera), Longjiang’xi
(Longjiang Opera, Heilongjiang), Longju (Long Opera, Gansu), Manhan’ju (Manhan
Opera, Inner Mongolia) and Tangju (Tangshan Opera, Hebei). Among these, the
fastest growing genre is Pingju.
1. An Overview of Pingju
With a history of about a century, Pingju is relatively new among over 300
Chinese Xiqu genres. However, since its inception, it has been attracting a large
audience, owing to its combination of popular art forms and regional culture. Its
short history allows the genre to absorb elements of operatic performance from other
regional genres. It is amazing that it has transformed so quickly from an original small
dramatic genre to one of the few popular operatic genres nationally.
Pingju’s emergence owes much to its affiliation with folk music in different
regions, such as Luanxian, Qian’an, Yutian, Sanhe and Baodi (now part of Tianjin) in
eastern Hebei Province. It owes much to the folk narrative genre Lianhua’lao (The
48 又无埋伏又无兵
Lotus Flower Tune) and folk song and dance genre Bengbeng (Jumping) in Hebei
Province. Pingju was originally called Bengbeng’xi (Jumping Opera), Laozi’xi (Lotus
Tune Opera) or Pingqiang Bangzi’xi (Clapper Opera with Ping Melodic Tune, or
Pingxi for short). It came into being around 1910 and was officially named Pingju in
1935 when Bai Yushuang and others brought the plays to Shanghai.
Early Bengbeng’xi were performed by small troupes led by Jin Juhua and Cheng
Zhaocai in rural areas of eastern Hebei. Around 1910, some Bengbeng’xi troupes
performed in Tangshan, and Cheng Zhaocai and others introduced many changes to
the genre. Based on the original Bengbeng, Bengbeng’xi has absorbed a large quantity
of folk music materials from eastern Hebei, while the mode of singing Lianhua’lao
(The Lotus Flower Tune) in duet was changed to assigning roles to different
characters. This would, of course, involve singing as a character like an opera, rather
than as a narrator in Narrative Singing. Its accompaniment too has adopted the
ensemble of Hebei Bangzi, and the genre was named Pingqiang Bangzi’xi (Clapper
Opera with Ping Melodic Tune). This early stage was known as Lianhua’lao Period,
and the most famous performer was Jin Juhua.
There have been stories concerning Jin Juhua leaving his troupe after becoming
famous; his former colleague Cheng Zhaocai had to train the young actor Ren
Shanfeng (stage name Yue Mingzhu) as a replacement. This was the period between the
Revolution of 1911 to the May Fourth Movement, when Pingju artists were influenced
by new ideas and art forms. Cheng Zhaocai was the first Pingju playwright, and it was
fashionable to work on opera in contemporary costumes. The result was Yang Sanjie
Files a Lawsuit (Yang Sanjie Gaozhuang) completed in 1919 based on a true story,
and this was known as Tangshan Laozi (Lotus Tune of Tangshan) period (male Dan
period), owing to male actors impersonating females. Apart from Cheng Zhaocai, other
actors of the period included Yue Mingzhu, Jin Kaifang, Ni Junsheng and Kaihua’pao
(Opening Fire Crackers). Other famous plays of Pingju include Kaidian (Running a
Store), An’an Songmi (An’an Delivering Rice) and Du Shiniang (Lady Du Shiniang).
Around 1923, Pingju was brought to northeast China, where it was influenced
by regional singing techniques, and well known for its high-pitched, vigorous,
unrestrained, straightforward and somewhat sad style called Dakou Laozi (Big Gate
Lotus Tune, or Fengtian Luozi (Fengtian Lotus Tune; Fengtian is currently Shenyang).
This was when Pingju allowed females on stage; this first generation of actresses
included Hua Lianfang, Li Jinshun, Fu Ronghua, Xiao Guihua, Liu Cuixia, Bai
Yushuang and Xi Cailian. Among them, Li Jinshun had the highest achievement, and
she caused a sensation in Harbin in 1928 with the modern costume play Aiguo’jiao
(A Female Patriot). Li Jinshun, Bai Yushuang, Liu Cuixia and Xiao Guihua were
honoured as the “Four Most Famous Dan Actresses” of Pingju. This was referred to
as the Fengtian Luozi period.
In 1934, Bai Yushuang was invited to Shanghai to join hands with Beijing Opera
actor Zhao Ruquan in the play Pan Jinlian by Ouyang Yuqian. Bai developed the
singing tune of Dakou Laozi (Big Gate Lotus Tune) by lowering the singing register,
at the same time changing the rhythmic patterns and style of setting lyrics to music.
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In the process, she had created a low and winding style known as Xiaokou Laozi
(Small Gate Lotus Tune), leading to the establishment of Bai School of Singing.
Hailed as “Queen of Pingju,” her performance was enthusiastically received by
audiences in Shanghai and other southern provinces. Her artistry was transmitted to
her adopted daughter Junior Bai Yushuang; other famous performers of Pingju of the
period such as Xi Cailian, Xin Fengxia and Han Shaoyun had contributed much to the
development and dissemination of the genre.
After 1949, Qin Xianglian (Lday Qin Xianglian), Liu Qiaoer (The Girl Liu
Qiaoer), Huawei’mei (Flower as a Match-maker) and other Pingju plays by artists
such as Junior Bai Yushuang and Xin Fengxia achieved a breakthrough, making the
genre popular across the country. At the same time, the composer Ma Ke and Xiqu
musician He Fei collaborated with famous Pingju performers Wei Rongyuan and
others in creating the Jing (painted face, male role) singing tune, a big contribution to
the development of male melodies of the genre. They also worked with Xin Fengxia
and Ma Tai to solve the problem of male and female singing the same song in the
same mode, an issue of different vocal ranges. A seemingly unimpressive genre in
northern rural area has developed into a full blown operatic genre, spreading from the
north and northeast to central south, northwest, southwest and the whole country.
2. Characteristics of Pingju’s Lyrics
Pingju was born in Hebei, so its lyrics and spoken parts are in Mandarin, and
it uses thirteen rhymes adopted by northern folk arts and other Xiqu genres. The
difference is Pingju’s root of the lively and witty Bengbeng and Lianhua’luo has led to
development of the roles of Chou (clown) and Caidan (colourful female); playfulness
remains the core characteristic of the genre. Therefore, among the thirteen rhymes,
Pingju makes frequent and clever use of “small Yan/Qianr” and “small Ren/Chenr”
(retroflex final). The focus is on lyrics and spoken parts with retroflex final, such as
Xiao’bushanr (Small Cotton Robe), Jiegu’yanr (Just in Time), Xingli’juanr (Cotton-
padded Quilt Roll), Dahong’huar (Big Red Flower), Sahuanr (Gambol), Xinkanr
(Heart), Kaoshan’genr (Foot of a Hill), Xin’nongcunr (New Village), Buda’benr
(Fluent) and Buzhan’nir (No Stain). This has greatly enriched the expressive power of
the language of Pingju’s Chou clown role, making the drama witty and humorous.
It is even more noteworthy that the use of retroflex final in Pingju is not limited to
humorous lines of Chou role and other roles or small rhymes. In the genre, Zhengdan
(principal female role) performers excel at exploiting the character “er.” They do not
treat it as a fleeting “small rhyme” but always as an independent syllable, so that the
character “er” is clearly pronounced (See Example 4-20).
Example 4-20. The character “er” is clearly pronounced in Pingju Opera49
49 Example 4-20 is taken from Xu Wenhua: Selected Songs of Pingju Opera Singer: Xin Fengxia. Beijing:
Theater Publishing House of China, 1985, p23.

Silkworm becomes cocoon (er), it twists itself.
Xin Fengxia sings the character “er” very beautifully, and often produces a string
of lumpy tones called Gadayin by the Pingju performers (See Example 4-21):
Example 4-21. Gadayin of Pingju50

The wind blows the snow flakes.
3. Pingju Opera Music

(1) Main Tune Pattern System
a. Zhengdiao Tune Pattern (Zhengdiao’qiang, Principal Tune Pattern)
This is the basis of the melodies of Pingju opera, and it is a form based on metrical
change (same as Banqiang music in other Xiqu genres), founded on a series of paired
phrases. Its main instrument Banhu (Two-String Fiddle with wooden soundboard) is
tuned to sol and re. The first of the paired phrases usually ends on re (sometimes on
mi, la, sol or si) while the second phrase on do. Each verse of the lyrics comprises
seven or ten characters, and is divided into three sub-phrases, 3+3+4 or 2+2+3, as in
the following example:
In Chinese (ten characters): 我怎忍吐真情倾诉悲思。

Romanization: wǒ zěn rěn tǔ zhēn qíng qīng sù bēi sī.
Translation: I cannot control myself not to tell the true feeling and express my
sadness.
In Chinese (seven characters): 月光之下立婵娟。

Romanization: yuè guāng zhī xià lì chán juān.
Translation: Love is declared under the Moon light.
Rhythmically, the singing melody starts on an upbeat (“black” beat) and ends on
a downbeat (“red” beat) for each of the paired phrases, as shown in the following
example of one strong and three weak beats, or 4/4 metre:
Illustration 4-15. Rhythmic Patterns of Zhengdiao in Pingju Opera
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Example 4-22. Madam Xianglin (Xianglin’sao)51

The winter is about to disappear, and New Year is arriving,
My master and madam are very happy.
b. Fandiao Tune Pattern (Fandiao’qiang, Modulated Tune Pattern)

This tune is derived from Zhengdiao melodies, and they share the same ending
notes of the paired phrases, with the first of the pair ending on re, and the second on
do. However, Fandiao has a different melodic contour and rhythmic characteristics.
The most common rhythmic patterns are as follows:
Illustration 4-16. Rhythmic patterns of Fandiao in Pingju Opera
Fandiao Tune Pattern is a fourth lower than Zhengdiao Tune Pattern, and the
strings of its main accompanying instrument Banhu is tuned to do-sol. Fandiao Tune
Pattern and its counterpart Zhengdiao Tune Pattern have different pitches for tonic (no
confusion on instrumentalists who read music scores with movable do). The melodies
of Fandiao Tune Pattern are frequently used for expressing fluctuating emotions,
perhaps owing to adoption of decorative notes such as fa and si.
c. Yuediao Tune Pattern (Yuediao’qiang)
If not specified, Yuediao Tune Pattern should be sung by male; otherwise the
characters “female voice” should be stated.
Yuediao Tune Pattern is pitched as the dominant of Zhengdiao Tune Pattern, with
strings of its accompanying Banhu fiddle tuned to sol-re. The melodies of Yuediao
Tune Pattern and Zhengdiao Tune Pattern are basically the same, but their registers
are different. For example, in Zhengdiao Tune Pattern, do=@B, while in Yuediao
Tune Pattern, do=F; the range of Yuediao Tune Pattern is lower than Zhengdiao Tune
Pattern by a fourth, so that male performers need not strain their voices when they are
in the same key with females, hence male roles such as Jing (painted face, male role)
and Laosheng (aged male role) can put their middle and low registers to good use in
Pingju. Therefore, Xiqu professionals consider the emergence of Yuediao Tune Pattern
a milestone in the development of Pingju melodies.
Female Yuediao Tune Pattern emerged after the discovery of its male counterpart,
meaning that it is another step forward for the development of this melodic pattern.
These Yuediao Tune Patterns are different in register and range.
Illustration 4-17. The voice ranges of Yuediao of Pingju Opera52
Key of male and female Yuediao Tune Patterns is the same, but their melodies are
different.
d. Fan’yuediao Tune Pattern (Reversed Yuediao Tune Pattern)
This tune pattern is derived from Yuediao Tune Pattern by lowering the tunings
of the strings of the accompanying Banhu fiddle by a perfect fourth. If Yuediao Tune
Pattern is do = F, then Fanyuediao Tune Pattern is do = C, with Banhu tuned to do-sol.
Fanyuediao Tune Pattern is sung by male, and its melodies are evolved from female
reversed tunes (See Example 4-23).
Example 4-23. Fanyue’diao Tune Pattern used in Pingju Opera53
(to be
continued)
52 Illustration 4-17 is taken from He Wei (ed.): Introduction to Pingju Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music
Publishing House, 1991, p193.
53 Ibid., p200.
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Example 4-23 (continued). Fanyue’diao Tune Pattern used in Pingju Opera

Seeing the tomb, I can recall my loving mother’s face,
I cry for my mother because I can never see you again.
My father died early, and I am so grateful that you have brought me up,
As if you have modelled on Mencius’ mother.
I hate that traitor Huang Long who started a rebellion,
I have to go join the army for my uncle;
I’m at the frontline.
e. Fanzi’diao Tune Pattern (Fanzi’diao)

This tune pattern is in the sub-dominant of Zhengdiao Tune Pattern. Fan in
Gongche notation refers to fa in Solfege, and is a fifth below the key note do. Another
example is when Zhengdiao Tune Patter is in G, Fanzi’diao Tune Pattern is in C.
Fanzi’diao Tune Pattern is accompanied by Banhu with strings tuned to sol-re.
Fanzi’diao Tune Pattern is a result of “Jiezi (Note Borrowing),” a kind of
modulation in traditional Chinese music. From Zhengqiang Tune Pattern to Fanzi’diao
Tune Pattern, the method is called Danjie (Single Borrowing, a method of modulation
used in the Suona music of northeast China, in which the third degree in the scale
is replaced by the fourth). The neumonic is “replacing Gong, first degree, with Fan
(Qugong Tianfan), fourth degree” or “raised Jue (third) degree as Gong (fundamental
pitch, Qingjue Weigong).”
In addition to the aforementioned melodies of Tune Patterns of Zhengdiao,
Fandiao, Yuediao, Fan’yuediao and Fanzi’diao, Pingju music often includes some
additional melodies, such as Yingdiao Tune Pattern (Shadow Puppetry Tune), Laba
Paizi (Trumpet Labelled Piece) Tune Pattern and new Labelled Pieces.
For example, Laba Paizi Tune Pattern is used in the popular song “A Model
Couple Getting Married and Starting a Family and Career (Zhengyidui Mofanfuqi
Liyechengjia)” in the play Liu Qiaoer (The Girl Liu Qiaoer) .
a. Two-six Beat
It is not known how the name Two-six Beat (Erliu’ban) of Pingju came about;
Pingju melodies under this category actually have four beats (or four measures in each
of the paired phrases). The term “Two-six” is presumably borrowed from melodies
in the north, as it refers to Banqiang melodies in Yuanban (Basic Metrical Pattern).
Hence “Two-six” could be used as a generic term for melodies in Yuanban. Each
phrase of “Two-six” Beat in Pingju has the following pattern:
Illustration 4-19. Metrical patterns used in Pingju Opera
b. Pile Metre (Duoban)

Pile Metre is an ancillary metrical pattern for expanding main melodies in
Banqiang music based on metre change, yet in Pingju it is a melodic pattern capable
of forming independent melodies. Its frequent use has led to the formation of different
metrical patterns. The most basic Zhengdiao Pile Metre is as follows:
Illustration 4-18. Metrical patterns used in Zhengdiao Pile Metre (Duoban) of Pingju Opera
The five-character phrase is a type of Pile Metre usually inserted between seven-
character and ten-character phrases. Its emergence has changed the structure of four
sub-phrases in each of the paired phrases to two sub-phrases each. (See Example 4-24)
Example 4-24. Two paired phrases of five-character phrase used in Pingju Opera54

If you are an Emperor, you don’t like your ministers;
54 Example 4-24 is taken from Zhang Yin, et al: Full Collection of Pingju Opera Music (Pingju Yinyue
Daquan). Chunfeng Arts and Literature Publishing House, 1986.
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If you are a minister, you don’t like your people.
Loushang’lou (Floor over Floor) is a type of Pile Metre featuring long phrases,
commonly known as “Big-Tail Phrases (Da Weiba’ju),” and each of the paired phrases
rhyme (alluring to name of the melody).
c. Mizi (or Meizi)
Mizi is also known as Kumi’zi (Crying Tune), a special term which indicates
metrical pattern developed from Swinging Tunes (Shuaiqiang) of Bangzi, Erhuang and
other melodies, hence it is also known as Big Swinging Tune (Da Shuaiqiang). Like
other metrical patterns, it is linked to Banqiang melody based on metrical change. The
metrical patterns of Manban (Slow Beat) and Mizi are contrasted as follows:
Illustration 4-20. Metrical patterns of Manban and Mizi of Pingju Opera
In order to introduce Mizi, the rhythm of the third measure must be changed, and
the last four characters need to be expanded to three measures.
Mizi melodies can be used to express women’s grief, sadness, indignation and
imploration. (See Illustration 4-21 on Pages 362-366 for other metrical patterns of
Pingju)
B. Southern Xiqu Genres: Yueju
There are also many new Xiqu genres in south China, including Danju (Popular in
Danyang, Jiangsu) , Hangju (Hangzhou Opera, Zhejiang), Haimen Shange’ju (Opera
of Haimen Mountain Songs, Jiangsu), Huangmei’xi (Anhui Opera), Huaiju (Huaian
Opera, Jiangsu), Yongju (Ningbo Nongju Opera, Zhejiang) and Huju (Huzhou Opera,
Zhejiang). Yueju is the most typical of Southern Opera genres, and its plays are full of
feminine beauty.
1. An Overview of Yueju
Yueju was born in Shengxian County of Shaoxing prefecture, Zhejiang Province, a
region formerly the territory of the State of Yue, hence the name of this operatic genre.
In the early days, Yueju was known as Didu’ban (owing to the use of Dugu drum
and Tanban clapper as accompaniment) or Xiaoge’ban (Little Singing Group). Like
many folk operas, performers switched between farming and acting, hence working
according to the agricultural calendar, especially when the types of operas had not
entered big cities like Beijing or Shanghai. Xiaoge’ban for Yueju was no exception;
their repertoire was Luodi Changshu Diao (Off Staged Narrative Melody), or Yin’e
Diao (Reciting) that had developed from Luodi Changshu (Off Staged Narrative
Singing), a folk narrativve art in Sheng County. The small troupes gave touring
Basic
362
Name of Metrical Starting and Functions and

Category of Metrical Pattern Phrase Notes
Pattern Ending Beats Characteristics
Length
Singing starts on Also known as “Original Two-six Beat
Mainly for narration;
One upbeat second half of (Yuanban Erliu),” a basic form of Pingju
Four rhythm changes with
metrical Two-six (Erliu) downbeat (upbeat) singing tune; Usually an interlude before
beats language tones; music
pattern (2/4) and ends on the phrase and padding character(s)
is highly dynamic.
downbeat. between phrases.
Mainly used for
narration; tempo
differences; melody of
Slow, medium and Singing starts on Four or slow pattern is smooth
Main metrical fast three-upbeat first upbeat and three and steady; medium
patterns (can Three- metrical patterns ends on downbeat. beats pattern is rugged and
form an aria downbeat unrestrained; fast
independently) metrical pattern imitates real-
pattern (4/4) life.
Expressive, delicate, Developed in 1960s; structure borrowed
Singing starts on Seven from slow tempo of Xipi; tonality retains
Big slow tempo melodious, with long
middle upbeat and beats or
(Da Manban) interludes and inserted characteristics of Pingju; tempo is about
ends on downbeat. more
tunes. =34.
Pile Metre Important singing Medium piIe metre = 120, slow pile
Slow, medium and

(Duoban tune of Pingju; will be metre = 80-100, fast piIe metre = 150-
fast pile metres
2/4) further elaborated. 160; main difference is speed.
Illustration 4-21. Metrical patterns of Pingju55
55 Cited from Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House, 1995, pp332-333.
Basic
Length
seven-
character
phrase For narration; also
Singing starts on
Flowing has seven full of passion; Medium flowing water beat = 150, slow
Slow, medium and the second half
Water Beat beats; colloquial melody; flowing water beat = 100, fast flowing
fast flowing water of downbeat (or
(Liushui’ban ten- vivid language; can water beat = 260-270; main difference is
beat on downbeat) and
1/4) character express broad range of speed.
ends on downbeat.
phrase emotions.
has about
ten beats,
Introduction
seven-
Introduction to
character
Main metrical
phrase
patterns (can Singing starts on
Flowing has seven Smooth melody; Developed in 1960s from traditional
form an aria Flowing water the second half
Water Beat beats; suited for expressing
to Selected
independently) andante (Liushui of downbeat (or flowing water beat; Medium tempo =
(Liushui’ban ten- emotions than other
Xingban) on downbeat) and 120.
1/4) character flowing water beats.
ends on downbeat.
phrase
Selected Emerging
has about
ten beats,
To express wide
Emerging Regional
range of emotions Another scattered beat, like fast

Singing starts and Unfixed and meanings; flowing water beat; also known as “fast
Scattered
Regional Xiqu
Scattered Beat ends on scattered phrase style can be simple, instrumental music and slow singing (Jinda
Beat
beats length straightforward Manchang);” Similar to rocking beat in
or passionate and Jingju.
Xiqu Genres
vigorous.
Illustration 4-21 (continued). Metrical patterns of Pingju

363
Basic
364

Length
Singing starts
Unfixed Melody sonorous; for Similar to sharp beat of Bangzi tune and
Sharp Beat on scattered beat
phrase expressing indignant guiding beat of Pihuang; tonality retains
(Jianban) in the first “up”
length emotions characteristics of Pingju.
phrase.
“up” phrases adopt “up” and “down”
Sharp Beat scattered beat; Unfixed phrases form a Borrowed from the guiding beat Huilong
Huilong (Jianban “down” phrases phrase dramatic contrast of Jingju; tonality retains characteristics of
Starting beat Huilong) adopt Two-six Beat length between scattered beat Pingju.
category plus swinging tune. and introductory beat.
Big and small
Unfixed Borrowed from the upside down “two
Leading Beat guide beats;
phrase First phrase of a song beats” of Bangzi tune; tonality retains
(Daoban) singing starts and
length characteristics of Pingju.
Ancillary metrical ends on downbeat.
patterns (cannot Singing starts on Unfixed
form a song Dry Starting Beat Singing starts without accompaniment;
scattered beat in phrase First phrase of a song
independently) (Ganqi’ban) instruments join in at end of phrase.
first “up” phrase. length
Not metrical patterns but ending for
five main metrical patterns; other than
“pausing phrases of pausing beat (Dunban
Temporary ending for: Dunzhuju),” they have independent

(1) another singer; (2) melody frames, basic phrase length and
Singing starts on
Ending beat Resting Beat Six Beats performer to speak, ending beats; for example, locking beat
upbeat and ends on
category (Liuban) (Liuban) act, and narrate; for subordinate to slow tempo, Two-six Beat,
downbeat.
both “up” and “down” and pile metre mostly adopts six-beat
phrases. structure and ends with “2”; patting beat
subordinate to slow tempo, pile metre,
and Two-six Beat mostly adopts four-beat
structure and ends with “6.”
Basic
Length
Tune of “down” phrase
temporarily ends;
Deducted Singing starts after instrumental
Four or
Beat (Kouban, after downbeat (on accompaniment, the
eight
or Dunban , upbeat) and ends vocal part continues;
beats
squatting beat) on downbeat. singing resumes after
Not metrical patterns but ending for
speaking, acting and
five main metrical patterns; other than
narration.
“pausing phrases of pausing beat (Dunban
For sudden “pause” Dunzhuju),” they have independent
in the “down” phrase; melody frames, basic phrase length and
Pausing Beat Pausing phrase of
Introduction
speaking is followed ending beats; for example, locking beat

(Dunban) pausing beat.
Introduction to
by other metrical subordinate to slow tempo, Two-six Beat,

Ancillary metrical patterns till the end. and pile metre mostly adopts six-beat
patterns (cannot Ending beat To end the “down” structure and ends with “2”; patting beat
to Selected
form a song category Pausing Beat Ending phrase of Four phrase; can be referred subordinate to slow tempo, pile metre,
independently) (Dunban) pausing beat beats to as a complete and Two-six Beat mostly adopts four-beat
ending. structure and ends with “6.”
Singing starts
Selected Emerging
on upbeat (on To end “down” phrase

Locking Beat
second half of the Six beats of a long song; also a
(Suoban)
downbeat) and complete ending.
Emerging Regional
ends on downbeat.
Swing-
Regional Xiqu
ing tune End-

(Shuai- Very distinctive in Pingju singing; will be
ing
further elaborated in next section.
Xiqu Genres
qiang) beat
Mizi
365

Basic
366

Length
For eternal parting,
Unfixed cries of anguish; not
Crying Beat Borrowed from Hebei Bangzi; tonality
Scattered singing phrase part of main lyrics;
(Kuban) retains characteristics of Pingju.
length phrase is inserted
material.
Also borrowed from Hebei Bangzi;
Crying Phrase Scattered singing Unfixed Also used at eternal
original four sub-phrases separated by one
one, two, three comprising four phrase parting, crying,
strike, two strikes, and three strikes of the
(Kutou1, 2, 3) sub-phrases. length lamentation.
big gong, hence the name.
Very distinctive ancillary metrical pattern
Lapping Tune
in Pingju; will be further elaborated in the
(Dadiao)
next section.
Ancillary metrical Names
patterns (that of other Start or end the metrical
cannot form a song metrical Attached Beat Scattered singing Unfixed pattern; for expressing
independently) patterns (Daiban) or one downbeat phrase grievances and sadness;
(Substitutive beat) and one upbeat, 2/4 length lyrics and music
phrases are ancillary.
Transition between
metrical patterns
when multiple
metrical patterns are
Removed Beat “combined” to form a
(Diaoban) suite; for example, one
beat is “removed” from
weak beats of original
metrical pattern so that
tempo doubles.

Introduction
Introduction to
to Selected
Selected Emerging
Regional Xiqu 367
performances in Tonglu, Fuyang, Haining and Hangzhou, and their repertoire included
Maipo’ji (Selling Mother-in-Law), Gutong’ji (Making Buckets), Maiqing’tan (Selling
Charcoal) and other small plays on rural themes. This period is known as Yin’e Diao
Period.
Around 1916, Xiaoge’ban troupes began to perform in Shanghai, often on the
same stage with large Shaoxing’xi troupes, allowing cross fertilization between the
genres. Xiaoge’ban troupes began to use stringed instruments as accompaniment,
at the same time incorporating to their plays Shaoju (Shaoxing Opera) singing
tunes such as Liushui (Flowing Water), Erfan and Three Five Seven (Sanwuqi). In
Shanghai, Xiaoge’ban also had opportunities to refine their art from peers of other
genres, such as Kunju Opera, Beijing Opera, Tanhuang’xi (Tanhuang Opera, genre
using Tanhuang music, a kind of folk tune), Yuyao Yangke’ban (Folk Song Troupe of
Yuyao) and Hangzhou Wulin’ban (Story-Telling Group of Hangzhou). Xiaoge’ban
troupes made tremendous progress on their singing tunes, metrical patterns,
instrumental accompaniment, dances, acting, makeups and other aspects of stage art.
On this basis, they also adapted a number of plays from other operatic genres, such
as Shuangzhu’feng (Double Pearl Phoenixes), Sanxiao Yingyuan (Three Smiles) and
Zhenzhuta (The Pearl Pagoda). In 1921, they began to use the name Shaoxing Wenxi
(Refined Opera of Shaoxing) instead of Xiaoge’ban.
In early days, Shaoxing Wenxi was performed with an all-male cast, and famous
performers included Wei Meiduo and Ma Chaoshui. This is the so-called “Male Wenxi
Period”.
In 1923, the famous Shaoxing Wenxi (Refined Opera of Shaoxing) actor Jin
Rongshui trained the first group of female performers, and their performances caused
a sensation. The result was a new fashion for all-female casts for the genre; they
were so popular that their performing venues changed from small tea houses to large
theatres. Male troupes went out of fashion, and their actors had to take minor roles on
stage (especially playing old men). Famous performers of this period included Yao
Shuijuan, Ma Zhanghua and Xiao Dangui, the last being popular in Shanghai.
In 1938, Shaoxing Wenxi (Refined Opera of Shaoxing) was renamed Yueju.
In the early 1940s, a group of Yueju pioneers including the famous artist Yuan
Xuefen took drastic measures to reform the genre: Chediao Tune was invented on the
basis of Sigong Tune; percussion instruments were almost eliminated while Western
instruments were added; archaic elements of Kunqu was adopted, establishing a quiet,
exquisite and gentle singing style; original Shengxian county or Shaoxing city dialects
were changed to Zhejiang Mandarin; traditional three-side stage was converted to
a “mirror-frame” stage; Western theatrical elements were incorporated, including
lighting, scenery, stage effects and background music, and the establishment of
scriptwriter and director system.
They managed to extend the repertoire of Yueju by adapting traditional plays such
as Pipa’ji (The Story of Pipa), Biyu’zan (The Emerald Hairpin) and Liang Shanbo
and Zhu Yingtai (Butterfly Lovers), at the same time working on patriotic operas
such as Huamulan Congjun (Hua Mulan Joining the Army), Wanli Changcheng (The
Great Wall), Qiliang Liaogong’yue (The Moon Shines over the Forlorn Liao Palace)
and Guopo Shanhe’zai (Nation Shattered but Hills and Rivers Remain) in the social
context of the Sino-Japanese War. In 1946, they even converted Lu Xun’s short story
Zhufu (Blessing) into the Yueju play Xianglin’sao (Madam Xianglin).
In 1947, ten famous Yueju actresses - namely Yuan Xuefen, Yin Guifang, Zhu
Shuizhao, Xiao Dangui, Fan Ruijuan, Xu Yulan, Fu Quanxiang, Zhang Guifeng, Xu
Tianhong and Wu Xiaolou - collectively put on a charity performance of Shanhe’lian
(Love of Motherland).
Since the 1940s, Yueju has developed into some Schools, a sign of maturity for the
genre. The most prestigious Huadan role includes Yuan School (Yuan Xuefen), Fu
School (Fu Quanxiang) and Qi School (Qi Yaxian); the most influential Xiaosheng
role includes Fan School (Fan Ruijuan), Xu School (Xu Yulan) and Yin School (Yin
Guifang).
In the 1950s, Yueju began to experiment with mixed casts as well as incorporating
more contemporary elements to its plays.
The twentieth century saw Yueju developed from a minor local art form to a full
blown operatic genre in the 1940s. Since then, Yueju troupes are formed in over
twenty provinces, a development considered miraculous by many. In the process of
its growth, artists were conscientious of Yueju’s unique local characteristics, yet much
attention has given to fulfillment of new aesthetic needs. These are reasons for its
success.
2. Characteristics of Lyrics of Yueju
As a genre based on Qupai music involving metrical changes Yueju has to comply
with certain conventions of other forms of Chinese opera. As a southern genre,
Yueju is distinctive in its pronunciation, and its language on stage has the following
characteristics:
(1) Phonetic System
There are 21 initials and 35 vowels in Mandarin, while the language on the Yueju
stage has 28 initials and 41 vowels listed as follows:
Labial consonant:
Examples: Bo Pu Bo Mu Wu Wu
Lingual consonant:
Examples: De Tuo Duo Na Le

Laryngeal
consonant:
Examples: Ge Ke Ga E Hei He
Illustration 4-22. 28 Initials notated in Yue dialect56
56 Illustration 4-22 and 4-23 are taken from Zhou Dafeng: Introduction to Yue Opera Music. Beijing: People’s
Introduction
Introduction to
to Selected
Selected Emerging
Regional Xiqu 369
Glottal consonant:
Examples: Ji Qi Ni Ji Xi Yi
Dental consonant:
Examples: Zhi Ci Chi Si Shi
Illustration 4-22 (continued). 28 Initials notated in Yue dialect

The difference between Yue dialect and Mandarin is that the former has voiced
initials, which are marked with . The timbres of Yue dialect are much richer than
those of Mandarin as shown in Illustration 4-23 below:
Open-mouth Even-teeth Close-mouth Pursed-mouth
La-Zhua rhyme a ia ua
La-Ta rhyme
Pan-lan rhyme an uun
Yang-chang rhyme ang iang uang
Bo-luo rhyme o
Liu-tuo rhyme ô io
Tong-zhong rhyme iung uong
Yao-xiao rhyme ao iao
Tang-huang rhyme ong uong
Yi-xi rhyme i
Tian-xian rhyme ian
Lai-cai rhyme e iê ue
Tie-xi rhyme ie
Lin-qing rhyme eng ing uang
Le-Shi rhyme ê iê uê yo
Liu-qiu rhyme ou iou
Tuan-yuan rhyme uan üon yon
Wu-hu rhyme u
Yu-xu rhyme y
Illustration 4-23. 41 Vowels, including “r”, but not appeared in the table, notated in Yue
dialect
(2) Tones
Mandarin only has four tones–flat, rising, falling-rising and falling tones–while
Yue dialect has eight tones (some suggest that it has seven tones, because rising tone is
similar to Yang falling tone). The main difference between Yue dialect and Mandarin
is the entering tone (Rusheng’zi), which does not exist in the northern dialect but is
commonly used in Yue dialect, so in setting words to music one needs to consider this
factor. Therefore, Yueju circles have worked out the following rules (The entering-
tone characters are marked with “•”):
(i) When entering-tone characters are

used on beat, the setting is simple and
syllabic. For example:
(ii) When an entering-tone character goes
before a flat-tone character, the two will
be combined. For example:
(iii) When a flat-tone character goes
before an entering-tone character, the
latter should be shorter. For example:
(iv) When one entering-tone character
is followed by another entering-tone
character, there should be a pause
between the two. For example:
Illustration 4-24. The relationship between the Chinese characters with entering tone and
melody treatments57
3. Yueju Music
Yueju music is based on Banqiang metrical change, and the melodies are winding
and gentle, reflecting the music culture in south of the Yangtze River. The following is
an introduction to its main melodies, metrical patterns and singing characteristics:
(1) Main Melodies
a. Nanqiang’diao (Southern Melodies)
Also known as Old Tune (Laodiao), Nanqiang is the earliest Tune of Yueju, and it
is derived from Luodi’shu (Off Staged Narrative Singing). The music of Luodishu is
called Yin’e Diao (Reciting), which was popular in Nanxiang Township of Shengxian
County, hence it was also known as Yin’e Nanxiang’diao (Southern Reciting Style
Tune) or Nandiao (Southern Tune). It features seven-character phrases in pairs, with
each phrase comprising two or three measures.
Example 4-25. Nanqiang’diao (Southern Melodies) used in Yueju Opera58
English translation of the lyrics (all are numbers):

One two three four five six seven; two two three four five six seven.
Three two three four five six seven; four two three four five six seven.
57 Illustration 4-24 is taken from Zhou Dafeng: Introduction to Yue Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music
Publishing House, 1995, p38.
58 Music example 4-25 is taken from Jiang Jing: Chinese Opera Music. Beijing: People’s Music Publishing
House, 1995, p288.
Introduction
Introduction to
to Selected
Selected Emerging
Regional Xiqu 371
b. Beiqiang’diao (Northern Melodies)

Beiqiang was developed from Yin’e Diao (Reciting) popular in Beixiang Township
of Shengxian County, hence it is called Yin’e Beixiang’diao (Northern Reciting Style
Tune), or Beidiao (Northern Tune) in short. In the operatic reform around 1920, Wei
Meiduo and others were influenced by Erfan Tune of Shaoju (Shaoxing Opera) and
began using Banhu fiddle as the main accompanying instrument, contradictory to the
gentle music style of Yueju. They then turned to the less piercing Pinghu fiddle (now
known as Yuehu), with strings tuned to do-sol. Since Beiqiang was the main source of
music in the heydays of male troupes, it is also known as Zhengdiao Tune. Its metrical
patterns include seven-character Qingban (Clear Metre), Leading Beat (Daoban) and
Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4).
c. Sigong’qiang (Sigong Tune, the tune with la and mi as main degrees)
This tune is a product of the era of all-female troupes. It was created by Shi Yinhua
and the accompanist Wang Chunrong on the basis of Zhengdiao Tune (or Beidiao
Tune) by referring the tuning of Jinghu’s strings to la-mi and interludes of Beijing
Opera’s Xipi Tune (In Chinese Gongche notation, Si is the sixth degree la of a scale,
and Gong the third degree mi). Sigong Tune soon became the main music source for
female troupes. Its lyrics developed from seven-character phrases (two, two, three) to
ten-character phrases (three, three, four), with the first of paired phrases ending on la,
and the second on sol. Its metrical patterns include Zhongban (Middle Beat), Kuaiban
(Fast Beat, or 1/4), Manban (Slow Beat) and Xiaoban Beat (Off downbeat) (See
Example 4-22).
Example 4-26. Sigong’qiang used in Yueju Opera59
59 Example 4-26 is taken from Lian Bo: Selected Songs of Yueju Opera Singer: Fan Ruijuan. Beijing: Theater
Publishing House of China, 1983.

Liang Shanbo arrives at the Zhujia estate, and raises his head to look around,
Here is Zhujia estate, it looks very rich.
There are statues of Azure Dragon on the left and White Tiger on the right,
Yin and Yang are well balanced;
The decorations in the front are Vermilion Bird and Black Tortoise,
With hundreds of birds singing.
d. Chediao’qiang (Chediao Tune)

This tune was developed by Yuan Xuefen and others in the early 1940s on the basis
of Sigong’qiang (Sigong Tune). Since the main accompanying instrument Yuehu fiddle
was tuned to sol-re, the music was originally called Heche Tune (He indicates the fifth
degree sol of a scale, and Che the second degree re), and later renamed Chediao’qiang
(Chediao Tune). Chediao Tune is steady and mainly progressing stepwise, in sol
mode, with first of the paired phrases ending on re (or la) and the second phrase on do
(or low sol). It has more metrical patterns than Sigong Tune; Lianban (Consecutive
Beat) and Duoju (Padding Notes) are frequently used.
e. Xianxia’qiang (Xianxia Tune)
This tune was created by Fan Ruijuan in 1945 with the help of the accompanist
Zhou Baocai on the basis of the Reversed Erhuang Tune of Beijing opera, hence they
share the same expressive characteristics. The strings of accompanying Yuehu are
tuned to do-sol, and the music has complete metrical patterns, pitched a fourth below
Chediao (if Chediao Tune is do = G, Xianxia Tune is do = D, or tonic-dominant
relationship in Western music theory).
(2) Metrical Patterns of Yueju
Most metrical patterns of Yueju are similar to those of other Xiqu genres based on
metrical change forms:
a. Zhongban (Middle Beat)
Zhongban or Original Beat can be divided into Zhongban (Middle Beat), Slow
Zhongban (Slow Middle Metre) and Fast Zhongban (Fast Middle Beat). If notated in
2/4, the melody starts and ends on a downbeat; if notated as 4/4, it sometimes starts
and ends on downbeat, but may also end on the middle of a measure. A phrase usually
comprises two measures (seldom divided into sub-phrases), and phrase lengths can
vary. Big Swinging Tune (Da Shuaiqiang) is seldom used at the end of phrases.
b. Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4)
The Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4) of Yueju is notated as 2/4, and it is a short form of
Zhongban (Middle Beat).
c. Xiaoban (Off Downbeat)
Xiaoban is similar to Yaoban (Rocking Beat) in Beijing Opera, but melodic phrase
begins on the second half of downbeat.
d. Lianban (Consecutive Beat)
Lianban (Consecutive Beat) is a type of Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4), and it is
usually notated without bar-lines. Music setting involves juxtaposing a crotchet or
Introduction
Introduction to
to Selected
Selected Emerging
Regional Xiqu 373
quaver to a character, and Lianban is usually used with Xiaoban in alternation.

e. Qingban (Clear Metre)
Qingban is not exactly a metrical pattern but it refers to a style of singing without
accompaniment.
f. Metrical patterns of Yueju
Metrical patterns of Yueju such as Manban (Slow Beat) and Sanban (Scattered
Beat) are the same as those in other operatic genres based on metrical change.
(3) Characteristics of Runqiang (Vocal Embellishment) in Yueju
While graceful melodies provide the basis for the gentleness of Yueju, the art of
Runqiang (vocal embellishment) allows singers to build up their unique styles of
singing.
There are over twenty ways of embellishing melodies in Yueju, and each has a
special term. Further discussion of these performing methods will be outside the scope
of this book.
CHAPTER V
INSTRUMENTAL
MUSIC
SECTION 1 OVERVIEW
I. Definition of Instrumental Music and the Concept of Yuezhong (Music

Genre)
Instrumental music in China refers to pieces presented by performers who apply
craftsmanship and skills to exploit the properties of musical instruments in order to
portray a specific emotion or sentiment.
The origin of the term Yuezhong (musical genre) can be traced back to “Historical
Connections of Wind-and-Percussion Music”, Part Seven of the “General
Introduction” in the book Wind-and-Percussion Music in South Jiangsu Province
(Sunan Chuidayue), jointly written by Yang Yinliu and Cao Anhe. These pioneer
ethnomusicologists in China argued that “by the end of Ming and beginning of Qing
Dynasties, about the mid-seventeenth century, such kind of instrumental music had
features preserved until the present. The musical form is widely popular among the
grassroots, and evolved into a Yuezhong in folk music.1” Apart from the reference
to the term Yuezhong in Sunan Chuidayue, there has been no further elaboration of
the term. It was first precisely defined in Minzu Yinyue Gailun (Overview of Chinese
Traditional Music), which states that “assortments of different musical instruments
coupled with various types of pieces and performing styles produce a diverse range
of instrumental Yuezhong.2” None of the descriptions in other scholarly writings have
ever extended beyond this definitional boundary, but rather, more elaborations have
been made on the categorization of musical genres. Gao Houyong states in his Minzu
Qiyue Gailun that “given the diverse opinions on the classification of Yuezhong, a
classification system by types of musical instruments and their characteristics of
configuration is desirable.3” In her Minzu Qiyue (National Instrumental Music), Yuan
Jingfan puts forward a rather narrow approach to the classification of musical genres,
as she only applies it to music of the Han people: “in order to explicate the term
further, I divide folk ensemble music, indigenous to Han people, into five categories
based on the composition of ensemble, and performing characteristics of musical
genres in different regions.4”
1 Yang Yinliu and Cao Anhe. “Introduction” in Sunan Chuida’yue (Wind-and-Percussion Music in South
Jiangsu Province). Beijing: People’s Publishing House, first edition. 1957, p43.
2 Music Research Institute at the Central Conservatory of Music. Minzu Yinyue Gailun (Overview of Chinese
Traditional Music). Beijing: Music Publishing House, first edition, 1964, p258.
3 Gao Houyong. “Introduction” in Minzu Qiyue Gailun (Overview of Folk Instrumental Music). Nanjing：
People’s Publishing House of Jiangsu, first edition, 1981, p3.
4 Yuan Jingfang. Minzu Qiyue (National Instrumental Music). Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House first
edition, 1987, p11.
378 CHAPTER V INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC
The above definition still fails to clarify the structural characteristics of Yuezhong
in an exhaustive manner, despite an allusion to some important forms. The definition
of musical genres is therefore still far from adequate.
Based on years of practical experience and research on Chinese traditional music,
while considering the description of Yuezhong by other scholars, Yuan explains
in depth the meaning of Yuezhong in her article “The Idea of Yuezhong Studies”
(Yuezhongxue Gouxiang)5.
“Yuezhong (musical genre) can be defined as an encompassing range of
comprehensive artistic or folk music forms characterized by particular occasions
(court, Buddhist or Taoist Temples), a rigorous organizational system, typical musical
framework, standardized performance procedure and performance broadly classified
as music (instrumental music, vocal music, and recitation) that have existed from
past to present in a particular region (or venues, such as royal palace, temple, or
monastery). The ‘rigorous organizational system’ refers exclusively to names of
Yuezhong and the fixed manner of performance. The ‘typical musical framework’
refers to a rigorous composition of ensemble, defining the principal musical
instruments of a particular Yuezhong; a rigid modal system with a characteristic scale
sequence; a fixed music form; and performing techniques applicable to the Yuezhong.
‘Standardized performance procedures’ refer to performances that align with social
functions, such as procedures in rituals or dances, fixed formations, routes, costumes
and dance movements. Yuezhong has a diverse range of ramifications, chiefly
relating to different forms of pure instrumental music, comprehensive music, and
comprehensive art. Other composite art forms, including stage performing, formative
and language arts supplemented by music are beyond the scope of the definition.”
The definition of music Yuezhong in publications after 1989 does not extend the
definitional boundary mentioned above6.
Traditional Chinese instrumental music mainly comprises solo and ensemble
music grouped according to the style of performance. This chapter will focus on solo
music for wind, bowed-strings and plucked-strings, with an emphasis on famous
pieces, especially those with a long tradition and belonging to major musical genres
that have been well-developed since the mid-twentieth century. Ensemble music will
be discussed by selecting some examples under the categories of string ensembles
(Xiansuo’yue), silk-and-bamboo ensembles (Sizhu’yue), wind-and-drum ensembles
(Guchui’yue), wind-and-percussion ensembles (Chuida’yue), and pure percussion
ensembles (Daji’yue), highlighting representative regional styles, in which the concept
of Yuezhong is aptly applied.
5 “The Idea of Yuezhong Studies” (Yuezhongxue Gouxiang). In Music Research. No. 4, 1988, p17.
6 Oriental Music Society (written by Li Minxiong). Series of Chinese Traditional Music,
“Instrumental Volume” (Zhongguo Minzu Yinyue Daxi: Minzu Qiyuejuan). Shanghai: Music
Publishing House, first edition, 1989, p15.
Historical Evolution of Instrumental Music 379
II. Historical Evolution of Instrumental Music

Chinese instrumental music emerged alongside the existence of music instruments.
Dating back to pre-historical era, Chinese ancestors were able to invent a diverse
range of music instruments, such as Gu (drums), Qing (sonorous stones), Zhong (bells),
Zhu (psalter), Yu (wooden tiger with 27 indentions on back), Yue (kind of flute), Xun
(clay flute), He (small mouth-organ) and Yan (wind instrument). In the West Zhou
Dynasty (11 BC), there were over 70 types of musical instruments in written sources;
Shijing (Book of Songs) refers to 29 instruments, which were divided into eight
categories according to materials they made, and known as Bayin (Eight Sources of
Sound). These include Jin (metal), Shi (stone), Tu (earth), Ge (skin), Si (silk), Mu
(wood), Pao (gourd) and Zhu (bamboo). This is the earliest in the history of China
that musical instruments were classified in this manner.
Early instrumental music was performed in conjunction with recitation of poems,
songs, and dances, mainly in form of accompaniment. According to written sources
dating back to West Zhou Dynasty, independent instrumental music was sparingly
incorporated into large-scale singing and dancing repertoire. There is also proof that
instrumental music was performed independently, as outlined in “Yanli” (Dining
Ceremony) in West Zhou Dynasty:
Gongge (Vocal): Luming, Simu, Huanghuang Zhehua, three songs sung. 7

Shengzou (Sheng, mouth organ solo): Nanhai, Baihua, Huasu, three mouth-
organ pieces.8
Jiange (Alternated songs): Yuli, Sheng mouth-organ: Yougeng.9
Jiange (Alternated songs): Nanyou Jiayu, Sheng mouth-organ: Chongqiu. 10
Jiange (Alternated songs): Nanshan Youtai, Sheng mouth-organ: Youyi. 11
Xiangyue (Folk songs): Zhounan, Guansui, Getan, Juaner, Zhaonan, Quechao,
Caifan, Caiping, a total of six songs are performed by the guests attending the
ceremony.12
Music for the above ceremony involves vocal pieces, to be followed by three
pieces played by Sheng (mouth-organ). According to the Section of “Ninth Year of
Chenggong” in Zuozhuan (Historic Records by Master Zuo)13, in the year of 582BC,
The King of Jin State visited military camp, he found Zhong Yi, who was a prisoner
captured from Chu State for two years. Zhong could play Qin zither with the melodies
7 Luming, Simu, Huanghuang Zhehua: 鹿鸣 , 四牡 , 皇皇者华。

8 Nanhai, Baihua, Huasu: 南陔 , 白华 , 华黍。
9 Yuli and Yougeng: 鱼丽 , 由庚。
10 Nanyou Jiayu and Chongqiu: 南有嘉鱼 , 崇丘。
11 Nanshan Youtai and Youyi: 南山有台 , 由仪。
12 Zhounan, Guansui, Geqtan, Juaner, Zhaonan, Quechao, Caifan, Caiping: 周南 , 关睢 , 葛覃 , 卷耳 , 召南 ,
鹊巢 , 采繁 , 采苹。
13 Zuo Qiuming. Zuozhuan (Historic Records by Master Zuo). In Chunqiu Zuozhuan Jijie (Historic Records
by Master Zuo and Explanations), Second Volume. Republished by People’s Publishing House of Shanghai
1977, p702.
of Southern style, and indication that Qin music was already very popular then.
In pre-historical societies, the emergence and development of instrumental music
was closely associated with myths and legends, superstitious rituals and worships, folk
dances, and physical activities. As the society progressed, instrumental music had a
more important role to play for entertaining the rulers, in addition to its incorporation
in religious or state rituals.
Ever since its inception, ethnic instrumental music has undergone an extended
period of development. Each historical period has its unique characteristic style
of performance. Known instrumental genres in the early Qin Dynasty include the
following:
A. Bell-and-Drum Music (Zhonggu’yue) and Guqin Music
1. Bell-and-Drum Music
Bell-and-Drum Music (Zhonggu’yue) refers to performances involving a large
instrumental ensemble comprising bell-chimes (Bianzhong), stone-chimes (Bianqing)
and the double framed drum Jiangu. It emerged in the Western Zhou Dynasty and
subsequently gained tremendous popularity in the periods of Spring and Autumn/
Warring States. Instrumental making then is believed to have reached a summit, with
fine craftsmanship and grandeur, as well as the sheer number made, as recorded in the
Chapter Chiyue in Lyushi Chunqiu14, highlighting the fact that “the Kings of Xia and
Shang Dynasties indulged themselves in music of such grandeur. The beautiful sound
of large drums, Zhong bells, Qing sonorous stones, pipe and Xiao flute was perceived
as irresistibly impressive. The ensemble was large and consisted of diverse instruments
to provide an impressive visual effect, while emiting a great variety of tone-colour
that we have never heard before; it is beyond human imagination that the music could
develop to this level.15” Instruments of the Bell-and-Drum ensemble unearthed at
the Tomb of Marquis Yi from the Period of Warring States in Sui County of Hubei
Province in 1978 were an indication of such sophistication in instrument-making.
Any discussion on early instruments will be incomplete without more detailed
reference to the instruments unearthed at the Tomb of the Marquis Yi, who lived
in Zeng State (near present Zaoyang and Sui areas of Hubei Province) during the
Period of the Warring States. It is believed that there were live burials of a number of
concubines and ritual paraphernalia accompanying the dead, including 124 musical
instruments of the finest quality. These include: 2 Qin zithers, 12 Se zithers; 5 Sheng
organs, 2 Chi flutes, 2 Paixiao panpipes and 1 Jiangu drum (standing drum), handled
drum (Binggu), small flat drum (Xiao’piangu), and drum with beater on each side;
65 Bianzhong (bell-chimes, including 19 Niuzhong, a kind of small bells, and 45
Yongzhong, bell with a long stick on top), as well as 1 Bozhong (big bell) and 32
Bianqing (stone-chimes). The discovery of these musical instruments is a testimony to
14 Lyushi Chunqiu, is a historical canon edited by the Prime Minister Lyu Buwei of Qin State during the
Warring States Period (c.239 BC). It contains articles from scholars with different thoughts.
15 Ji Liankang (Annotation). Lyushi Chunqiu Yinyue Wenzi Yizhu ( 吕氏春秋音乐文字译注 Annotations of
the Music Text in the Spring and Autumn Period Edited by Master Lyu). Shanghai: Literature and Arts
Publishing House, first edition, 1963, p6.
the presence of a Zhong-gu (Bells and Drums) large ensemble in the period.
Towards the later period of the Western Zhou Dynasty, bell-chimes (Bianzhong)
had evolved from three or five to eight per set. The Marquis Yi of the Period of the
Warring States, while inheriting the music tradition unique to his predecessors, had
consolidated what he gained, at the same time able to extend the horizons. The Tomb
of Marquis Yi has a collection of 65 pieces of Zhong that hanged in three levels.
Researchers have discovered that these bells do not make up one set of bell-chimes
(Bianzhong); but rather, they form a few different sets (opinion is divided among
scholars on the exact number of sets). Most of the bells can produce two pitches, and
the whole set can produce 12 semitones in different octaves. The bells can be played
to produce pentatonic scales, hexagonal scales and diatonic scales. When performing,
a ‘T’-shaped wooden stick is used as a beater. The low-pitch large Yongzhong is
assigned its own beater. The bells have inscriptions of 2800 characters that record the
theory of music temperaments in different regions.
The melodic instruments closely related to bell-chimes Bianzhong, are stone-
chimes Bianqing. There are 41 sonorous stones in a set unearthed in the Tomb of the
Marquis Yi hanged on two levels of a frame. Each stone can produce one pitch.
Jiangu drum is one of the most important instruments in an ensemble. It was
played by a performer who held two drum sticks to control the speed and rhythm,
functioning as conductor. The findings also include some traditional string and wind
instruments, such as Chi flute, Sheng mouth-organ, Se zither and Paixiao panpipes.
It is indeed a rarity in the history of human culture that, over two millennia ago,
Bell-and Drum Music was developed to such a high level, and that an ensemble
comprised such a diversified range of instruments. This set of Bianzhong attests
to the remarkable accomplishment of the technique of casting of bronzeware and
unprecedented level attained in acoustic science.
2. Guqin Music
Qin is a plucked stringed instrument that has a long history. Some of the earliest
documentations of Guqin could be traced back to Shijing (Book of Songs) and
Shangshu (Book of History).16 The following are two poems taken from Shijing (Book
of Songs):
In Chinese:
《诗经·甫田》：琴瑟击鼓，
以御田祖，
以祈甘雨，
以介我稷黍，
以谷我士女。
It can be translated as:
Putian: To play Qin and Se and to beat a drum, 17
16 Shijing (Book of Songs) and Shangshu (Book of History), both are important Confucius canons.
17 Se is a 25-stringed large zither popular in ancient times. It is now obsolete.
to worship the ancestors of land,

to pray for rain,
in order to incite a good harvest,
and to feed my children. 18
In Chinese:
《诗经·关睢》：窈窕淑女，
琴瑟友之。
It can be translated as:
Guansui: Beautiful ladies,
Use Qin and Se to build up courtship. 19
The Guqin, apart from being used in formal occasions in the early Qin Dynasty,
was widely accepted by the literati, and its popularity soared dramatically among
scholars and officials in the following dynasties.
There are different ways of performing the Quqin, including Qinge (Qin
in conjunction with singing) and Qinqu (Qin solo music). The use of Qin as
accompaniment to vocal music can be testified by text in Shangshu (Book of History):
“play Qin and Se in order to sing”.20 In the Zhou Dynasty, Qin and Se were frequently
used to accompany songs. Forty-one songs in Shijing are believed to have used
Qin and Se as accompaniment. The book Qincao (The Playing of Qin) by Cai Yong
(133AD—192AD) of Han dynasty includes a collection of five poetic songs - Luming,
Fachan, Zouyu, Quechao, and Baiju–and these can be regarded as songs sung with
strings, fashionable in the Zhou Dynasty. There are also songs known as Shier’cao
(Songs in Twelve Different Styles), Jiuyin (Nine Introductory Pieces) and Hejian
Zage (Miscellaneous Songs by the River). These songs invariably involve Qin in the
performance.
During Spring and Autumn Period and Period of the Warring States, solo
performance of Guqin had already acquired certain vibrant artistic elements, as
manifested in many popular Chinese legends, such as the friendship between Boya
and Zhong Ziqi21. Renowned Qin pieces in the period included Gaoshan (High
Mountains), Liushui (Flowing Water), Zhichao’fei (The Bird Flying), Yangchun (Early
Spring), Baixue (While Snow) and Shuixian’cao (Song of Narcissus).
18 Maoshi Zhengyi:Zhounan (“Zhounan” in Maoshi Zhengyi, an old literary source). Collected in Shisanjing
Zhushu (Annotations of Thirteen Classes), first photocopied edition. Beijing: China Publishing Bureau,
1980, p 274.
19 See foot notes 18.
20 “play Qin and Se in order to sing”, original Chinese text: “搏拊琴瑟以咏”。
21 According to records, there is a story about the friendship between Boya, a Guqin zither master, and Zhong
Ziqi, his friend who fully appreciated what Boya played. Once Boya played a piece to portray a mountain,
Zhong Ziqi said “it was so good! I could see the Taishan Mountain.” When Boya played a piece to depict
the sea, Zhong Ziqi said “it was gorgeous! I could see the waves of the sea.” Zhong Ziqi knew all what Boya
wanted to express in music. See Liezi·Tangwen (“Section of Questions of Tang” of Liezi). Collected in Sibu
Beiyao (Four Memorandum Copies, “History Section”), volume 29. Photocopy of Wuyingdian Edition.
Shanghai: China Publishing Bureau, 1912, p 7.
B. Instrumental Music from the Qin (BC 221–BC 210) and Han (BC 202–220 AD)
through Jin (265–420) to Southern and Northern (420–589) Dynasties
1. Guchui (Wind-and-Drum) Music
Guchui (Wind-and-Drum) Music is a form of ensemble gradually came into
existence during the Han and Wei Dynasties. It originated in regions inhabited by
ethnic minorities at the end of the Qin Dynasty.
The earliest reference to Guchui (Wind-and-Drum) musical performance can be
traced back to Volume 16 in Collection of Poems from Yuefu-Music Bureau (Yuefu
Shiji) by Guo Maoqian22. It says, “We don’t know when and where Guchui started.
When Banyi23 grazed, this music was already played. The music uses Jia horn and
Xiao flute, not classified as Bayin (eight sources of sounds, or instruments used by
Han Chinese in Central China).24” Guchui music was later transmitted to central
China, and adopted by the Court as military music and played for processions and
banquets, which used percussion and wind instruments. Wind instruments included
Paixiao Panpipe, Hengdi horizontal bamboo flute, Jia horn, Jiao ox horn, Zhongming
(middle length horn), Changming (long horn), and Qiangdi (flute of Qiang people).
Owing to the differences in orchestration and performing context, Guchui music
encompasses four forms: the first, Huangmen Guchui (Wind-and-Drum Played at
the Yellow Gate), is performed for politicians who gather in large feasts; the second,
Qichui (Riding Wind) or music played while riding; the third, Hengchui (Horizontall
Blowing), refers to music played when soldiers rode on horses; the fourth, Duanxiao
Naoge (Songs of Xiao flute and Nao Cymbals) are used for temple ceremonies after
victory in wars.
After the Han Dynasty, Guchui music continued to develop. In the Music Section
of Old Annals of Tang Dynasty, volume 29, it says: “Guchui was originally used in
military; it was played on horse back, thus Beidi (northern barbarians) music was
managed by Guchui’shu (Wind-and-Drum Music Department). This indicates that a
special organization (Guchui’shu) was established during the Tang Dynasty25.
2. Instrumental Music in Xianghe’ge (Songs Accompanied by Instruments)
During the Han and Wei Dynasties, Xianghe’ge was an important genre of
folk music. Its most important feature is the singer plays an instrument called
“Jie (clapper)” or “Jiegu (controlling drum)” while singing, in an ensemble with
other instrumentalists. This is what historic record says, “the performing style of
Xianghe’ge consists of singing accompanied by stringed and wind instruments.26”
22 Guo Maoqian (Song Dynasty). Collection of Poems from Yuefu-Music Bueau (Yuefu Shiji), volume 16.
Photocopied from the edition of Jiguge. Shanghai: Shangwu Publishing House. Chinese Republic period,
p174.
23 Banyi, lived in the Qin dynasty, relocated from the North to the Shanxi, and grazed cattle for life.
24 Bayin, classification of musical instruments according to different materials, namely: metal, stone, earth,
wood, silk, bamboo, gourd and skin.
25 Liu Xun (Five Dynasties Period). “Music Section”, Old Annals of Tang Dynasty. Volume 29. Republished by
Zhonghua Shuju (China Publishing Bureau), first edition 1977, p7.
26 Fang Xuanling et.al, (Tang Dynasty). “Music Section”, Annals of Jin Dynasty. Volume 23. Republished by
Zhonghua Shuju (China Publishing Bureau), first edition 1974, p14.
Early performances of Xianghe’ge consisted of predominantly songs and dances,

with instrumental music marginalized. The genre underwent tremendous changes in
subsequent periods.
First, Xianghe’ge expanded its musical structure to form Xianghe Daqu, a kind of
suite involving instruments, voices and dancers; it has certain fixed elements, such
Yan, Qu (third vowel), and Qu (second vowel) or Luan in its structure. Yan refers to
the overwhelming emotion at the beginning, Qu (third vowel) the singing part, Qu
(second vowel) faster section that follows and Luan–similar to Qu (third vowel)–
rarely used in songs of grand scale.27
Second, independent solo instrumental performance was added. Further
development of Xianghe’ge involves the gradual independence of musical
accompaniment from singing and dancing, forming instrumental music referred to as
Danqu. The repertoire includes Guangling’san (Story of Guangling), Huanglaotan
Feiyin (Master Huang Plucking a Flying Tune), Da Hujia’ming (The Sounding
of Big Hujia Flute), Xiao Hujia’ming (The Sound of Small Hujia Flute), Liuchu
(Flowing Tune of Chu State) and Yaotiao (Beautiful body). In the Southern and
Northern Dynasties, four to eight instrumental pieces were performed before the
main Xianghe’ge performance. The ensemble developed into three forms: Se, Qing,
and Ping, acording to their modes.28 As different instruments were used for music in
these three modes, the respective ensembles had slightly different instrumentations.
The tuning of the first category of Xianghe’ge, “Se” was based on Jue (third degree
as tonic), and seven types of instruments were involved, namely Sheng mouth organ,
bamboo flute, Jie clapper, Qin zither, Se zither, Zheng zither and Pipa lute, as well
as six vocal parts. The second category Qing was based on Shang (second degree as
tonic) mode, and eight types of instruments were used, including Sheng mouth organ,
bamboo flutes with high, medium and low ranges, Chi (reed flute), Jie clapper, Qin
zither, Se zither, Zheng zither and Pipa lute, as well as four vocal parts. There were six
pieces using this ensemble. The third category Ping was based on Gong (first degree
as tonic) mode, and its performance involved seven types of instruments, namely
Sheng mouth-organ, bamboo flute, Zhu (five-string zither), Se zither, Qin zither,
Zheng zither and Pipa lute, as well as six vocal parts. At least seven pieces used such
ensemble.
From Han to Southern and Northern Dynasties, there was rapid development of
instrumental music, owing first to the great interest in music theory, especially in the
complicated calculation involving the generation of pitches, based on the exhaustion
of Sanfen Sunyifa (Triple Progression of Pitches), and second to the development of
new instruments as a result.
C. Instrumental Music in the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) Dynasties
Sui and Tang Dynasties is a period often considered as the summit of feudalism
27 Yan; Qu (third vowel); Qu (second vowel); Luan. Qu (second vowel) and Qu (third vowel), even though
spelt the same in Romanization, these are different in Chinese. The former is written as “趋”, while the latter
is “曲”.
28 Se, Qing and Ping: 瑟 , 清 , 平。
in China. The economy gained momentum while many aspects of culture thrived.
There was a policy of imposing peace in China in order to earn the respect from
the surrounding nations, and in arts, exotic elements were incorporated into arts
considered indigenous Chinese. The variety in the Nine and Ten Types of Music, from
the Sui and Tang Dynasties respectively, are vivid examples of broad assimilation and
integration of music culture.
1. Performing Types
The instrumental music performed in Daqu (Composite Music) of the Sui and
Tang Dynasties includes materials derived from folk songs and labelled pieces with
titles. The music is based on a kind of poetic songs that thrived in the Tang Dynasty,
performed in a grand scale involving instrumentalists, singers and dancers, chiefly
preserving the structural characteristics of Xianghe’ge as described above. Daqu
comprises three elements: instrumental music, songs, and dances. It has three sections:
the first section Sanxu (prelude in free rhythm) is basically instrumental, and the same
tune can be played by different instruments; it is followed by Zhongxu (fast song
and dance), the middle section; Qupo is the final section of the performance, as the
dancing reaches its climax. Instrumental music plays an extremely important role in
accompanying singing and dancing.
During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, music from Western regions enjoyed
tremendous popularity and has exerted a great influence on the cultural development
in Central China. It is documented in Volume 15 of Music Section of the Annals of
Sui Dynasty (Suishu:Yinyuezhi) that there were as many as seven types of music and
associated repertoire from the Western regions and surrounding areas imported to
palace29. Tianzhu’yue, or Tianzhu music (Music from India) uses instruments such
as Fengshou Konghou (phoenix head harp), Pipa (four-string lute), Wuxian (five-
string lute), Di flute, Bei (trumpet shell), brass drum, Maoyuan drum, Dutan drum and
brass cymbals. However, in Volume 29 of Music Section of the Annals of Old Tang
Dynasty (Jiutangshu ·Yinyuezhi), Wuxian (five-string lute) and flute were missing;
instead, Hengdi (horizontal flute), Jie drum were added. Qiuzi’yue, or Qiuzi music
(Music from Qiuzi), another important genre during the Sui and Tang Dynasties,
uses 15 instruments, including Pipa lute, Wuxian (five-string lute), Shu Konghou
(vertical harp), Sheng mouth-organ, Di flute, Bili pipe, Xiao flute, Bei (trumpet shell),
Maoyuan drum, Duyun drum, Jie drum, Dala drum, Yao drum, Jilou drum and brass
cymbals. This instrumentation is recorded differently in Volume 29 Music Section of
the Annals of the Old Tang Dynasty, as Di (bamboo flute) is not used, but in its place
is Hengdi (horizontal flute). Xiliang’yue, or Xiliang music (Music from Xilang) uses
18 instruments, including Pipa lute, Wuxian lute, Shu Konghou harp, Wo Konghou
(horizontal harp), Chouzheng zither, Sheng mouth organ, Hengdi (horizontal flute),
Changdi (long flute), Xiao flute, large Bili pipe, small Bili pipe, Bei (trumpet shell),
Yao drum, Qi drum, Dan drum, brass cymbals, Zhong bells, and Qing stone chimes
29 The instruments used in the seven type of the music recorded in Old Annals of Tang Dynasty, volume 29 by
Liu Xun (Wudai to Jin Dynasty) is different from that of recorded in the Annals of Sui Dynasty.
(The use of Bianzhong, Chouzheng zither, instead of large Bili pipe, is documented
in Volume 29 Music Section of the Annals of Old Tang Dynasty). Gaochang’yue,
or Gaochang music (Music from Gaochang State) uses the same set of musical
instruments as that for Qiuzi music, as documented in Volume 29 Music Section of the
Annals of the Old Tang Dynasty, and these include Pipa lute, Wuxian lute, horizontal
flute, Bili pipe, Xiao flute, brass horn, Konghou harp, Jie drum, Dala drum, Yao drum
and Jilou drum. Kangguo’yue, or Kangguo music (Music from Kang State) employs
four types of instruments, namely Di flute, Zheng drum, He drum, and brass cymbals
(identical to those documented in Volume 29 Music Section of the Annals of the Old
Tang Dynasty). Anguo’yue, or Anguo music (Music from Anguo State) involves ten
types of instruments including Pipa lute, Wuxian lute, Konghou harp, flute, Bili pipe,
double Bili pipe, Xiao flute, Zheng drum, He drum and brass cymbals (Konghou, Jie
drum, Dala drum, Yao drum, Jilou drum and brass cymble were not documented in
Volume 29 Music Section of the Annals of the Old Tang Dynasty). Shule’yue, or Shule
music (Music from Shule) employs ten types of instruments, including Shu Konghou
(vertical harp), Pipa lute, Wuxian lute, flute, Xiao flute, Bili pipe, Dala drum, Yao
drum, Jie drum and Jilou drum.
Yanyue music refers to music for singing and dancing influenced by Qingyue
music (Han music) and Huyue music (music of ethnic minorities), and it enjoyed
tremendous popularity at Court. The instruments for Yanyue are similar to those used
in Xiliang music. Since Yanyue music uses Pipa lute as the principal instrument for
accompaniment, it is also known as Pipa Music.
Faqu music, originated as a type of Daqu in Tang Dynasty, was graceful, owing
to its simplicity and its relationship to Buddhist activities; instruments included Nao
cymbals (cymbals with wide rim and small centre), Bo cymbals (cymbals with narrow
rim and large concave centre), Zhong bells, Qing stone chimes, Dongxiao flute and
Pipa lute. Faqu music in the ensuing Tang Dynasty includes Yunshao Faqu (Clouds of
Buddhist Music), Nichang Yuyi’qu (Rainbow and Clouds of Buddhist Music), among
many others. Musical instruments for Yunshao Faqu include Yuqing (Jade stones),
Qin zither, Se zither, Zhu zither, Xiao flute, Chi flute, Yue reed flute, Baxi flute, Sheng
mouth-organ and Yu mouth-organ.
Daqu in the Tang Dynasty is a milestone in Chinese music history. It is also a big
step forward in Chinese instrumental music, as its famous repertoire and sophisticated
ensemble were testament to the attainment of some kind of summit in performing arts.
2. Solo Music
In the Tang dynasty, solo instrumental music was also very popular, owing to the
large variety of solo instruments, and also the qualities of the music. The Pipa in
particular played a vital role in the development of the genre, “Tuning the strings with
two or three pitches, and before any melody is played, human emotion has already
been aroused.30” Words from the famous poem Pipa’xing (Song of Pipa Player) by
Bai Juyi–a prominent poet in the Tang dynasty–vividly depict the impressive art of the
30 转轴拨弹三两声，未成曲调先有情。
instrument, highlighting virtuoso techniques and the huge range of affections portrayed.
The original Chinese Pipa in the Qin and Han Dynasties had a straight neck, long
finger board, a round sound box, four strings and twelve frets, held vertically, and
played by fingers (not plectrum, like the instrument in the Tang dynasty). During the
Eastern Jin Dynasty, another type of Pipa was introduced to China through its Western
regions: it had a bent neck, pear-shaped wooden sound box, four strings and four
frets, held horizontally, and played with a plectrum (like Biwa in Japan or the plucked
instrument in Nanyin music of Fujian).
During the Tang Dynasty, Chinese musicians made a great effort to combine two
forms of Pipa. The bent neck and pear-shape was retained, but the plectrum was
abandoned, and fingers were re-introduced to pluck the strings. The instrument was
held vertically, and number of frets was increased to 14. Changes to the structure and
performing technique made the Pipa a foremost solo instrument, in addition to its use
in Daqu (Composite Music).
Yuefu Zalu (Miscellaneous Records from Music Bureau), a valuable historical
source for music, records the story of Kang Kunlun, a Pipa performer, and Duan
Shanben (a monk) praying for rain and enjoying music in Chang’an31. Apart from
these eminent Pipa performers in the Tang Dynasty, other famous figures include He
Huaizhi, Cao Gang, Pei Shenfu, Lei Haiqing, Li Guaner and Zhao Bi. These masters
have developed their unique styles: for example, Cao Gang was outstanding in the
imposing manner of his right hand, while Pei Shenfu was renowned for the fineness
and smoothness of his left hand. Famous Pipa pieces in the Tang Dynasty include
Liuyao, Nichang Yuyi’qu, Liangzhou and Huweizhou.
Music instruments for solo performance in the Tang dynasty also include Jie drum,
Bili pipe and Konghou harp.
3. Emergence of Bowed Instruments
Prior to the Tang Dynasty, there was little sign of any bowed string instrument in
spite of rich varieties of plucked strings, wind and percussion instruments. Yet the
famous Tang poet Meng Haoran’s poem may reveal rudimentary use of bamoo stick
as a bow for a string instrument, “Pulling bamboo stick Jiqin zither to make a sound,
flowers invite guests to come.32” Hence the Jiqin is believed to be the first bowed
string instrument that appeared in the Tang Dynasty. The Japanese literary source
Shijie’chao contains a chapter entitled “Names of Music Instruments (Yueqi Mingwu)”
which refers to “two Xiqin (one with two strings, and one without string), revised in
April, Ninth Year of Tianqing (946).” This means by then Xiqin was known in Japan.
Another source on bowed instrument is Book of Music (Yueshu) written by Chen
31 Duan Anjie (Tang Dynasty). Yuefu Zalu (Miscellanies Records from Music Bureau). Collected in Zhongguo
Gudian Xiqu Lunzhu Jicheng (Anthology of Chinese Operatic Literatures), volume 1. Beijing: China
Operatic Publishing House, first edition, 1959, p50. This source reads, “In the Tang dynasty, Chang’an, the
capital, had a drought. In order to pray for the rain, a music performance was held at Tianmen Street. On the
eastern side of the street, Kang Kunlun, a master of Pipa player, played a piece called Lvyao; then a female
performer played the same piece, but she improvised the mode. She was in fact a Buddhist nun called Duan
Shanben, and she later became Kang Kunlun’s teacher.”
32 引竹嵇琴入，花邀戴客过。
Yang in the Song Dynasty: Chapter 128 reads, “Xiqin was originally from music of
the barbarians, and the instrument was made according to Xiantao hand drum, as the
two instruments had similar shapes. Xi people like playing it; they use a bamboo stick
to rub between two strings. Now we can find this instrument among local people.33”
Chen Yang actually provided a picture of the instrument, which did not have Qianjin (a
string tied on neck of bowed instruments to mark effective lengths), hence unlike the
present Erhu.
The emergence of Xiqin broadened the timbre of string instruments, which had
hitherto been limited to lute-like instruments. Bowed strings had the potential to
emit a tone resembling the human voice, and hence could have superiority over
other instruments. Needless to say these instruments are more portable, and hence
can provide more flexibility for the performers. It is therefore no surprise that the
emergence of Xiqin has been greeted with much enthusiasm.
String instruments that appeared in the Tang Dynasty also included Yazheng zither,
which resembled Zheng zither in shape, but used a bamboo plectrum to play the
string, leading to a new concept of performance.
4. Music Theories
On a par with the high-level development of music performing art in the Tang
dynasty, there was comprehensive and profound development of music theory.
When approached from the basics, music theory has provided a great impetus to the
dissemination, inheritance and development of instrumental music, as in the case of
the idea of the 28 modes of Yanyue music, the subtle use of Fandiao (modulations)
and Yidiao (transpositions).
The theory of 28 modes is one of the most important concepts put forward in the
period. It was applied to Yanyue music, particularly Pipa lute music, and since the
music is played at Court, it had a tremendous influence on other genres, such as folk
music. There are two different interpretations of 28 Modes of Yanyue music: first, Ling
Tingkan, a music scholar in the Qing dynasty, in his book Yanyue Kaoyuan (Research
on the Origin of the Yanyue Music), recognized four cycles of scale as Gong, Shang,
Yu and Jue. Each cycle contains seven modes, making a total of 28 modes; second,
the theory was endorsed by scholars since the Song dynasty, such as Shen Kuo, Cai
Yuanding and Zhang Yan, who believed that Yanyue music had seven cycles, Gong,
Shang, Jue, Zhi, Yu, Biangong and Qingjue, and each cycle has four modes, making
28 modes. Who is right? This is still an unanswered question in the history of Chinese
music. The wide-spread influence of the theory of 28 modes in Yanyue music in
the Sui and Tang Dynasties not only had profound influence on composition and
performance then, it has also affected the development of present folk music. Hence,
it is necessary to further discuss the subject, which probably deserves more research.
Apart from the theory of 28 modes, the theory of 84 modes was put forward by
Wan Baochang, a music scholar at the turn of the Sui dynasty. The theory was based
on 12 semitones, and each can be the fundamental pitch of the first degree (tonic
33 Chen Yang (Song Dynasty). Book of Music (Yueshu). Ch. 128. Guangzhou: Jupo Jingshe Version. 1876, p2.
Gong) of a mode, forming 12 Gong modes. Based on the tonic Gong, a seven-degree
mode can be formed, while each degree can take turn to be a finalis to form a mode.
That is another interpretation of the cycle of modes: 12 tonic Gong x 7 modes, that
is, 12 cycles x 7 modes, amounting to 84 modes. Owing to the structural and acoustic
limitations of instruments, it is impractical to perform the entire spectrum of 84
modes. Hence, the 84-mode theory was not fully implemented in practice.
Fandiao and Yidiao are important accomplishments in the Sui and Tang Dynasties,
and these concepts have been widely put into practice. Fandiao refers to changes of
tonic Gong and mode. In fact, it includes changes of mode and fundamental pitch.
This technique was widely applied in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, an indication of the
high degree of sophistication in performance. Volume 184 of Yueshu (Book of Music)
by Chen Yang of the Song dynasty records, “in the last year of Tang Tianhou34, Jianqi
was incorporated into Huntuo, spawning Fandiao. The piece Jianqi uses tonic Gong
whereas the piece Huntuo uses tonic Jue. This is analogous to an official disrespecting
his superior, and such behaviour should not be condoned.35” This passage is the
earliest testimony of transposition from tonic Gong to tonic Jue between the pieces
Jianqi and Huntuo. There are also many artists famous for performing Fandiao music,
one of whom is Sun Chuxiu, a musician at court. He was adept at playing the flute by
applying Fandiao, which was widely emulated by others.
Yidiao (transposition) was an incredibly popular method of performance, apart
from Fandiao. Yidiao refers to playing the same piece at different pitch levels and
fingering or string techniques, known as Yidiao Zhifa Bianzou (variations through
change of fingering) or Yixian Zhifa Bianzou (variations through change of string).
The variations provide opportunities for performers to display their virtuosity. Apart
from Kang Kunlun and Duan Shanben who used different Xinfan Yudiao (New
Variations on Yu Mode) and Fengxiang’diao (Modes of Maple Fragrance) to play the
piece Lyuyao in a Pipa competition, Ping’banshe (Smooth Banshe Mode) and Gao
Banshe (High Banshe Mode) modes were used by the General Wei Chiqing and the
King of Youzhou Ma Nu on Bili pipe in playing the tune Lebudi.
The Sui and Tang Dynasties represented the summit of traditional instrumental
music, laying a solid foundation for the rise of a wide range of ethnic instrumental
music after the Song Dynasty.
D. Instrumental Music in the Song (960–1279), Liao (916–1125), Jin (1115–1234),
and Yuan (1206–1368) to the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) Dynasties
Following the development of music theories, instrument making and performing
technique entered a new phase after the Song Dynasty. Four aspects are discussed as
follows:
1. Solo Instrumental Music
There were documentations of different schools of of Guqin zither playing as
34 Tang Tianhou refers to the reign of Wui Zetian, (624-705).

35 Chen Yang (Song Dynasty). Yueshu (Book of Music), volume 184. Guangzhou: Jupo Jingshe Version, block-
printed version, 1876, p 4.
early as the Song Dynasty. Guqin music in the Song Dynasty has already developed
into Zhejiang and Jiangsu Schools, which are of distinct performing styles, and
arguably, the contributions of Guo Mian, a renowned Qin master in the Southern Song
Dynasty, and those of his followers, were most significant. The Zhejiang School of
Guqin playing, represented by Guo Mian, has attained an unprecedented high level.
Its put much emphasis on solo performance: fingering techniques are complicated;
the projection of sound needs to take into consideration nuances such as “Wei-subtle,
Miao-exquisite, Yuan-mellow, and Tong-coherent”, collectively termed as Xisheng
(rare sounds).36 The pieces composed by Guo Mian, including Xiaoxiang Shuiyun (Mist
and Clouds over Dongting Lake), Qiuhong (Autumn Geese) and Fancang’lang (Waves
Coming Over) still survive as masterpieces. The Jiangsu School emphasizes the art
of Guqin as an accompaniment, highlighting simplicity and being syllabic (one pitch
for one character), a style known as Duiyin (Paired Pitches). Well-known repertoire
includes Guyuan (Sadness from Antiquity) by Jiang Baishi and Huangying’yin (Yellow
Warbler Reciting) documented in Shilin Guangji (Guide Through Forest of Affairs)
written by Chen Yuanliang in the Southern Song Dynasty.
After the Yuan Dynasty, Pipa music developed rapidly. New pieces appeared, such
as Haiqing Natiane (The Eagle Catching the Swan) and Shimian Maifu (Ambush on
All Sides). Famous Pipa players in this period include Tang Yingzeng, Zhang Xiong
and Li Jinlou. The piece Haiqing Natiane (Eagle Catching the Swan) describes the
scene of a species of eagle (called Haiqing in Chinese) catches a swan. It depicts a
hunting scene in the North China. Shimian Maifu (Ambush on All Sides) describes
the story of the battle between Chu and Han States two millennia ago, focusing on
the final battle between Warlords Xiang Yu of Chu State and Liu Bang of Han State
at Gaixia. These two pieces belong to Wutao (Military Suite). The performer has to
often apply the technique of pulling and pushing strings of the left hand and Saofo
(right index finger playing four strings forward in sequence is Sao, while the thumb
playing four strings backward is Fo). These techniques can produce a very strong
sound. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Pipa music was divided into Southern
and Northern styles. After the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the Southern style had
evolved to several sub-schools, such as Wuxi School (in Jiangsu), Pinghu School (in
Zhejiang), Pudong School (in Shanghai) or Chongming School in Shanghai. Besides
the two pieces mentioned, other famous pieces include Xiyang Xiaogu (Sounds
of Vertical Flute and Drum at Moonlit Night), Yue’ergao (The Moon on Hight),
Hangong Qiuyue (Autumn Moon over the Han Palace), Bawang Xiejia (The Warlord
Taking off His Armour), Pingsha Luoyan (Wild Geese Alighting on a Sandy Beach),
Jiangjun’ling (Order of the General), Yangchun Guqu (Ancient Song of Early Spring)
and Longchuan (Dragon Boat).
36 Wei-subtle, 微; Miao-exquisite, 妙; Yuan-mellow, 圆; and Tong-coherent, 通; Xisheng (rare sounds), 希

声. These are literal translations. The actual meaning of the words will be almost impossible to translate,
as they are subtle expressions of aesthetics unique to the Chinese. The meanings of the words can only be
felt but not fully comprehended in a foreign language. Some of the meaning is still unclear among Chinese
musicologists.
2. Emergence of Ensemble and Religious Music

Since the Song Dynasty, instrumental ensembles in different regions started to
emerge. They can be considered as an integrated system, which has a direct bearing
to the living tradition of Chinese music. Changan (now Xi’an) was the capital in the
Tang Dynasty, and apart from court music, it was also the home for many other genres
of folk music. For example, Guyue (Drum Music) began to appear in Xian, and as
its popularity grew, it became highly developed in the Ming and Qing Dynasties,
and becoming a genre for harvest, temple fairs and villagers gatherings. There was a
diverse range of instrumental ensemble music closely associated with folk activities,
including Xiansuo (Stringed Ensemble) music in North China; Sizhu (Silk-and-
Bamboo Ensemble) music in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and
Yunnan provinces; Guchui (Wind-and-Drum Ensemble) music in Jilin, Liaoning,
Shanxi, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, Anhui, and Xinjiang Provinces; Chuida (Wind-and-
Percussion Ensemble) music in Shaanxi, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian
Provinces.
As folk instrumental ensembles developed, religious music was nurtured. Buddhist
music has survived in ten temples in East and South Beijing; music at Zhihua Temple
(built in 1446) in East Beijing is by far most important. The music is performed by
a wind-and-percussion ensemble, and over a hundred Labelled Pieces and the same
number of percussion pieces have survived. By scrutinizing the names of the Labelled
Pieces, one may postulate that they date back to the Tang, Song, Yuan and Ming
Dynasties, covering a periods of about one millenium. Besides of the Buddhist music
in Beijing, the same genre is performed in Wutai Buddhist Mountain in Shanxi and
Putuo Buddhist Mountain in Zhejiang. The living tradition of Taoist music exists in
Wudang Mountain in Hubei, Longhu Shan Mountain in Jiangxi, Xuanmiao Guan
Taoist Temple in Suzhou and Baiyun Guan Taoist Temple in Beijing.
In short, the present Chinese traditional instrumental music comprises repertoires
for solo instruments, ensembles and religious music.
3. Appearance of More Instruments
Shen Kuo (1031–1095) in his Mengxi Bitan (Written Discussion of Shen Mengxi)
Section “Yuelyu” (Music Principles) records, “Huqin with a horse tail bow is played
on the carriage. The sound is sad as complaining Turk Chieftain Chanyu.37” Shen also
records, “In the Xining Palace, banquet is on. A musician called Xu Yan from Jiaofang
Music House plays Jiqin fiddle. After drinking one cup of wine, a string broke. Since
Xu Yan could not replace the string, he has to resolve to the remaining string to play
the music. Hence the instrument is called ‘one string Jiqin’.38” From the above, we
understand that Xiqin (first bowed instrument appeared in the Tang Dynasty) had
undergone a lot of changes in the Song Dynasty. The bamboo stick used as a bow
had been replaced by a horse-tail bow, and the music from Jiaofang, the Bureau for
37 马尾胡琴随汉车，曲声犹自怨单于。See: Shen Kuo (Song Dynasty). Mengxi Bitan, “Yuelyu Section”.

In Xinjiaozheng Mengxi Bitan (Newly Edited Written Discussion of Shen Mengxi), edited by Hu Daojing.
Beijing: Chinese Publishing House, first version 1957, p60.
38 一弦嵇琴格 See: Shen Kuo. Mengxi Bitan, “Yuelyu Section” in “Supplementary Annotations”. Ibid, p295.
Entertainment, was technically demanding, involving complicated fingering and

bowing.
Over fifty kinds of instruments are dated to this period: these include Huqin fiddle,
Daruan (big round lute), Wuxian Ruan (round lute with five strings), Yueqin (moon
lute), Hulu’qin (gourd instrument), Pohai’qin (lute), Sanxian (three-stringed lute),
Huobusi (lute popular among Chinese minorities), Erxian (two-string fiddle), Sihu
(four stringed fiddle), Jinghu (fiddle for Beijing Opera), Banhu (two-string fiddle with
a wooden soundboard), Danbuler (lute popular among Chinese minorities), Jita’er
(lute popular among Chinese minorities in western region), Lababu (bowed fiddle),
Tiqin (bowed fiddle), Harzake (unidentifed music instrument), Yangqin (dulcimer) and
Yunao (set of gongs).
In the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, Yangqin dulcimer and Suona (shawm) were
transmitted to China from Persia. They were originally popular along the seashore,
and later migrated to Central area; these are Sinicized instruments used in Chinese
instrumental ensembles; the Suona in particular, is an important solo instrument in
many types of folk ensembles, particularly of those comprising wind and percussion
instruments.
4. Music Theories
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was much enthusiasm for research
on music theories, based on scholarship on music aesthetics, acoustic principles
and history. In the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Zaiyu (1536–1610), a music scholar
and mathematician, put forward Xinfa Milyu (New Method of Closely Knitted
Pitches, or Theory of Equal Temperament) based on the computational principle
of using geometric progression as the law of average. He was also the author of
Yuelyu Quanshu (A Comprehensive Book on Musical Temperament, 1584–1606).
In performing art, there is an outstanding treatise from the Ming Dynasty–Xu
Shangying’s Xishan Qinkuang (Artistic Conception of Xishan for the Qin Zither)39–
a masterpiece on the theories of Guqin zither. He outlines 24 aesthetic standards
for performing the instrument, collectively known as “24 Kuang-conceptions”,
including the qualities of He-harmonious, Jing-simple, Qing-quiet, Yuan-remote, Gu-
ancient, Dan-light, Tian-gentle, Yi-relaxed, Ya-refined, Li-pretty, Liang-bright, Cai-
meaningful, Jie-clear, Run-moist, Yuan-smooth, Jian-solid, Hong-broad, Xi-slender,
Liu-skillful, Jian-positive, Qing-weak, Zhong-heavy, Chi-slow and Su-fast. The book
focuses on performing experience, explaining the significance of 24 conceptions in an
elaborate fashion. It is possible to see in Xishan Qinkuang an integration of prominent
Qin zither theories by earlier masters, representing a key stage in the development
of musical aesthetics in China. This book, together with Yueji (Music Records) and
Shengwu Aile’lun (Non-expressiveness of Music) are considered three perspectives on
Chinese music aesthetic theories.
39 Xu Shangying (Ming Dynasty). Dahuange Qinpu (Music Scores for Qin Zither from Dahuange), originally
printed in 1614. Collected in Qinqu Jicheng (Anthology of Qin Zither Music), volume 10. Beijing: China
Publishing Bureau, 1982, pp 310-326.
The Roles of Chinese Instrumental Ensembles in Chinese Traditional Music Culture 393
Thanks to the development of printing technology, there were many music scores
published in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, hence promoting the popularity of the art.
Famous Qin music scores of the period include: Shenqi Mipu (Mysterious and Secret
Musical Scores) by Zhu Quan (1425), Wenhuitang Qinpu (Musical Scores for the Qin
from Wenhuitang) by Hu Wenhuan (1596), Songxianguan Qinpu (Musical Scores for
the Qin from Songxianguan) by Yan Cheng (1614), Dahuange Qinpu (Musical Scores
for the Qin from Dahuange) by Xu Shangying (1673), Chengjiantang Qinpu (Musical
Scores for the Qin from Chengjiantang) by Xu Changyu (1686), Wuzhizhai Qinpu
(Musical Scores for the Qin from Wuzhizhai) by Xu Qi (1722), Ziyuantang Qinpu
(Musical Scores for the Qin from Ziyuantang) by Wu Hong (1802), among a hundred
or so others. Renowned Pipa lute scores of the period include Yisuzi Pipa’pu (Pipa
Score of Yisuzi, 1762), Nanbei Erpai Miben Pipapu Zhenchuan (Secret Pipa Scores
from North and South Schools, 1819), Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqu Pipa Xinpu (New
Edition of the Thirteen Great Pipa Pieces from North and South, 1895), among a
dozen or so others.
III. The Roles of Chinese Instrumental Ensembles in Chinese Traditional

Music Culture
Instrumental music, either solo or ensemble, is part of high strata in Chinese
traditional music culture, and the repertoire has a prominent position within Chinese
traditional music. The research since the 1950s has become more valued as many
researchers take a keen interest in the field.
First, study on the instrumental music will lead to a better understanding of
Chinese traditional music culture. Instrumental music has undergone changes which
are regarded as gradual and quantitative; changes in quality have been subtle. This
is because when a new music phenomenon is introduced, instrumental music can
counter-balance by retaining its original features, or merely make a small change
to accommodate the new circumstances. In other words, instrumental music–
especially instrumental ensembles–can retain historical elements readily. Reference
to instrumental music synchronically will lead to many such cases. Hence an indepth
study of instrumental music will uncover many secret facets of Chinese music history.
Secondly, Chinese instrumental music can illustrate the relationship between
music and its social background. The inception, development and change of the genre
are associated with different art forms, including those performed at Court, religious
ceremonies, secular rituals and entertainments. Hence through instrumental music,
the routines of the state and people can be understood. The wider implication is that it
music has a close connection with social politics, philosophy, religion and economy.
Thirdly, the study of instrumental music can enhance the understanding of the
origin and change of Chinese culture, while deepening theoretical cultural research.
In Chinese history, a migration of the capital will lead to political and cultural
shift. Wars happened in history, abd the direct effect were migration and creation
of new art forms. Instrumental music has a direct relation to religious beliefs of the
ruling class, while it is possible to observe how ethnic people can contribute to the
Centralized power culturally. Hence one particular instrumental ensemble may reflect
the amalgamation of different cultural elements into one through contact. Therefore,
through the study of instrumental music, one would benefit from tracing the source
and course of Chinese traditional music.
Last but not least, studying instrumental music will greatly benefit Chinese
ethnomusicology, owing to the inherent historical and professional characteristics.
It has acquired the best musical essences through transformation hence it is an
aggregation of Chinese music theory and practice. Each instrumental genre can be
seen as a symbol of local culture, and when viewed as a whole, they form a treasure-
house of Chinese traditional music. Investigation of Chinese instrumental music will
help establish the discipline of music research, including organology, morphology,
music theory, documentation research, iconology, melodic and rhythmic analyses. An
array of new materials will lead to profound influence on Chinese music research.
SECTION 2 SOLO AND ENSEMBLE GENRES
AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
I. Types of Solo Music and Their Music Characteristics

At the archaeological sites of Jiahu village, Wuyang Country of Henan Province,
twenty animal bone flutes have been unearthed. According to the carbon 14 dating,
these instruments can be dated back to 7000 - 8000 years ago, and as part of Peiligang
culture in Henan, they can be regarded as legacies of the Neolithic age. Another
example is archaeological discovery is the animal bone whistles unearthed at Hemudu
archaeological sites in Zhejiang, and they can also be traced back to 8000 years ago.
During the long span of history, music instruments in China have built up a large
system. According to some research, there are over five hundred varieties of music
instruments existing among Han and ethnic minorities in China, with varying potential
of producing different timbres and registers. China shoud be very proud of such a rich
cultural heritage, since they are testimonies of vital parts of world music culture. To
classify these instruments is a current issue faced by the Chinese ethnomusicologists.
There are two accepted systems of the classifying instruments. The first is based
on acoustical features and dividing them into five types, akin to organology of
instruments from India, including ideophones, membranphones, chordphones,
earophones and electrophones. The second is according to the manner of performances
into four types, including wind, bowed, plucked and percussion, similar to that of the
Western symphonic orchestra. The second system of classification is more common.
The following section is an introduction of solo Chinese instrumental music based
on wind, bowed and plucked strings; percussion is, however, not commonly used as
solo instruments. Most important instruments, their repertoire and performers will be
introduced.
A. Wind Instruments
1. Di Flute Music
(1) An Overview of Di Flute
Di, written character is 笛 , bamboo flute. There was an ancient system for for
naming bamboo flutes as Xiao (played vertically) and Di (written as 篴 or 笛 ) played
horizontally. The exact distinction between these two instruments Di and Xiao was
made only after the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The present Di was also called
Hengchui (Horizontally Blowing) or Hengdi (Horizontal Flute) in the past.
A vast quantity of ancient documents have recorded that the Di flute emerged
during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. Its history was related to
Zhang Qian, a high-ranking official who returned from his diplomatic mission to the
Western regions (about 119 BC), bringing with him the instrument Di to the capital
Chang’an. Chen Yang (Song Dynasty) records in his book Yueshu (Book of Music),
“Both big horizontal flute and small horizontal flute are made of bamboo, and they are
varieties of Di flute instruments. It is said in Lyushu Yuetu (Temperament and Music
Illustrations): horizontal flute was originally from the barbarians. Zhang Bowang (or
Zhang Qian) went to the Western region, and brought it to the Capital.40” However,
two Di flute-like instruments were found among the excavations of No.3 Tomb of
Mawangdui in Changsha in 197341. This archaeological finding proves that Di flute-
like instruments were already in popular use in South China half a century before
Zhang Qian’s expeditions.
In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, there were numerous documentations on Di flute,
and these are further proofs of the popularity of the instrument. However, there was a
distinction on their lengths, and hence the musical range of the Di flute: Daheng’chui
refers to a long horizontally held wind instrument, while Xiao’hengchui a short
instrument. These terms were used instead of Di. There was a folk performing style
known as “drum-and-Di flute music (Gudi’qu)”, in which both drum and Di flute were
main instruments. Besides, the close association between Di flute and lives of ordinary
people is also documented in many literary sources. For instance, in the poem The
Shepherd Boy in Anlefang (Anlefang Mutong) written by Yang Wanli in Southern
Song Dynasty,42 the shepherd boy is described as playing Di flute while herding cows;
similar scenes are also depicted in Boatman Playing the Flute (Zhouren Chuidi).43 The
verses in the poem read:
In Chinese: Chuanshang Erlang Bunaixian,

Zuinian Hengdi Chuiyunyan.44
English translation: The boy on the boat is bored for doing nothing,
He plays horizontal flute to generate a flow of clouds after
being drunk.
The poetry vividly reflects the kind of inspiration the instrument has on the poet, as
its performance was closely related to daily lives of the people. In the Ming and Qing
Dynasties, Di flute gained further popularity in folk music. It has already become an
instrument for a diverse range of performances, such as Ererentai Paizi’qu (Labelled
Piece for Two-narrator dance-drama Erren’tai), Jiangnan Sizhu (Silk-and-Bamboo
Flute Ensemble of Southern Jiangsu Province), Xi’an Guyue (Wind-and-Percussion
Ensemble of Xi’an), Shifan’gu (Ten Variations of Drum Music), Shifan Luogu
40 Chen Yang (Song Dynasty). Yueshu (Music Book), volume 130. Guangzhou: Jupo Jinghse Version. Block-
print, 1876, p11.
41 The deceased buried in No.3 Han Tomb of Mawangdui in Changsha was the son of the first generation of Li
Cang and the younger brother of the second generation of Li Xi. He died in 168 A.D.
42 The Shepherd Boy in Anlefang, written by Yang Wanli, 杨万里《安乐坊牧童》。
43 Boatman Playing the Flute《舟人吹笛》。
44 Chuanshang Erlang Bunaixian ( 船上儿郎不耐闲 )，Zuinian Hengdi Chuiyunyan ( 醉拈横笛吹云烟 ).
Types of Solo Music and Their Music Characteristics 397
(Ten Variations of Wind-and-Percussion Music), Chaozhou Ditao Luogu (Di Flute-

and-Percussion Music of Chaozhou). In fact, it has started to play an increasingly
important role in drama, singing accompaniment, and in folk instrumental ensemble
music45.
Di flute, usually made of bamboo, has a blowing hole, a membrane hole, two (or
four) venting holes and six finger holes. The membrane hole is often covered by a thin
membrane made of reed, and the left side of the flute body is blocked. It is held and
played horizontally.
Di flute comes in different shapes nationwide, but the mainstream ones are Qudi
flute (Kunqu opera flute) and Bangdi flute. The former is often used in Kunqu opera
as an accompanying instrument, and in ensembles of many types of music in South
China and other regions. Bangdi flute is used in clapper opera as accompaniment, as
well as in ensembles of many different types of music.
The diagram above shows the general features of the Di flute: the Qudi flute is
longer than Bangdi flute, and the former’s body has a larger diameter than the latter;
Bangdi flute is tuned a perfect fourth higher than Qudi flute. The range of the Qudi is
a - b2, whereas the Bangdi d1 - e3.
The tonic pitch of any Di flute is determined by the third finger hole of the
instrument. For example, the pitch produced by stopping the third hole (together with
the first two holes) of Qudi flute is usually d2, and the instrument is known as flute in D;
the range of the instrument is from a1 to b3. When the third finger hole (together with
the first two holes) of Bangdi flute is stopped, it produces the pitch g2, the reason for
naming the instrument flute in G; its range is from d2 to e4.
Theoretically, any finger hole can be a tonic so that a particular scale will be
formed. In practice, according to different local styles and performing techniques,
each flute will be played in three closely related scales. For D-key Qudi flute, if the
pipe pitch is sol, then the key is D; if the pipe pitch is re, the key is G; if the pipe pitch
is do, then the key is A. For G-key Bangdi flute, if the pipe pitch is re, then the key is C;
if the pipe pitch is sol, the key is G; or if the pipe pitch is mi, the key is @B; and if the
pipe pitch is la, then it is the key of F.
In terms of performing techniques, Bangdi often displays Tuyin (staccatos),
Moyin or Huayin (sliding sounds), Huashe’yin (colourful tongue, meaning vibrations
produced by tonguing), Duoyin (Sharp Sliding, or Sharp Staccatos), Liyin (sliding
from high to low ornamentation), and Chanyin (Trills); Qudi can produce Dieyin
45 In Jiuju Congtan (Discussions on Old Dramas) written by Chen Yanheng records, “at the time when Pihuang
melodic type began to be popular in Beijing, two bamboo flutes were used as accompaniment. Later, Huqin
was used instead of bamboo flutes. Today, the mode names such as Zhenggong (authentic mode) and Liuzi
(fifth degree in Chinese Gongche notation) originated from the mode names of bamboo flute.”
Anecdotes of Operas written by Xian Tongjian (1851–1874) records, “Beijing opera is developed from
Kunqu opera. When the music changed to be Pihuang melodies, Huqin fiddle began to be used. In fact,
during the reign of the Emperor Xianfeng (1851–1874), double flutes were used. The bamboo flute has a
very clear tone. If the tone-color is too stiff, the voice and instruments cannot be combined, and, as a result,
the voice and accompaniment will be out of step. This is why people say silk (string) is inferior to bamboo,
and bamboo is inferior to voice.”
(Doubled Pitches), Dayin (Finger Beating Sound, meaning one finger stops a sound
hole, another finger stops and releases another sound hole quickly to produce the
desired effect), Qichanyin (Breath Trills), Lianyin (Mordent) and Fanyin (Harmonics).
For more modern pieces, techniques from both types of flutes are used according to
the mood the music depicts.
(2) Bangdi Flute, Its Music and Master Performers
a. Feng Zicun (1904–1987)
Feng Zicun, a prominent Di flute performer, is a native of Yangyuan in Hebei
Province, and he was a leading performer of Bangdi flute in North China. Features of
his performance include a heavy influence of folk style, characterized by unadorned
coarseness and the ease to communicate. His Bangdi flute pieces are mostly derived
from folk music and regional operatic music in Hebei, Shanxi and Inner Mongolia.
Owing to his long-term involvement in accompanying regional Erren’tai (Two-narrator
Dance-drama), his style of playing has features of extreme liveliness and a close
relation between music and the language of vernacular opera. Hence, his flute pieces
are of strong down-to-earth characteristics, and they express sentiments of the most
direct kind.
He displays performing techniques such as quick, brief, and angular staccatos,
as well as the upwards and downwards appoggiaturas at the end of phrases, rich
extended sliding sounds, exaggerated tongue and fingered trills, carrying much
regional characteristics. Feng spent most of his career mixing with ordinary people,
and managed to gain access to some of the poorest regions in China. His famous
repertoire includes Wu’bangzi (Five Clappers), Xi’xiangfeng (Blissful Encounter),
Fang’fengzheng (Flying a Kate), Gua’hongdeng (Hanging a Red Lantern) and
Huangying Liangchi (A Warbler Flapping Its Wings).
Wu’bangzi (Five Clappers): The piece titled Wu’bangzi (Five Clappers) performed
by Feng Zicun was originally a piece popular in North China. The beautiful melody
is often incorporated into drama music. The piece is transcribed and has been
rearranged, and it displays the unadorned, direct and passionate characteristics of folk
music of the region, as well as the personal style of the performer. The adoption and
application of special techniques of Bang flute has made this genre of music rich in
regional characteristics.
Wu’bangzi has four sections, and is a kind of variation form.
The melody of the piece features a continuous two-degree descending of the
pentatonic scale. Its theme flows steadily and carries a strong emotion. It begins with
a series of varied and colourful appoggiaturas and tongued trills. The slides, staccatos,
and up then down ornaments in the first four bars of the first phrase display the unique
characteristics of Bangdi flute.
The main section of the piece is a kind of patterned variations; the characteristics
of the different sections are displayed progressively according to the degree of
complexity and virtuosity–in the manner recalling Handel’s Harmonious Blacksmith–
testing the extremity of speed, pushing the music to unfold vigorous sentiments.
Example 5-1. Comparison of the melodies of the first four phrases in four variations of Wu’bangzi
to appreciate the performing style of Feng Zicun and folk wind music in general
The first variation changes the character of the melody from rich, fluent and
consistent long phrases with sliding effects by adding accentuating divisive, powerful
staccatos and tongued trills, making it more humorous, attractive and optimistic.
The second variation relies heavily on staccatos, and the rhythm is more vigorous
while the melody more angular.
The third variation incorporates a range of performing techniques from the
previous two variations, especially ornamented staccatos, that is, a basic staccato
pitch decorated by other higher pitches. In the climax, there is a display of the use of
tonguing techniques and fingering trills, adding excitement to the music.
Wu’bangzi (Five Clappers) structurally adopts the most common principles of
variation in folk music. Apart from some common ornamentation techniques found in
variations, there is a deliberate switch of performing skills in order to create a change
in tone-colour. The structure is short and simple, with a strong regional characteristic.
b. Liu Guanyue (1918–1990)
Lin Guanyue, another outstanding Bangdi flute performer in North China, was
brought up in Anguo County of Hebei Province. He was proficient in many kinds of
folk wind instruments. His style of performing the Bangdi flute was influenced by
Laodiao Bangzi (Old Tune for Clapper Opera, popular in Central Hebei Province) in
early days. More recently, the performing characteristics of flute was built upon the
Jizhong Guchui (Wind-and-Drum Music in Central Hebei Province), adopting the
performing characteristics of different branches of flute, and evolving into an individual
performing style. Liu Guanyue’s performance of Bangdi flute is delicate, mellow,
and colourful, and his music is often lively and emotional. In the 1950s, Liu Guanyue
composed a Bangdi flute piece entitled Yinzhong’niao (Birds in Woods). The delightful
piece depicts the heavily grown, luxuriant bushes where birds swing energetically with
colourful feathers. Other pieces by him include Maicai (Selling Vegetables), Jinan
Xiaokaimen (Little Opening Piece in Hebei) and Heping Ge (Doves of Peace).
(3) Qudi Flute, Its Music and Masters in South China
a. Lu Chunling (1921–2018)
Lu Chunling, a native of Shanghai, is one of the most outstanding flute performers
in South Jiangsu. His performing style highlights rich and sweet tone, with an
emphasis on meticulous breath control. When he plays loudly, the tone colour is bright
but not rough; when he plays softly, the music is sweet but not obscure; such kind of
tone control is exceptionally demanding. The most important repertoire played by Lu
includes Xiao’fangniu (A Little Cowherd), Zhegu’fei (Flying Partridges), Huanle’ge
(Song of Happiness) and Zhonghua Liuban (Moderately Ornamented Six Beats).
The Qudi flute piece Zhegu’fei, arranged by Lu Chunling, was inspired by folk
music in Hunan Province. The score was first seen in Zhongguo Yayue’ji (Aggregates
of Chinese Elegant Music) by Yan Gefan in 1926. This type of music used to exist in
many performing styles, such as Silk-and-Bamboo ensemble and Xiao vertical flute
solo music, and it is popular in South Jiangsu. In the 1950s, Lu Chunling and Zhao
Songting arranged these as Qudi flute pieces. The music exploits the soft, mellow and
subdued qualities of the Qudi flute, describing partridges flying in the sky, so as to
portray the desire to pursue a happy life.
Zhegu’fei adopts the principle of the variations by change of metres to expand
the original melody to two sections, with the fast section using sophisticated
ornamentations based on the first slow section. The first five measures are presented in
scattered metre (free rhythm), functioning as an introduction, displaying the flexibility
of “solid” and “soft” finger trills, as well as contrast of strong and weak dynamics,
particularly when playing the last pitch c2 to be followed by c1 an octave lower, duly
demonstrating his gift of innovation in depicting the artistic conception of partridges

flying in the sky.
Example 5-2. The introduction of Qudi flute piece Zhegu’fei (Flying Partridges, arranged by Lu
Chunling)
These five measures are an expansion of the original melody. The first section of
the piece makes full use of the art of metre change to establish a characteristic theme
which contrasts Shang (second degree re) and Zhi (fifth degree sol), as well as Yu (sixth
degree la) and Jue (third degree mi); these are the degrees emphasised. In measure 42,
Biangong (seventh degree si) appears, to facilitate modulation to the dominant.
The second section is a decorated version of the first section, but only a portion
of the orginal melody is used, so as to allow subtle changes. The middle register of
the Qudi produces notes that are firm and thick, while the high register is bright and
piercing. When the music is soft, it generates an atmosphere of melody floating and
round. The changes in timbres, dynamics and techniques (such as finger beating,
double pitches, vibrato and trills) generate an atmosphere typically found in music of
southern style.
b. Another outstanding Qudi flute performer, Zhao Songting (1924–2002)
Zhao Songting was a native of Dongyang in South Zhejiang Province. His art of
performing the Qudi flute is founded on popular operatic music of the region. He
began to learn the music of Kunqu opera and other local dramatic types when he was
in his teens. He later joined a local folk instrumental ensemble, mastering the skills for
performing many instruments, and laid a solid foundation for a career in folk music.
Zhao Songting’s flute art demonstrates features of the elegant and meticulous control
of breath in Kunqu opera music, while capable of delivering coarse, passionate,
agitated and flowing passages. During his long tenure as a folk musician, he had been
engaging in systematic compilation of traditional performing techniques; he also had
the courage to absorb outstanding performing techniques of other wind instruments.
In the 1950s, he made new breakthroughs in his performing skills, and wrote his other
masterpieces such as Sanwuqi (Three, Five, Seven), Zaochen (Morning), Gusu’xing
(Travelling to Gusu) and Zhegu’fei (Flying Partridges).
(4) Other Popular Pieces
Recent outstanding composed Di pieces include Mumin Xinge (New Song of
Shepherd, by Jian Guangyi), Gusu’xing (Travelling to Gusu, by Jiang Xianwei),
Qiuhu Yueye (Moon at Night and Autumn Lake, by Yu Xunfa and Peng Zhengyuan),
Huanghe Biande Gushi (Stories of Banks of Yellow River, by Wang Tiechui),
Shaanbei’hao (North Shaanxi Province is Great, by Gao Ming), Zou’xikou (Going to
West Mountain Pass, by Li Zheng and Wei Jianian), Ashima Xushi’shi (Sweet Heart
Narrative Poetry, by Yi Ke and Yi Jiayi). Famous Di flute players include Yu Xunfa,
Wang Tiechui and Dai Ya.

2. Guan Pipe Music
(1) Introduction to the Instrument
Guan, or Guanzi is kind of double-reed wind instrument, and its predecessor was
the Bili (written in different Chinese characters, such as 荜篥, 悲篥 or 必栗). The Bili
was brought to Central China from the Western region. There were iconographs of Bili
performers in caves dating back to the Northern Period (386–581), including the figure
on the roof of the the cave number 5, and the figure on the Southern side of the wall
of the cave number 16 of Yungang Grotto of Datong in Shanxi, as well as the fresco
of the flying apsaras playing the instrument on the back of Buddha of the cave number
127 of Maiji Mountain in Gansu. In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Bili evolved into
many different shapes and sizes, such as Shuang Bili (double-pipe Bili), Qi Bili (Painted
Bili), Yinzi Bili (Silver Bili), Taopi Bili (Peach Skin Bili), Da Bili (large double-
reed instrument) and Xiao Bili (small double-reed instrument). These instruments
were used in different formal ethnic music genres, including Guchui’yue (Wind-and-
Drum Music), Qiuci’yue (Music from Qiuci in Western China), Shule’yue (Music
from Shule in Western China), Anguo’yue (Music from Anguo State), Poluomen’yue
(Brahman Music), Gaochang’yue (Music from Gaochang State), Xiliang’yue (Music
from Xiliang Region), Tianzhu’yue (Music from India) and Wenkang’yue (Music
from Wenkang), as well as folk music. Famous ancient Bili performers include Wei
Chiqing, Wang Manu, Huang Riqian, Liu Chucai, Shang Lulu and Shi Jingyue. In
the Song Dynasty, the Bili was the leading instrument in Wind-and-Durm Music
administered by Jiaofang (Court Music Institution), and it was called Touguan (first
pipe). According to Yueshu (Book of Music) by Chen Yang, volume 130, “the big one
has nine finger holes,” the annotation reads, “The one used by today’s Jiaofang has
seven finger holes at front, and two holes at back, producing Wu (a pitch interpreted
as the sixth degree of a scale), Fan (fourth degree), Gong (third degree), Che (second
degree), Shang (first degree), Yi (seventh degree), Si (lower octave of sixth degree),
Gou (sharpened fourth degree) and He (lower octave of fifth degree).46” Currently, the
Guan used among folk musicians has less than nine finger holes, and mostly with 8
finger holes.
Guanzi is divided into single-pipe (with different sizes of big, medium and small),
double-pipe and Houguan (throat pipe). The body of the instrument is made of wood,
while the double-reed mouth-piece is made of reed. The double-pipe instrument has
pipes that are juxtapositioned and tuned in the same pitch, but not bound together.
While playing, two mouth pieces are sounded. Each of the double pipes has the same
diameter, but the walls of the pipes are usually thinner then that of the single pipe.
Throat pipe is longer, and its mouth piece is broader; the instrument is mainly used in
the music of Guangdong and some genres of local wind-and-drum music. The single
pipe instrument is most common covering the ranges of #f - d3 (generally used) or A -
46 See Chen Yang (Song Dynasty), Yueshu (Book of Music), volume 130. Guangzhou: Jupojingshe Version,
1876, pp2-3.
d2 (big pipe, for special effects).

The techniques of the Guan performance include Tuyin (staccato), Chanyin
(vibrato), Huashe’yin (tongue vibration), Huayin (sliding), Dieyin (doubled pitch),
Dayin (finger beating), Shangkua Wuyin (five-degree higher ornamentation), Xiakua
Wuyin (five-degree lower ornamentation), Chiyin (teeth pitch) and Xiaoyin (vertical
bamboo flute sound).
Guan is broadly used in ensembles of folk instruments, local opera and folk dance
music. It plays an important role in folk instrumental ensembles of North China,
especially in Buddhist and Taoist ceremonial music. Influential Guan performers
include Yang Yuanheng, Xu Sheng, Ma Deshun, Yin Erwen and Zhang Jigui.
Famous Guan pieces include Liangqiao (Liaoqiao is a section of Chinese Buddhist
music in the North), Zhoujin’tang (Brocaded Hall, also Buddhist music), Shanxing’zi
(Malus Baccata Borkh), Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incantation for the Peace), Na’tianer
(Catching Swan), Fanglyu (Herding Donkey), Xiao’erfang (Small Two Variations),
Xiu’hongxie (Embroidering Red Shoes), Baiyun (White Clouds), Xiao’huayan
(Avatamsaka Sutra), Wannian’huan (Myriad Years of Happiness), Yanguo Nanlou
(Swan Flying Over the Southern Building), Liuye’qing (Green Willow Leaves),
Maisui’huang (Yellow of Ear of Wheat), Jixian’bin (Good Guest Gathering) and
Da’kaimen (Opening a Big Gate).
(2) Analyses of Selected Works: Xiao’erfan (Small Two Variations) and
Jianghe’shui (Water in River)
a. Xiao’erfan (Small Two Variations)
Xiao’erfan (Small Two Variations) is a popular short piece for the ensemble of
wind-and-drum music, with its title referring to a piece being performed twice. The
word “Xiao” (small) is contradictory to the word “Da” (big). Xiao’erfan is in 2/4
metre, whereas its counterpart Da’erfan is in 4/4 (derived from the basic melody of
Xiao’erfan). Xiao’erfan comprises two sections of similar melodic characters, with
Zhi (fifth degree) and Gong (first degree) modes echo one another. The beginning
of the second section features the technique of “replacing Gong with Fan (fourth
degree)”, resulting in an upward transposition of a fourth (or to the subdominant),
forming a contrast with other sections. The piece has smooth and winding melodies,
possessing all characteristics of vocal music. Different performing techniques are
applied in a flexible manner: the variation style associated with Guanzi pipe displays
the uniqueness of the instrument, as well as characteristics of regional style.
The technique of variation in Xiao’erfan depends much on the aptitude of the
performer, and may involve changes in speed and melodic contours. A smooth and
steady melody can become vivid and gradually build up to an exciting climax.
Besides melodic variation, folk musicians often change mode by adopting different
fingering sequences (Yidiao Zhifa Bianzou), or what folk musicians call “Fandiao
(mode change)”. In other words, the piece is performed with different fingering on
Guanzi pipe, exploiting the expressive power of different registers and performing
techniques, so as to enrich the sonority and timbral characteristics. This is also called
“playing with modulations” (that is change of pipe pitches), here it is known as mode-
shifting by changes in fingering sequences, because it is not the exactly same as

“playing with modulations”. Variation through mode-shifting by changing fingering
sequences does not merely involve a transposition of the melodies; there may also be
changes made to the melodies, as performance techniques change according to mode
shift and the need to accommodate new fingering techniques.
One piece can usually be performed in three or four modes, and the greatest
contrast is achieved by a mode change involving transpositons of a fourth or a fifth.
For example, when Xiao’erfan is performed in “Zhengdiao”47 (do=A, third hole as
“do”), the melodies are transposed, livening up the atmosphere dramatically, as the
music is shifted “a fifth higher from skeletal pitches” (dominant), highlighting the
technique of “fingering beating pitches (Dayin)”. When the mode of “Shang”48 (do=D,
fifth hole as “do”) is performed, the music is transposed up a fourth (subdominant),
leading to clear sonority and a steady emotion. Long, medium and short vibratos are
used throughout the piece, adding more character to the music.
b. Jianghe’shui (Water in River)
Jianghe’shui (Water in River) is an adaptation of South Liaoning wind music with
the same title and “Shaotou” (a typical beginning part of a piece), and it is performed
with a double Guanzi pipe. The sad melodies of the piece reflect the harsh lives of the
ordinary people.
The piece consists of three sections. The Prelude at the beginning is in free metre,
which uses simple musical language to portray the somewhat disturbed emotions and
tragic sentiments throughout. The frequent incorporation of an upward leap of a fourth
in the melodies makes the work bold, innovative and appealing.
Example 5-3. Prelude of South Liaoning wind-and-drum piece Jianghe’shui (Water in River). Pipe
pitch is “mi”
Free metre
The first section comprises four phrases. The first phrase is developed by expansion
of melodic motive and ornamentation from the introduction, and the melody is slow
and expressive. The second phrase continues the style of the first phrase, there is a
special treatment towards the ending, adding sadness to the melody. The third phrase
combines materials from the first two phrases, expanding the phrase structure and
melodic range. The fourth phrase is a recapitulation of the first phrase, conducive to
47 Zhengdiao 正调
48 Shang 上字调
the structural sequence of Qi (beginning), Cheng (continuation), Zhuan (change) and

He (retuning). The melody has an air of sadness, as well as very intensified emotion.
The second section is based on the musical materials of Shaotou frequently found
in South Liaoning Wind-and-Drum Music. Shaotou is also known as Geda’ju (Paired
Phrases), Langtou (Peak of Sea Wave) or Huanghe’tao (Yellow River Suite). The
melody is often used at the ending of Labelled Tunes or short pieces, and is presented
in free improvisory style. However, phrases of the melody appear as questions and
answers, as they have the opportunity to reflect on the tragic mood of the music,
especially as the result of the small temporal gaps for the responses.
The third section is a re-working of the first section; the changes in tempo and
dynamics highlight sad emotions.
There are also recently composed Guan pipe pieces, such as Zuiweng’cao (Song
of Drunken Man) and Pingsha Luoyan (Wild Geese Alighting on a Sandy Beach);
both pieces are composed by Yang Nailin and Hu Zhihou, and Hu Zhihou is a famous
Guan master working at the Central Conservatory of Music.
3. Suona (Shawm) Music
(1) Introduction to the Instrument
Suona is also known as Laba (trumpet), Dahao (large trumpet), Dadi (big flute),
Ergan (second stick) by folk musicians. According to literary sources, there were
different written characters for the same pronunciation of the instrument, such as
唢呐 (Suona currently used), 锁哪 (also pronounced as Suona, but characters are
different); other Chinese nomenclature includes 锁钠, 锁奈, 唆呐 and 苏尔奈with
similar pronunciation. Other names referring to the same instrument include Haodi
(horn flute), Jin Koujiao (golden mouth horn), Balaman (balaman), Niedoujiang
(niedoujiang) and Nieniedou (nieniedou). The last three are obviously transliterations
from foreign languages. There are few records concerning the early history of the
Suona. The Museum of the Forbidden City (Former Imperial Palace) in Beijing
preserves a terracotta figure from Tang Dynasty who plays the Suona on the back
of a horse49. Hence it is possible that the instrument was brought to Central China
rather late. The earliest document on the Suona is Nanci Xulu (Southern Words and
Expression Records) by Xu Wei (Ming Dynasty) which reads, “In Central China, after
the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, music of the barbarians began to be popular......For the
Laba (trumpet) and Suona, they are the remnants of the Jin and Yuan Dynasties.50” In
the Ming Dynasty, the Suona was mostly used in military music, for example, Wang
Panci wrote a poem entitled “Yong Maba” (Praising the Laba Trumpet), which reads,
“Laba, Suona, music is short, but the sound is loud. Official vessels come and go in
chaos, but they have to be lifted by music. Soldiers feel sad while ordinary people
49 Please see the Series of the Chinese Music Relics - Beijing Volume. Edited by the Series of the Chinese
Music Relics Committee. Beijing: Daxiang Publishing House 1997, first edition, p 202.
50 Xu Wei (Ming Dynasty). Nanci Xulu (Southern Words and Expression Records). In Zhongguo Gudian Xiqu
Lunzhu Jicheng (Collection of the Chinese Ancient Opera Treatises), volume 3. Beijing: Operatic Publishing
House, first edition, 1959, p 241.
are disturbed when listening to it. How can we distinguish something which is real or
fake? We can see that when the instrument is played, a family may go bankrupt, and
another family having bad luck, until the water is dry and geese fly away!” Another
document is Qi Jiguang’s Wubei’zhi (Military Oath), “Training consists of twenty
items, if Haodi (horn flute) is called, play Suona.” Wang Qi’s Sancai Huitu (Pictorial
Compilation of Three Gifted Scholars) also refers to Suona as an instrument not only
used in military band, but also among folks, “Suona is in the shape of Laba, with seven
holes. Its top and bottom are made of brass, while the pipe made of wood. Nobody
knows when it came to use, but it is mostly used in military band, and also by folks.51”
There are three kinds of Suona: the soprano instrument is called Haidi (sea flute),
while the others are in middle and low ranges. The Haidi has a pipe pitch #f (all finger
holes closed), while the instruments in mid range and low range have pipe pitches f1
and f respectively. The Suona has the range of about two octaves.
The techniques of the Suona include Chiyin (teeth sound), Huashe’yin (tongue
vibration), Dayin (finger beating pitch), Dianyin (padded pitched, or an acciaccatura
of the same pitch before the main pitch), Huayin (sliding pitch), Tanyin (plucking
pitch), Kuyin (sorrowful pitch), Chanyin (vibrato), Qigongyin (breath pushing pitch),
Yiyin (appoggiatura), Fanyin (harmonics) and Xiaoyin (vertical bamboo flute pitch).
The Suona has a bold and rich timbre, and emits a loud sound, hence suitable for
generating a jubilant atmosphere. The performer can control the breath to produce a
clear and gentle sound similar to the Xiao vertical flute. The pastoral characteristics
of the Suona are often emphasized, and especially effective in imitating the sounds of
birds or other animals, hence it is very popular amongst ordinary people.
There are many famous Suona players in China, including Yuan Ziwen, Wei
Yongtang, Ren Qirui, Zhao Chunting, Zhao Chunfeng, Ren Tongxiang, Liu Fengtong
and Zhao Changyin.
Popular traditional Suona pieces include Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General),
Dade’sheng (Great Voctory), Mantang Hong (Whole Room Red), Pingsha Luoyan
(Wild Geese Alighting on a Sandy Beach), Xiqing (Celebrations), Yunli’mo (Touching
in Clouds), Taojin’ling (Washing for Gold Song), Xiao’kaimen (Opening a Small
Gate), Bainiao Chaofeng (Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix), Yizhi’hua (A Flower),
Dahe’tao (A Great United Suite) and Fengjiao’xue (Wind Blowing with Snow).
(2) Analyses of Selected Works: Xiao’kaimen (Opening a Small Gate) and Bainiao
Chaofeng (Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix)
a. The Suona piece Xiao’kaimen (Opening a Small Gate)
Xiao’kaimen (Opening a Small Gate), also named Kaimen (Opening Gate), is
a popular piece, owing to it being the repertoire for beginners, and the reason for
its somewhat didactic title. The melody flows naturally in a lively spirit, and it is
commonly used in operas as an instrumental interlude for accompanying events such
51 Wang Qi (Ming Dynasty). Sancai Huitu (Pictorial Complilation of Three Gifted Scholars). In Zhongguo
Gudai Yinyue Shiliao Jiyao (Chinese Ancient Music Materials Collection), first volume, collected according
to the block-print edition of the Ming Dynasty. Beijing: China Publishing House, first edition 1962, p 827.
as stage setting, changing costumes, cleaning houses, walking, entering the nuptial
chamber, joining birthday or wedding parties, and other joyous occasions.
Kaimen is played as a Suona solo piece in performances of wind-and-drum
ensemble music, and it is a fully developed piece. Many versions of Kaimen exist
in different areas, such as Jilin, Liaoning, Shandong, Hebei, Henan and Anhui. The
piece incorporated into wind-and-drum music of Southwest of Shandong Province is
based on a “mother” melody evolving to several versions in different keys, such as
Liuzi Kaimen (fifth degree as tonic Kaimen), Shangzi Kaimen (first degree as tonic
Kaimen), Wuzi Kaimen (sixth degree as tonic Kaimen), Xiao’kaimen (Opening a Small
Gate), Da’kaimen (Openign a Big Gate), Dahe’tao (A Great United Suite), Huanqing
(Celebration) and Fengjiao’xue (Wind Blowing with Snow). Music in the Kaimen
family shows the artistry of variation technique applied to a single piece in generating
many versions.
Xiao’kaimen (Opening a Small Gate) is also a Suona piece popular in Eastern
Hebei Province. The piece contains three Labelled Pieces, namely Kaimen,
Xinshui’ling (Fresh Water Song) and Bangzi Wawa (Clapper Melody and Wawa
Melody) which are linked seamlessly.
The first Labelled Piece Kaimen is based on a lively melody arranged by Zhao
Chunfeng, who changes the tempo to a kind of moderato, incorporating decorative
playing techniques such as Yiyin (appogiatura), Huayin (sliding pitch), Fanyin
(harmonics), Chanyin (vibrato) and Qigongyin (breath pushing pitch), matching the
folk music style of Eastern Hebei.
The second Labelled Piece Xinshui’ling (Fresg Water Song) is adopted from Hebei
Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Hebei). Main characteristics of this piece include constant
changes in rhythms, contrasts between melody and rests, melodic contour of big leaps
and fast tempo, so as to make the music energetic, optimistic and warm, making a
contrast with the first Labelled Piece.
The third Labelled Piece is named Bangzi Wawa (Child Tune of Clapper Melody)
adopted from Clapper Opera of Hebei, and the mood is warm, building up to a climax.
Xiao’kaimen is a typical example of using the technique of variations to produce
different moods, a device often found in Chinese folk instrumental music. The piece
involves three Labelled Pieces, with tempo changing from slow to fast, and in the
process introducing many different performing techniques.
b. Bainiao Chaofeng (Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix)
The Suona piece Bainiao Chaofeng (Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix) is very
popular in Shandong, Anhui, Henan and Hebei Provinces. The player needs to have
great imaginations and superb playing techniques to imitate the singing of birds and
other animals in order to portray the scene of many birds gathering enthusiastically
in a beautiful countryside. Since the performers can come from different regions, the
styles of performing the piece can be very varied. The version from Southwest of
Shandong introduced here is played by Ren Tongxiang a native of Shandong, based
on the transcription of Chen Jiaqi from the Central Conservatory of Music.
Bainiao Chaofeng is in three sections: the first melodic and expressive, with vocal
characteristics, and in medium to fast speed; the second section is the core part of the
piece, describing the hectic scene of flying birds paying tribute to the phoenix; the
third is a conclusion, drawing the music to a climax as emotions build up.
The melody of the first section is based on the Labelled Piece Tai’huajiao
(Carrying a Sedan Chair), which is attractive, expressive, and joyous in atmosphere.
Symmetrical doubled phrases are used to make the flow of melody steadily, as well as
allowing a systematic interplay between the soloist and the accompanying ensemble.
Many embellishing techniques are used, including slides, trills, hard blown sound and
harmonics, making it a characteristic piece of Shandong Suona music.
Example 5-4. Bainiao Chaofeng (Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix), from First Section
The second section comprises two themes which are repeated: the first theme is
noted for its accompaniment, which can be considered as a cantus firmus; above this
unchanged melody, the theme undergoes strong dynamic change, with the Suona
imitating the calls of various birds and other animals. There is a linking passage of
unrestrained singing of birds, before the second theme Tai’huajiao (Carrying a Sedan
Chair) appears, which contrasts with calls of birds and animals. These two themes are
intertwined and repeated in a improvisatory manner according to folk conventions:
the length and manner of variations can be adjusted according to the occasions of
performance. The quality of the performers is judged by their technique and ability
to nurture an appropriate aesthetic mood for the audience. Much depends on the
rendition of the last variation, when the music has to reach a climax. For example,
Ren Tongxiang’s interpretation involves the technique of circulating breath (using
the nose to inhale and mouth to blowing simultaneously) so as to create continuous
sound, plus some very drastic changes in dynamics to create a climax.
The ending of the piece is very fervent, highlighting the colourful technique in
weak beats to create variety for the melody. Frequent appearance of doubled phrases
is a useful device to maintain an appropriate atmosphere for Suona music.

There are also some newly composed Suono pieces that are highly successful,
such as Huanqing (Celebrations, by Liu Chouyi and Yang Juwu), Sheqing (Ritual
Celebrations, by Ge Daoli and Yi Kaixian), Bawang Bieji (Farewell to My Concubine,
by Zhu Yi) and Tianyue (Heavenly Music, by Zhu Jianer).
4. Sheng (Mouth Organ) Music
Sheng (mouth organ) is probably the oldest reed instrument in China with its origin
dated to Yin Period (1401–1122 BC), when it was called He ( 龢 same as 和 , small
mouth organ), as preserved on tortoise inscriptions. The instrument is mentioned
in many ancient classics, such as Shangshu-Yiji (Book of History:Nurturing Food
Plants), which refers to “Shengyong Xiangjian, Niaoshou Qiangqaang52”, meaning
“Sheng mouth organ and Yong bell are played alternately, imitating the sounds of birds
and animals”53; “Shijing-Xiaoya-Luming (poem entitled Luming in “Xiaoya” of the
Book of Songs) records, “Guse Chuisheng, Chuisheng Guhuang54”, meaning “Playing
Se zither and Sheng mouth organ, and sing with the Sheng mouth organ and play a
reed instrument”55. On the shape of Sheng, Erya-Shiyue (“Music Section” in Erya, an
old dictionary) records, “big Sheng is called Chao, whereas the small one He.56” on
the differences between Sheng and Yu (another form of mouth organ in ancient China),
Songshi Yuezhi (“Music Section” of the Annals of the Song Dynasty) records, “the
mouth organ with tonic degree Gong at the middle, with 36 reed pipes is called Yu; the
tonic degree is on the left, with 19 or 13 reed pipes is called Sheng.57” According to
historical convention, if a mouth organ contains reed pipes numbering 22, 23, or 36, it
is referred to as Yu; and that instruments of 19, 17, and 13 reed pipes are called Sheng.
Sheng and Yu have existed in parallel for a long period, yet after the Song Dynasty,
the latter was no longer played at Court, while Sheng was used in both Court and folk
music. Many genres of the living tradition of Chinese folk music involve the Sheng.
There are many forms of Sheng: the instrument with a round wind chamber and
17 reed pipes is popular in Hebei, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Liaoning and
Shandong; the Sheng with a square wind chamber and 14 reed pipes is popular in
Henan, Anhui and Shandong Provinces; there is also the Sizhu Sheng, or Su Sheng,
a small instrument comprising 17 reed pipes popular in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. After
the founding of the People’s Republic, there was an attempt to “improve” folk
52 笙镛以间，鸟兽呛呛。
53 Shangshu-Yiji,《尚书 · 益稷》(Book of History: Nurturing Food Plants). In Shisanjing Zhushu (Annotations
of Thirteen Classics). Beijing: China Publishing House, first edition 1980, p 144.
54 鼓瑟吹笙，吹笙鼓簧。
55 Shijing-Xiaoya-Luming,《诗经 · 小雅 · 鹿鸣》(Poem entitled Luming collected in the“Section of Xiaoya”
of the Book of Poetry). Maoshi Zhengyi-Xiaoya. In Shisanjing Zhushu (Annotations of Thirteen Classics).
Beijing: China Publishing House, first edition 1980, p 405.
56 Erya-Shiyue ( 尔雅 · 释乐 Music Section in Erya). Beijing: China Publishing House, first edition, 1980, p
87.
57 Tuotuo ( 脱脱 Yuan Dynasty)，et. al: Annals of the Song Dynasty. Beijing: China Publishing House, first
edition, 1977.
instruments, and as a result, there were Sheng of of 21, 24, and 36 reed pipes, as well
as the newly invented small Paisheng (keyed Sheng) and big Paisheng.
Musical range of different types of Sheng: Regional folk ensembles use 17 reed
pipes Sheng, with the range a 1—b 2; Sheng in Beijing Zhihua Temple Buddhist
Ensemble also has 17 reed pipes, but the range is c2 - g3; Sheng with 21 reed pipes
covers #c1—b3; Sheng with 36 reed pipes has the range g—f 3(chromatic). Small
Paisheng covers G—f 2 (chromatic), while Big Paisheng D—c2 (chromatic).
The Sheng has a unique artistic expressive power, owing to its ability to play a
melody at the same time accompanying itself harmonically. Its performing techniques
can be varied, including Hushe (colourful tongue), Rouyin (vibrato), Houyin (throat
sound) and Huayin (sliding sound). Outstanding pieces and their performers include
Fenghuang Zhanchi (Phoenix Spreading Its Feathers) performed by Hu Tianquan and
Jindiao (The Tune of Shanxi) by Yan Haideng.
5. Music of Hulu’sheng (Gourd Mouth Organ)
Hulu’sheng (Sheng mouth organ with a gourd wind chamber) is a wind instrument
widely used among many ethnic minorities in Southwest China, including Yi, Lahu,
Hani, Wa, Naxi, Lili, Nu, Pumi, Miao and Li. Brass wind chambers of Hulu’sheng
were found in the tomb of Namukuo (a village in Yunnan) and No.24 Tomb of
cluster of ancient tombs in Lijiashan village of Jiangchuan district, dating back to
the Period of the Warring States (475 B.C. to 221 B.C.). There were similar findings
in Shizhaishan village, Puning District of Yunnan, dated to the West Han Dynasty
(206 B.C. to 8 B.C.). The Hulu’sheng was therefore already popular in Southwestern
Regions of China in early Qin Dynasty. Written records of Hulu’sheng are found in
the Tang Dynasty, as in Yuefu Zalu (Miscellaneous Records from Music Bureau) by
Duan Anjie, “There were Paiban clapper… … and Hulu’sheng during the Kaiyuan
Period.58” Manshu (Book on Ethnic Minorities) written by Fan Chuo of Tang Dynasty
records, “A teenage boy entertains bystanders on the street in the evening, and plays
Hulu’sheng and leaves (as instrument). The music incites a rich feeling.59”
Hulu’sheng has many varieties, with the number of pipes ranging from 4, 5, 7 to 8,
even though not all pipes have reeds. The five-pipe with five-reed instrument is most
common.
Hulu’sheng’s wind chamber is made of gourd, to which four to eight reed pipes
of varying lengths are fixed with wax. The ends of the pipes are open, and each can
emit two pitches (usually a minor third apart), so the music has a unique artistic
effect. There are three common kinds of Hulu’sheng, classified as high, medium and
low pitched, and there are different ways of producing a scale. Take Yunnan as an
example:
Among old Burmese in Menglian County, the five-pipe Hulu’sheng is used, and the
58 Duan Anjie (Tang Dynasty). Yuefu Zalu (Miscellaneous Records on Music Bureau). In Zhongguo Gudian
Xiqu Lunzhu Jicheng (Anthology of Ancient Operatic Literature), volume 1. Beijing: Chinese Operatic
Publishing House, first edition, 1959, p 49.
59 Fanchuo (Tang Dynasty). Manshu (Book on Ethnic Minorities). Annotation by Xiang Da. Beijing: China
Publishing Hourse, first edition. 1962, p 210.
tunings for the reed pipes are: @b c1 @e1 f1 g1 @a1 @b1 c2 @e2.
Among Lahu ethnic people in Lancang County, the five-pipe Hulu’sheng is used,
and the tunings for the reed pipes are: d1 f1 g1 @b1 c2 d2 f 2.
Among Dayao Yi ethnic people in Chuxiong District, the five-pipe Hulu’sheng is
used, and the tunings for the reed pipes are: @e1 f1 g1 @b1 c2 @d2 @e2 f2
In recent years, Music-and-Dance Troupe of Yi Ethnic People in Liangshan of
Sichuan has designed a ten-reed pipe Hulu’sheng, with wind chamber made of wood
and a resonating pipe installed at the top of each pipe.
The range of this newly invented Hulu’sheng is extended: a @b c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 a1
@b1 c2 d2 e2 f 2.
6. Music of Lusheng (Bamboo Mouth Organ)
Lusheng (bamboo mouth organ) is a reed vibrated instrument popular among many
ethnic groups in Southwest China, including Miao, Dong, Shui, Yao, Zhuang, and
Yilao. Lusheng has a long history, as there are archaeological discoveries of brass
figures of musicians and dancers playing the instrument dating back from 136 B.C.
to 118 B.C. in the cluster of ancient tombs in Shizhaishan Village, Puning District
of Yunnan. This suggests that as early as 200 B.C., Lusheng was already popular in
Southwest China. The instrument is referred to in written sources in the Song Dynasty,
such as Laoxuean Biji (Notes of Old Temple Academy) by Lu You describing, “The
people in Chen, Yuan and Jing... ... when people were not involved in farming, about
one to two hundred people, hand by hand, they sang folk songs; some played Lusheng
at the front.” Qianshu (Book on Guizhou Province) also records, “During spring each
year, boys and girls get together outside to dance. This is called “Tiaoyue” (Dance
under the Moon). First, a venue has to be selected, then boys and girls will dress
up. Boys play Lusheng at the front, while girls follow and shake bells. They dance
around non-stop for whole day and night. 60” Guihai Yuheng’zhi (Ethnography of
Guihai Yuheng) by Fan Dacheng of the South Song Dynasty records, “Lusheng, is a
music instrument of the Yao people. It looks like Xiao flute, with eight pipes, one of
which is horizontal.” Nanzhao Yeshi (Unofficial History of Nanzhao) by Ni Lu of the
Ming Dynasty also records, “Dance under the moon every year in Spring; boys play
Lusheng.”
Lusheng has different shapes, with the number of pipes ranging from 1, 2, 5, 6,
8 to 10. The most common instrument has 6 pipes, and there are differences in the
combination of the types of pipes, such as 6-pipe with 6-reed (each pipe has reed),
6-pipe 5-reed (one pipe without reed), 6-pipe 4-reed (two pipes without reed), 6-pipe
3-reed (three pipes without reed), 6-tube 2-reed (four pipes without reed) and 6-tube
7-reed (one of the pipes is fitted with 2 reeds). Besides, there are also other forms of
Lusheng, such as 8-pipe 8-reed, 4-pipe 2-reed and 4-pipe 3-reed. Since the 1950s,
60 Tian Wen (Qing Dynasty). Qianshu (Book on Guizhou Province). In Guizhou Guji Jicui (Series of Ancient
Records of Guizhou), The volume of Qianshu, Xu Qianshu, Qianji, and Qianyu (Book on Guizhou Province,
Continued Books on Guizhou Province, Records, and Records of Guizhou). Annotated by Luo Shuqin, Jia
Zhaohua, Weng Zhongkang, Yang Hanhui, proofread by Huang Yongtang. Guiyang: Guizhou People’s
Publishing House, first edition. 1992, p 20.
the fate of Lusheng is similar to other folk instruments, and has undergone reform,
with the birth of 19-reed and 21-reed instruments. Furthermore, it has shifted from
being exclusively intended as an accompanying instrument for dances and songs to
the performance of solo and ensemble music. Major forms of performing Lusheng
include:
Solo, using treble Lusheng;
Duet, using two lower pitched Lu Sheng in the same key;
Tao Lusheng (trio), using high, medium, and low-pitched Lusheng (known as “three
water drops”) of the same key.
Mangtong Lusheng: uses one each for high, medium, and low-pitched Lusheng,
plus three Mangtong (big bamboo tube), which is known as “half set”; two high,
medium, and low-pitched Lusheng, plus 26 Mangtong, is known as “full set”.
Famous folk musicians for Lusheng include Wu Xihe, Wu Yingming and Dong
Dangan from Guizhou Province, and Yang Guangwen from Guangxi Province.
Popular pieces for the Lusheng include Nuodezhong Zhige (Song of Nuodezhong),
Dabei’diao (Sad Tune), Hediao (Harmonious Tune), Saidiao (Competition Tune) and
Chundao Miaoling (Spring Coming to Miaoling), the last piece composed by Dong
Dangan.
7. Music of Bawu (Reed Bamboo Flute)
Bawu (Reed Bamboo Flute) is a reed vibrated instrument popular among many
ethnic groups in Southwest China, including Yi, Hani, Dai, Wa, Bulang, and Miao.
The meaning of Bawu can be understood in two ways: as a general term, it refers to a
bamboo flute emitting sound through vibration of a bamboo or brass reed; in a narrow
sense, it is the instrument referred to in this book.
The Bawu discussed here, which can be played horizontally or vertically, is divided
into high, medium, and low instruments according to their registers, and each category
of instrument differs to the next by an octave. In 1956, there was a campaign to extend
the range and dynamics of the instrument, at the same time “improving” its timbre.
The keyed Bawu appeared since then has the potential to play chromatic scales.
The range of horizontal Bawu is F - d2, or C - f 2, while that of the vertical Bawu f -
b 2
a.
Performing techniques of the Bawu include Huayin (portamento), Tuyin (staccato),
Dayin (finger beating sound, meaning one finger stops a sound hole, another finger
stops and releases another sound hole quickly), Chanyin (trills), Feizhi (Flying fingers,
meaning finger moving fast across sound holes) and Moyin (soft sliding sound).
The Bawu is used as a solo instrument as well as in ensemble. Famous traditional
pieces include Shuadiao (Playing Tune), Sanbu’xian (Three Steps Tune); newly
composed pieces include Bangwan’de Shengyin (The Sound at Dusk), Huanlede
Bawu (Happy Bawu) and Dongxiangde Yewan (Evening in Dong Village).
B. Bowed Instruments
1. Erhu and Its Music
(1) Introduction to Erhu
According to literary sources, the ancestor of Erhu is Xiqin (also known as Jiqin)
which came into being in the Tang Dynasty. According to Book of Music, volume
128 by Chen Yang, the shape of Xiqin from that period is similar to Xiantao (literally
means a Tao drum with strings on it). It was played using a bamboo stick to rub the
strings. In the Song Dynasty, Mawei Huqin, which uses bow with horsetail to produce
sounds, emerged in the ethnic communities living in the Northwestern China. In
the Yuan Dynasty, Mongolians used Huqin for religious music and music for the
military.61 In the Ming Dynasty, Huqin depicted in “Picture of Lintang Qiuyan” (Litang
Qiuyan Tu) already resembled Erhu, as the instrument had a bent neck and dragon
scroll, a horsetail bow for rubbing the two strings and a Qianjin (a cord tied on strings
to shorten the effective lengths of the strings); it is almost the same as the present
Erhu.
For over one millennium, bowed instruments have undergone continuous
development in China, leading to a wide range of Huqin, such as skinned type,
including Erhu, Jinghu, Jing Erhu, Ruangong Jinghu (soft bow Erhu), Yuehu (two-
stringed fiddle in Guangdong), Sihu (four-stringed fiddle) and Huqin of wooden type
include Banhu (two-stringed fiddle with a sound box made of coconut and wooden
soundbox), Yehu (same type of Banhu).
Erhu is a modern term used to refer to Huqin instruments in general. The two
strings of the Erhu is usually tuned to a perfect fifth; there are two common tuning
systems for the instrument in Chinese traditional music.
One possible tuning system is called Tuoyin Huqin, which uses strings called
Zhongxian and Laoxian, two kinds of four types of traditional strings used for many
string instruments: Chanxian (lowest), Laoxian (second lowest), Zhongxian (middle),
Zixian (high).
If the tuning is a-e1 (sol-re), it is called Xiaogong (plagal) mode, tonic is D;
If the tuning is g-d1 (do-sol), it is called Zhenggong (authentic) mode, tonic is G.
The other tuning system is called Zhuyin Huqin, which involves Zhongxian and
Zixian strings.
If the tuning is d1-a1 (do-sol), it is called Xiaogong (plagal) mode, the tonic is D.
If the tuning is d1-a1 (sol-re), it is called Zhenggong (authentic) mode, tonic is G.
The Tuoyin tuning system is often used in instrumental music and regional operas
in South Jiangsu Province. The eminent folk musician Hua Yanjun, also called Abing,
is an outstanding performer of the Tuoyin tuning system. The Jiangyin folk musician
Zhou Shaomei also adopts the Zhuyin tuning system. After Liu Tianhua has acquired
his art of performing the Erhu from Zhou Shaomei, he introduced the Zhuyin tuning
system to students of higher institutes, as well as his professional teams. The principal
performing technics for Erhu include right-hand techniques such as legato, separate
61 See: An Overview of Historical Events of Inner Mongolia (Neimenggu Lishi Gaiyao), written by Yu Yuanan:
“musical instruments and dancing art have emerged in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Gongs, Paiban
clapper, and Huwuer (Huqin) for worship also came into being.” (Yu Yuanan. People’s Publishing House
of Shanghai, 1958). See also: Journey of Marco Polo, translated by Zhang Xinglang, “Tatar people have a
tradition: when they are lined up and waiting to fight in war, they sing and perform the two-stringed fiddle.”
(Zhang Xinglang, trans., Shanghai Shangwu Publishing House, 1937).
bows (staccato), martele, bouncing bowing (vibrating) and spiccato (bouncing

bowing); left-hand technics include trills, harmonics, portamento, vibrato, plucking
and percussion effect.
(2) Folk Musician Hua Yanjun and His Erhu Works
a. About Hua Yanjun
The folk musician Hua Yanjun (1893–1950), also known as Abing, was a native
of Dongting of Wuxi in Jiangsu Province. Hua Qinghe, his father, was a Taoist priest
in Leizun Temple in Wuxi, and he taught his son music since childhood. Hua Qinghe
was a practising folk musician, and apart from having a practical knowledge on
Taoist music, he was proficient in performing a wide range of folk music. Hua Yanjun
later became acquainted with folk songs and operatic music in Jiangnan regions, and
was able to play several instruments, laying a solid foundation for his future artistic
development. He lost his eyesight in his thirties, and in order to make a living under
extreme adverse social conditions, he became a street musician. Given the ordeals and
torture experienced by Hua Yanjun, especially his exposure to frequent insults and
bullying, he had a profound understanding of the poor and socially deprived. Such an
experience has exerted tremendous influence on the themes and programmatic content
of his music.
Hua’s playing displays profoundness, delicacy, elegance and grandiosity. His Erhu
pieces are mostly performed in détaché, that is, one note to a bow. Though sparingly
used, legato in his Erhu music shows the influence from the performing style of local
operatic string music, with notes bowed from weak to strong beats, forming the effect
of syncopation and suspension.
Hua’s fingering technique is often associated with the effect of portamento without
changing the finger positions (Dingba Huayin) 62frequently found in folk music
generated by confining the left hand to the second position. As the thumb is fixed,
any notes in the first or third positions will have to be played by moving the fingers
backward or forward, especially the first and second fingers, therefore producing
a portamento. This technique serves as a practical means to enrich melodies and
amplify the affection of the music.
The three Erhu masterpieces by Hua Yanjun that have been preserved include
Erquan Yingyue (Reflection of the Moon on the Second Lake), Tingsong (Listening to
the Pines) and Han Chunfeng’qu (Song of Freezing Spring Breeze).
b. Music Analysis of Erquan Yingyue
“Erquan (The Second Spring)” is a famous tourist attraction in Huiquan Mountain
in Wuxi. It is considered the “the Second (er) Spirng (quan) Nationwide”. Millions of
tourists have visited the beauty spot where Hua Yanjun performed music in the street.
The piece expresses the composer’s feeling through the depiction of the nature, and
is a manifestation of Hua’s dissatisfaction with the society and his desire to ponder
over the harsh reality and prospect of life in the future.
Erquan Yinyue comprises six variations based on one theme. The piece begins
62 Dingba Huayin 定把滑音。

with a gentle and highly attractive theme exploiting the timbre of the Erhu. The
syncopation and circuitous descending motion of the melody represents infinite sighs
and lingering thoughts. The piece is thus unveiled with this unique artistic style.
Example 5-5. The Introduction and Theme of Erquan Yinyue played by Abing in 1950. Transcribed
by Yang Yinliu, with fingering by Chu Shizhu and Li Songshou
Following the Introduction, the main theme appears in steadily undulated motion
which has an inward contemplating quality. After bar 5, however, the mood turns
bright by incorporating short forceful inspiring motives to be fingered in second
position. Such a sudden burst of emotion in just 2 bars is delivered by powerful bow
strokes, ever-changing rhythms and capricious short melodies, invoking a unique
atmosphere. This phrase becomes an integral part of the theme; when there is a change
to the theme, the basic outline of the original melodic shape is retained. Towards the
end of the main theme, the first phrase of the theme is reiterated at the higher register
of the Erhu with minor changes, where special devices, such as shifting accents,
unique fingering, dynamic and rhythmic changes are introduced, enriching the overall
atmosphere, and adding sonority. The composer endeavours to express his pessimistic
state of mind before leading to the climax.
There are five variations of the theme in Erquan Yingyue, with the third variation
being the most developed. A unique feature of the variations is that they, while
stressing the third phrase, introduce new elements to extend a recurring musical idea.
For example, the new elements introduced in the first variation as well as the tremolo
bow strokes evoke the fragmented reflection of the moon on the surface of the water,
which invites the listeners to ponder in a sense of desolation. The new elements in
the second variation have a tendency to modulate to the dominant, evoking a brighter
emotion. In the fourth variation, the third phrase undergoes considerable development,
and the reiteration of the highest note of the whole piece pushes the music to its
climax.
Example 5-6. Excerpt from Erquan Yingyue
The music is loud and resonant, a reflection of the composer’s deep and
uncontrollable passion. The piece is in an ever changing mood without resorting to
embellished variation technique common to music in Jiangnan. The repetitive core
melody is developed by the introduction of new material, exploiting the registers
and tone colours of the different registers of the Erhu, in order to unfold the music
logically while retaining the integrity of the theme. Variety is achieved somewhat
effortlessly. While the piece is in steady 4/4 metre, meticulous changes to rhythm
produce an agitating effect, while the shifting of modes generates a nostalgic effect so
unique to Hua’s personal circumstances in an impoverished society.
Erquan Yinyue is therefore not an ordinary piece of short programme music; it
conveys deep emotion based on personal experience of an outstanding artist. There
is a romantic perspective as it reflects Hua’s interpretation of intricacies of real life;
hence it has a serene, lyrical aspect, as well as sonorous, powerful manifestations.
The music reveals the inner struggles of Hua, as well as the outburst of unyielding
personality of the underprivileged in the 1940s.
c. Analysis of Tingsong (Listening to the Rustling of Pine)
The piece was composed by Hua Yanjun in the 1930s, and it depicts a scene of
battle in the Song Dynasty, as Jin Wushu was cornered by the great general Yue Fei
and fled to the foot of the Huiquan Mountain. The composer has resorted to this story
to express his patriotic sentiments, so as to maintain his spirit to fight against the odds
of reality, displaying a strong desire for a better future.
Tingsong comprises a prelude, three main sections and an ending.
The prelude begins with a melody characterized by vigour, firmness, passion
and unrestrained outburst, aptly unfolding the extra-musical content of the piece.
It consists of three phrases with changes in mood, facilitated by its freely rhythms,
lingering on higher notes as well as great melodic leaps; these devices are used to
develop the music.
Example 5-7. Prelude of Tingsong. Performed by Hua Yanjun, 1950; transcribed by Cao Anhe;
fingering by Chu Shizhu and Li Songshou
The passionate prelude leads to the first section which begins with the sounding
of drums in preparation for war. This leads to a melody depicting the imposing and
combating trumpet calls, as well as the rhythmic characteristics of snare drums
popular in towns; these sound effects are integrated with a melody based on the
traditional pentatonic scale. The somewhat arpeggiated melody is sonorous, but free
from the cliché that the highest notes coinciding with the climax often found in folk
music of Jiangnan. The highlight of a major sixth produces an apt aesthetic effect for
the Erhu.
The second section of Tingsong is the central part of the whole piece. Its first
phrase is based on the material of the prelude, while the second phrase on the theme
of first section, focusing on the major third, in contrast to the minor third of the first
phrase. This broadening of melodic interval provides impetus to the melody. The
third phrase synthesizes the characters of the two previous phrases, and with three
variations, Hua brings the music to its climax.
The second section of Tingsong relies heavily on syncopations to create a sustained
mood of urgency, therefore maintaining an appropriate hectic atmosphere. The
contour of the melody remains steady, even though it meanders, with an irresistible
force of hidden momentum. The phrasing is relatively short in order to accumulate
a sense of urgency, as the unleashing of the theme resembles the tips of robust pines
with continuous flowing rivers nearby.
As a complement to the second section, the third section of Tingsong again
emphasizes the highest notes, making the music vigorous and splendor, in order to
intensify the emotion. It recalls the combative trumpet calls, echoing the atmosphere
of the first section.
The ending recapitulates fragments of the prelude to maintain some kind of unity,
as the piece ends passionately.
In spite of its brevity, Tingsong is imposing and profound in its content, at the
same time, it is a novelty to the performer, owing to its uniqueness in the unlimited
boundaries of artistic expression. Taken into consideration the popular acceptance
of the so-called “Yellow Music (sexual songs)” and popular dance music, Tingsong
is exceptional, as it represents another facet of music for general public, one that
strongly adheres to tradition and established aesthetic values.
(3) Erhu Music by the National Master Liu Tianhua

a. About Liu Tianhua
Liu Tianhua (1895–1932), an outstanding composer of instrumental music and
staunch supporter of the May 4 th Movement, was a native of Jiangyin County of
Jiangsu Province. He came into contact with music in his teens when he joined the
brass band of Changzhou High School. He took Erhu and Pipa lessons from musicians
such as Zhou Shaomei and Shen Zhaozhou. In 1922, he was employed by the Yinyue
Chuanxi’suo (Music Institute of Beijing University) to teach Erhu and Pipa. While
he continued to enrich his experience of folk music, he also studied Western music
theory, composition, as well as performance on the violin and piano.
He was first influenced by the new wave of reformist ideas associated with the
May 4th Movement, as he believed that arts should cater for the “well-being of the
population”. Liu Tianhua believes that music is a “tool of regimen for everyone” and
can “awaken the soul of the nation”. He claimed that “National music today, is like
gold mingle with sand, you have to pan it to uncover the gold”. Liu possesses the grand
ambition of giving due regard to the musical culture of the nation, and boldly raises the
notion of “retaining the essence of the music of the nation, while incorporating exotic
elements, and thus exploring a new pathway”. Liu has a unique power of understanding
and he emphasizes practice in art. Throughout his career, he retained a robust, tenacious
fighting spirit, carving out a creative way of artistic development.
Liu Tianhua is the founder of professional Erhu School in China, which prompted
the establishment of Erhu major in higher education institutions. The Erhu music
composed by Liu Tianhua roots firmly in folk culture, and there is a tendency for him
to absorb compositional and performing techniques of Western music.
b. Analysis of Bingzhong’yin (Reciting While Being Ill)
Bingzhong’yin (Reciting While Being Ill, drafted in 1915 and finalized in 1918)
was formerly known as Anshi, meaning “where we are going”. The piece expresses
the exasperation of intellectuals who yearned for progress and reform in their struggle
for a way out, and an attempt to lead a better life amidst the period of darkness
and social instability on the eve of the May 4th Movement. The piece, to a certain
extent, reflects the general despondent mood of the society, and the strong desire to
overturn dark reality with a staunch combating spirit. It reveals a mood of despair and
hesitation resulted from the lonely individual struggling. This is an inevitable feeling
because of the intellectuals’ isolation from common people. The piece deals with the
calamity of the society; there is an effort to alleviate atrocities, as well as a hope to
explore, yearn and pursuit for a better future.
Bingzhong’yin consists of three sections. The first phrase comprises four
continuous upward motives in the form of a double period. The melodies lack a
sense of direction, as if they represent the depressing reality, contrasting the profound
arduous exploration and struggle against the impoverished society. The motives of the
second phrase include leaps of a seventh and a sixth, highlighting melodies which are
fluent and passionate, encapsulating upward and downward movements. In contrast to
the first phrase, it expresses the composer’s pursuit for a brighter future. As the section
repeats itself, the second phrase features big melodic leaps in the development.
The Second Section of the piece is based on materials of the First Section,
including multiple pauses introduced to the melody; its two inflexions are forceful and
impetuous, driving the music to a climax.
The Third Section of Bingzhong’yin is a reprise of the First Section, and the piece
ends in an exciting mood.
Liu Tianhua incorporates Western diatonic major and minor systems in
Bingzhong’Yin, his first instrumental piece, while retaining some features of the
pentatonic scale. This is achieved by adding the fourth degree “fa” and seventh degree
“si” to the melody. He is also the first composer in China to adopt ternary form (A-B-A)
in instrumental music. Notwithstanding its simplicity, Liu’s attempt in introducing
Western form to Chinese folk music has broadened the scope of composition, even
though critics might label this as a culprit to Eurocentrism in practice. However, one
ought to note that he still retains the folk tradition of repetitive variations and free
extension of core musical motives.
c. Analysis of Guangming’xing (Road to Brightness)
Liu Tianhua’s Erhu piece Guangming’xing (1931) is a kind of self-assurance for
the future, and it is one of the few folk instrumental pieces written according to the
spirit of the May 4th Movement.
Guangming’xing comprises a Prelude, Coda and four Sections in between. The
piece repeats itself, and comprises two themes.
The First Section presents theme A, with motives which are strong and rhythmic, a
Example 5-8. Theme A of Erhu Piece Guangming’xing

sign of confidence for challenges the society was facing. As the melody repeats itself,
the appearance of Biangong (si, the seventh degree) facilitates transposition to the
dominant. The heavy use of dotted notes and staccatos has added liveliness to the music.
The Second Section presents theme B, which begins with a fourth above the
original key. The entire section only uses the inner string, with a flowing melody in
soft cantabile style, encapsulating the inner passion and optimism for the future. It
forms a stark contrast to Theme A, as fragments of melodies are presented differently.
Theme B is akin to local operatic music: there is much use of Erhuang (a kind of tune
pattern used in Beijing Opera as well as many other Chinese operas), Fan Erhuang
(Retro-Erhuang, or Erhuang with a modulated final tonic) in repetitive variations.
This will also help produce a brighter and fresher tone-colour, and accentuates the
inflection of the music.
Example 5-9. Theme B of Erhu Piece Guangming’xing
The piece gently unfolds in the third and fourth Sections. The Third Section is
derived from motives of Theme A. The use of sequences, multiple transpositions and
modulations in different ranges symbolize the composer’s desire to pursue a brighter
future. The Fourth Section is developed using core motives of Theme B.
The composer allows all motives of Theme B to reappear in the Coda, where the
effect of tremolo leads to a tense atmosphere, as the music reaches a climax.
Liu Tianhua was one of the founders of “Traditional Chinese Music Improvement
Society (Guoyue Gaiji’she)” in 1927. In 1928, Liu published the journal of the society—
Yinyue Zazhi (Music Magazine), even though it ceased to operate soon, owing to the
government’s negligence on the development of of national music for the country.
Despite the failures and adversities, Liu continued to develop the best form of national
music in his mind, so as to preserve the cultural heritage some much treasured by the
educated class prior to the Japanese invasion.
Guangming’xing is considered an early example of fusion between East and West,

owing to the application of Western ternary form in the context of repetitive variations
(variations of two themes) found in Chinese traditional music. His incorporation of
patterns of arpeggios of major triads progressing in sequence of thirds provides a new
dimension to Erhu music, and manages to build up a grandiose effect at times while
creating a sense of intimacy with its typical national melodic contour.
Different string techniques are used in the course of changes in tonalities; they were
novelties in the 1930s, and since then have inspired the new generation, especially the
use of staccato and tremolo techniques against the existing predominantly détaché
bowing for the instrument.
The appearance of Guangming’xing signalled a new era for Erhu music: Chinese
composers have, since then, taken steps in retaining a national character while
composing, even if they work as professonals in the West.
(4) Famous Newly Composed Erhu Music
The first half of the twentieth century saw the breakthroughs and developments in
the art of composition and performance for the Erhu, summed up by the achievements
of Liu Tianhua and Hua Yanjun. The following decades saw the appearance of
adapted works such as Henan Xiaoqu (A Ditty from Henan, by Liu Mingyuan),
Jianghe’shui (River Water, arranged by Huang Haihuai) and Qinqiang Zhuti
Shuixiang’qu (Capriccio of Qinqiang Opera Music by Zhao Zhenxiao and Lu Rirong).
Original compositions of the period include Liubo’qu (The Song of Water Waves, by
Sun Wenming, 1928–1968, folk musician active in the 1950s.) and Tanyue (Plucking
Music, also known as Tanliu-Plucking Six Measures by Sun Wenming), Saima
(Horse-Racing, by Huang Haihuai, adapted by Shen Liqun), Lanhuahua Xushi’qu
(Lanhuahua Ballad, by Guan Ming), Hongmei Suixiang’qu (Hongmei Rhapsody, by
Wu Houyuan), Di Yi and Er Kuangxiang’qu (No.1 and No. 2 Rhapsodies, by Wang
Jianmin), Sanmenxia Changxiang’qu (Sanmen Gorge Rhapsody, by Liu Wenjin),
Changcheng Shuixiang (Rhapsody of the Great Wall, by Liu Wenjin) and Caoyuan
Xinmumin (New Herdsmen of the Grassland, by Liu Changfu). Among the composers
mentioned above, Liu Wenjing is perhaps most influential, as his Erhu compositions
represent a new summit of techniques and aesthetics for Chinese folk music.
Outstanding Erhu players, to name a few, include Min Huifen, Jiang Xunfeng and
Wang Guotong.
2. Banhu and Its Music
The Banhu has acquired many different names as a result of its use in different
areas, such as Qinhu, Huhu, Bangzi’hu, Piao and Daxian. It is a type of Huqin
(two-string fiddle with wooden soundboard) closely associated with ancient opera
Xiqin’qiang (Melodies from West Qin area) and Bangzi’qiang (Clapper Melodic
Type) in Northwest China. The instrument was used to accompany operas written
in Northern Bangzi’qiang, and also in ensemble playing. It is also currently a solo
instrument.
Banhu is differentiated according to its pitches, namely treble Banhu, alto Banhu
and tenor Banhu. Treble Banhu is the main instrument for operatic genres of Hebei
Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Hebei), Pingju (Opera popular in Hebei, Beijing and
Tianjin), Yuju (Henan Opera) and Haha’qiang (Haha Melodic Type); alto Banhu
is used as accompaniment in operas such as Qinqiang (Shaansi Opera), Puju (Puju
Opera in Shanxi) and Meihu (Opera in Shaanxi); tenor Banhu is used in accompanying
Jinju and Shangdong Bangzi operas.
The strings of Banhu are tuned a fifth apart, an exception being when it is used for
Yuju opera in Henan, as the strings are in fourths.
Treble Banhu: tuning: d2—a2

Alto Banhu: tuning: a1—e2
Tenor Banhu: tuning: a—e1
Banhu used in Yuju opera: tuning: g1—c2 or f 1—bb1
Illustration 5-1. The tuning and range of each type of Banhu
Banhu has a range of two octaves and a fourth.

In the 1970s, Shuang Qianjin Banhu (Banhu fiddle with two “thousand-catty”
stops at the middle of strings) and three-string Banhu were invented, modelling on the
alto Banhu to expand its range and enrich its expressiveness.
Banhu has mainly been used in North China, with musicians such as Liu Mingyuan
and Zhang Changcheng being its masters.
Liu Mingyuan (1931–1996), a Banhu performer, was a native of Tianjin. He began
to learn Banhu and Jinghu (fiddle for Beijing opera) in childhood, and later acquired
the skills of playing the Banhu for Pingju opera accompaniment. He was also familiar
with Sizhu (Silk-and-Bamboo ensemble) music. Subsequently, he studied with Guo
Youting, a famous Banhu master of Hebei Bangzi (Clapper Opera of Hebei), and
Wang Dianyu, a renowned performer of the bowed instrument Dalei (long stick
fiddle). His other teachers include Se Laxi, performer of Matouqin (Mongolian Horse
Gead Fiddle), Wu Enqi, a performer of Sihu (four-string fiddle) and master of Yuju and
Quju operas in Henan Province. In the process, he has acquired a broad experience
on folk music, as well as outstanding performing techniques. In his long career, Liu
managed to integrate his skills and knowledge on the Banhu, and raise the image
and artistry of the instrument to a new level. His representative repertoire includes
Daguniang’mei (A Fair Lady, arranged by Peng Xiuwen), Daqi’ban (A Great Opening
Beat, arranged by He Bin) and Qinqiang Paizi’qu (Labelled Tune from Qinqiang
Opera, arranged by Guo Futuan).
Zhang Changcheng is a famous performer of the alto Banhu, and his repertoire
includes Hongjun Gege Huilaile (Red Army Brothers Returning, composed by
Zhang Changcheng and Yuan Ye) and Xiuying (The Girl Xiuying, arranged by
Zhang Changcheng). Other Banhu popular pieces include Dengjie (Lantern Festival,
composed by Bai Jie and Qi Renfa, and performed by Gu Daru) and Hua’bangzi
(Flowery Bangzi Clapper, composed and performed by Yan Shaoyi).
3. Matouqin and Its Music
Matouqin is a Mongolian bowed instrument popular in Inner Mongolia, Liaoning,
Jilin, Heilongjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Xinjiang, where Mongolians live.

Matouqin has acquired its name because the decoration of its scroll resembles
the shape of a horsehead. However, in early days, the decoration did not resemble
the head of a horse”. Legends tell that the image resembles the “dragon and horse”,
a totem for worship, and a symbol of auspiciousness and happiness. Matouqin has
long been regarded as a romantic instrument, as there are folklores about its origin. A
legend in the Western Region records that a herdsman uses the horse-skin to cover the
sound box of the instrument to commemorate the deceased animal, the bone as sound
box, the leg bone as the fiddle stick, the horse tail as strings and bow hair. The upper
end of fiddle stick is decorated with a small horse head.
In the thirteenth century, the era of Genghis Khan (1206–1227), the masterpiece
Maxim of Genghis Khan documents the musical instruments used in the feast of Royal
Palace, “You have music produced with Huwuer and Chaoer” (names used to refer
to Matouqin), and there is evidence that bowed instruments were used during Royal
Feasts at Palace. The resonance box of the early Matouqin resembles that of a pear
or a spoon. The “Instruments for Banquet Music” in The Annals of Yuan Dynasty63
records the shape of the Huqin as, “Huqin, the shape resembles Huobusi, bent neck,
dragon scroll; two strings, played by a bow with horsetails.” Matouqin later developed
into a sound-box with long handle, inserted neck, and of trapezium-shape. It is
covered with horse or sheep skin, with two horsetail strings.
The modern Matouqin for professional use was remodeled by Sang Dureng, Zhang
Chunhua and Qi Baoligao.
Matouqin has many methods of tuning, such as: tuning in fourths: A—d, the range
is an octave; transverse tuning in fifths: a—e, the range is twelve degrees; modern
Matouqin tuning: d—a, the range is two octaves.
Since the bow-hair of the Matouqin is not fixed between strings, the player can
perform double stops. The strings are pressed either by the second and the third joint
of left hand, or by finger nails from the inner side of the string outwardly. Left-hand
techniques include trills, percussion effect, portamento, double stops and pizzicato;
right-hand techniques include long bow, short bow, quick bow, slow bow, spiccatos,
staccatos, détaché bows, slurred bows and col legno (using bow-stick to play).
Sometimes, two fingers are placed on the third and fourth positions to perform double
stops a semitone lower to simulate horse neigh, and it is a unique style of Matouqin.
The instrument is often used as accompaniment to folk songs and narrative music, but
it can also be played as a solo instrument or form part of an instrumental ensemble.
Famous players include Se Laxi, Sang Dureng and Qi Baoligao. Standard traditional
repertoire of the Matouqin includes Senji Dema; newly composed pieces include
Qingliangde Kengkai (Cooling Sky, by Sang Duren and Qi Baoligao), Wangma
Benteng (Ten Thousand Horses Racing, by Qi Baoligao) and Caoyuan Chuntian
(Spring on Grassland).
63 Song Lian (Ming Dynasty). “Instruments for Banquet Music”, Vol. 74. The Annals of Yuan Dynasty. Beijing:
China Publishing House 1976, p 1772.
4. Sihu and Its Music

Sihu is a bowed instrument of ethnic minorities in Mongolia, Dahaner, Xibo,
Hezhe and Buyi, as well as by and Han people; it has acquired its name owing to its
four strings, and it is played in folk music of northeast, north and southwest China.
An aulic fresco of Andahan period (i.e. Altan Khan period, 1507–1582) depicts a
female musician holding an instrument with a barrel shape sound box, thin neck, four
tuning pegs on the scroll and a horse tail bamboo bow, which is a testimony of the
dissemination of Sihu in Inner-Mongolia in the sixteenth century.
Traditional Sihu has three different sound box shapes — cylindrical, hexagonal and
octagonal. By the 1950s, Zhang Chunhua modernized the instrument: it has evolved
into a family of instruments, distinguished according to their tunings, for example
bass Sihu, alto Sihu and treble Sihu.
Bass Sihu can be tuned in fourths: A A d d, with a range of a tenth, or in fifths: d d a a,
with a range of two octaves, if used for solo and ensemble.
Treble Sihu can be tuned in fifths: d1 d1 a1 a1, with a range of three octaves; or c1 c1
g1 g1, with a range of two octaves.
Alto Sihu can be tuned in fifths: d1 d1 a1 a1, with a range of two octaves.
When bass Sihu is used for accompaniment, the second joints of index and ring
finger of left hand are mainly used for pressing the strings. Common left hand
techniques include vibrato, glissando and harmonics. The middle finger is mainly
used for producing percussion effect and vibrato, while the little finger is for playing
glissandi and harmonics on the first position. Bowing technique is relatively simple,
and the middle of the bow is frequently used. A very characteristic technique in solo
and ensemble music of Sihu is the plucking of the inner string with thumb finger
nail of the left hand while hitting the sound box with the wooden part of the bow,
producing a kind of percussive effect.
Famous repertoire of Sihu includes traditional pieces such as Wanli (Ten Thousand
Miles), Ganglaima and He Yinghua; new compositions such as Manggusi and Bayin
(Eight Tones). Traditional repertoire for alto Sihu includes Asier and Menggu Bayin
(Mongolian Eight Categories of Musical Instruments). Traditional repertoire for
treble Sihu includes Bayin (Eight Tones), He Yinghua, Han Xiuying, Yingdelema,
Huayao’diao (Colourul Twisted Tune), Nongenjiya and Asier; new compositions
includes Neimeng bayin shierdiao (Inner Mongolian Eight Tones and Twelve Tunes),
Asier Shier’diao (Asier Twelve Tunes), Dongmeng Minge Liantao (Face Song
Cycle of Eastern Mongolian Folksongs), Huanlede Caoyuan (Happy Prairie), Muma
Qingnian (Young Horse Hearding Lad) and Xunma’shou (Horse Trainer).
Famous Sihu musicians include Sun Liang, Chao Lu, Wu Yunlong and Shuang Hu.
C. Plucked String Instruments
1. Qin (Seven Stringed Zither)
(1) About Qin
Qin was formerly known as Qixian Qin (Seven-stringed zither), and it has a long-
standing history. The instrument was called Guqin (ancient instrument) after the
Tang and Song Dynasties. The earliest literary sources of Guqin are Shijing (Book
of Songs) and Shangshu (Book of History). Guqin was first set for five strings, and it
evolved into a seven-string instrument in the Zhou Dynasty. As early as Western Han
period, Hui (white dots made of tortoise shell on top soundboard marking positions
of harmonics) came into being. Since the Period of the Three Kingdoms, Guqin’s
characteristic design of seven-string and thirteen-Hui has remained unchanged.
Guqin has gone through a long history. There were already players of the
instrument in the periods of Spring and Autumn and Warring States, and famous
masters included Shi Juan, Shi Kuang, Shi Wen and Shi Xiang. Important early Qin
pieces include Gaoshan (High Mountain), Liushui (Flowing Water), Yangchun (Early
Spring) and Baixue (White Snow). In the Han and Wei Dynasties, Cai Yong and his
daughter, as well as Ji Kang and Ruan Ji were renowned composers and performers
of Guqin. Famous pieces in the period include Guangling’san (Story of Guangling),
Da Hujia’ming (The Sounding of Big Hujia Flute), Xiao Hujia’ming (The Sound of
Small Hujia Flute) and Jiukuang (Drunken Craze). Other important works include
Changqing, Duanqing, Changce and Duance (Short Rules) composed and performed
by Ji Kang; there are five well known pieces attributed to Cai Yong, namely Youchun
(Spring Outing), Lyushui (Lyushui River), Youju (A Secluded Life), Zuochou
(Distressed while Sitting) and Qiusi (Nostalgia in Autumn). In the Tang Dynasty,
the literary score for recording Qin music in characters was fully established; these
tablature scores rely on Chinese characters to specify the finger used, sequence of
string and position of Qinhui, therefore instructing players to prepare the left and
right hands for playing a note. Jieshidiao Youlan (Secluded Orchid in Jieshi Mode),
transcribed by Liang Qiuming in the Southern Dynasties, is the only extant tablature
score of this kind. Zhao Yeli at the end of Sui Dynasty and the beginning of the Tang
Dynasty further developed Guqin notation by compiling popular fingering techniques
and contemporary methods of scoring, and he wrote the treatises Tanqin Youshou’fa
(Right-hand Techniques of Performing Qin) and Tanqin Shoushi’tu (Illustrations of
Hand Movement of Performing Qin). Cao Rou in the late Tang Dynasty invented
“Jianzi’pu” (Notation with Abbreviated Characters)–the prototype of modern
“Jianzi’pu”–by simplifying Qin tablature score, so as to reduce its complexity and
inconvenience. The Jianzi’pu relies on symbols denoting full characters, and hence
spares the eyes of the player from unnecessary distractions.
Dong Tinglan (active during the Tang Periods of Kaiyuan and Tianbao) was a
renowned Qin performer excelled in performing Qin pieces Da Hujia (Big Double-
reed Flute) and Xiao’hujia (Small Double-reed Flute). Another Qin performer, Xue
Yijian (active in the Tang Period of mid-Tianbao) was famous for performing Sanxia
Liuquan (Flowing Spring Water in Three Gorges), Wuye’ti (Crying in Evening)
and Baixue (White Snow). Chen Kangshi (a Qin player in the late Tang Dynasty)
composed the famous piece Lisao (The Lament). Song Dynasty saw the emergence
of many Guqin pieces. Guo Chuwang (1190–1260), an outstanding Qin performer in
the Southern Dynasties, has contributed much to the development of Guqin music,
with compositions such as Xiaoxiang Shuiyun (Mist and Clouds over Dongting
Lake), Fancang’lang (Waves Coming Over) and Qiuhong (Autumn Geese). Other
outstanding works include Wangji (Empty Mind) and Wujiang’yin (The Song
of Wujiang River) by Liu Zhifang; Yuge (Fishing Song), Qiaoge (The Song of
Woodcutter) and Peilan (Having Orchid) by Mao Minzhong. These pieces represent
another peak in Guqin music. Given the rapid development of printing technology in
the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Qin scores were available in large quantities. Over 150
Qin scores have been printed, and over 300 Qin pieces were believed to be composed
in the Ming Dynasty alone. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, famous Qin pieces
include Qiuhong (Autumn Geese), Pingsha Luoyan (Wild Geese Alighting on a Sandy
Beach), Yuqiao Wenda (Conversation between a Fisherman and Woodcutter), Oulu
Wangji (Sea Gull and Empty Mind), Longxiang Cao (Song of a Flying Dragon) and
Wuye Wuqiufeng (The Leaves of a Chinese Parasol Dancing in the Wind of Autumn).
According to Ming and Qing records, there were Guqin schools such as Jiang and
Zhe Schools, as well as other branches, such as Shu, Min, Zhongzhou, Guangling
and Yushan Schools. Famous Qin artists of the period include Yan Cheng, Xu Hong,
Jiang Xingchou, Xu Changyu, Wu Hong, Jiang Wenxun and Zhang Kongshan. The
theoretical treatise Xishan Qinkuang (Artistic Conception of Xishan for the Qin)
written by Xu Shangying exemplifies the development of Guqin art.
Since the founding of the People’s Republic, Guqin music has received much
attention. There has been official support for activities related to the preservation and
promotion of music for the instrument, including research, collection and publication
of scores and literary materials. Many talents on Guqin emerged, laying a solid
foundation for the continued development of its music.
While Guqin has certain common structural features, its shape can vary, and there
is a special name for each, such as Zhongni (Confucius), Lianzhu (Connected Pearls),
Luoxia (Sunset) and Jiaoye (Plantain Leaf). The curved surface board is decorated
with thirteen pitch marks called Qinhui, and the instrument can produce up to 91
harmonics.
There are three main methods of tuning the Guqin (known as “Qindiao”, or Modes
of Qin). The first is “Zhengnong (Principal Modes)”, which can give rise to five
modes which are listed below.
Zhengdiao mode (do = F). Solmizations of seven strings are sol, la, do, re, mi, sol, la.
Ruibin mode (do = @B). Solmizations of seven strings are re, mi, sol, la, do, re, mi.
Manjue mode (do = C). Solmizations of seven strings are do, re, mi, sol, la, do, re.
Mangong mode (do = G). Solmizations of seven strings are mi, sol, la, do, re, mi, sol.
Qingshang mode (Small Beautiful Jade mode, do = @E). Solmizations of seven
strings are la, do, re, mi, sol, la, do.
The second is “Cenong (Supplementary Modes)”, which gives rise to four
Supplementary modes.
Huangzhong’yun Cenong (do = C), solmizations of seven strings are do, re, fa, sol,
la, do, re.
Wuyi’yun Cenong (do = @B), solmizations of seven strings are re, mi, sol, la, si, re,
mi.
Linzhong’yun Cenong (do = G), solmizations of seven strings are fa, sol, @si, do, re,
fa, sol.
Jiazhong’yun Cenong (do = @E), solmizations of seven strings are la, si, re, mi, #fa,
la, si.
The third is “Waidiao (Outer Mode)”. It is used in the special tunings for a
certain piece, such as Manshang mode in the famous piece Guangling’san (Story of
Guangling). Solmization in the key of C: do, do, fa, sol, la, do, re.
There are other modes, such as Liyou (Farewell and Sadness), Mingquan (Sounding
Spring), Cechu (Side Plant) and Wumei (Without Matchmaker), making a total of over
twenty different ways of tuning the Guqin. Its range is from C to d3.
Zhejiang School of Guqin puts much emphasis on solo performance. In the
Ming and Qing Dynasties, performers of this School were very active, and they
have left many outstanding compositions, including Shenqi Mipu (Mysterious and
Secret Musical Scores, edited by Zhu Quan, 1425), Qinpu Zhengzhuan (Authentic
Scores of Qin Music, edited by Huang Xian, 1547–1561), Xingzhuang Taiyin Buyi
(An Addendum to the Supreme Tone by Xingzhuang, edited by Xiao Luan, 1557)
and Wenhuitang Qinpu (Music Scores for the Qin from Wenhuitang, edited by Hu
Wenhuan, 1596).
Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, Yan Cheng and other Guqin artists founded
the famous Yushan School, highlighting the essences of “Qing-clear, Wei-subtle,
Dan-light and Yuan-remote”. Major Qin scores preserved by the School include
Songxianguan Qinpu (Musical Scores for the Qin from Songxianguan, edited by
Yan Cheng, 1614), Dahuange Qinpu (Musical Scores for the Qin from Dahuange,
edited by Xu Hong, 1673), Songfengge Qinpu (Musical Scores for the Qin from
Songfengge, edited by Chen Xiong, 1677) and Liaohuaitang Qinpu (Musical Scores
for the Qin from Liaohuaitang, edited by Yun Zhigao, 1702). Guqin solo music was
further developed when Xu Changyu founded Guangling School at the turn of the
Qing Dynasty; its performing style was similar to that of Yushan School. The scores
preserved by Guangling School include Chengjiantang Qinpu (Musical Scores for the
Qin from Chengjiantang, edited by Xu Changyu, 1686), Wuzhizhai Qinpu (Musical
Scores for the Qin from Wuzhizhai, edited by Xu Qi, 1722), Ziyuantang Qinpu (Musical
Scores for the Qin from Ziyuantang, edited by Wu Hong, 1802) and Jiaoan Qinpu
(Musical Scores for the Qin from Jiaoan Temple, edited by Qin Weihan, 1868).
Besides Yushan and Guangling Schools, other styles of Guqin which had survived
until then also included Fanchuan, Jiuyi, Zhucheng, Lingnan, Xinzhe, Pucheng and
Fengyang.
Guqin music has its unique features, which can be summed up in three manners of
tone-production, namely San (open strings), Fan (harmonics) and An (pressed notes).
While one or more of these techniques may appear in an introduction of a piece to
form a mild contrast, as the music develops, the three modes of playing can appear in
quick succession, generating much variety in timbres, and hence capable to creating
excitement, and lead the music to a climax. Another feature is the huge possibilities in
varying the methods of pressing and hence the tone, such as Xu (empty), Shi (concrete),
Zouyin (glissando), An (pressing), Hua (slide), Zhuang (beating effect) and Youyi
(wobble).
Prominent recent performers of Guqin artists include Guan Pinghu, Wujinglue,
Long Qinfang, Zha Fuxi, Zhang Ziqian, Xia Yifeng, Gu Meigeng and Yang Xinlun.
(2) Wu Jinglue (1907–1987) and Meihua Sannong (Plum Blossom in Three
Variations)
Wu Jinglue is remembered as an outstanding Guqin player who had a profound
knowledge of Chinese traditional music. His of interpretation of Guqin music is
unique and creative, which allowed him to develop a personal style, characterized
by melodies that are flowing, expressive, varied, emotional, soft and lyrical. His
performance often carries emotions of a large swing, these being achieved by his
unique incorporation of rhythms and timbres. His representative pieces include
Xiaoxiang Shuiyun (Mists and Clouds over the Dongting Lake), Yuqiao Wenda
(Conversation between Fisherman and Woodcutter), Meihua Sannong (Plum Blossom
in Three Variations), Wuye Wuqiufeng (Leaves of Chinese Parasol Dancing in Autumn
Wind), Hujia Shibapo (Eighteen Beats Played on the Hujia) and Yi’guren (Memories
of an Old Friend).
Meihua Sannong is also known as Meihua’yin (Song of Plum Blossom),
Meihua’qu (Piece of Plum Blossom) and Yufei’yin (The Dong of a Jade Lady); it
is originally a piece of flute music attributed to Huan Yi of the Jin State (265–420)
which was later transcribed as Guqin music. According to an elucidation of the title
in Shenqi Mipu (Mysterious and Secret Musical Scores), “This piece was transcribed
and preserved by Yao Xian. Huan Yi and Wang Yiyou were musicians who only knew
each other by name. One day they finally met, and they got off their carriages for a
chat. Wang Yiyou asked, ‘I heard that you are proficient in flute?’ Huan Yi took his
flute and played the tune of Meihua Sannong. Later generations of musicians have
played it on the Guqin.”
The earliest score of Meihua Sannong for Qin is found in Shenqi Mipu (Mysterious
and Secret Musical Scores, compiled by Zhu Quan, 1425); it is also included in later
Qin scores such as Xilutang Qintong (Music Scores for the Qin from Xilutang, 1549),
Zangchun’wu Qinpu (Music Scores for the Qin from Zangchunwu, 1602), Ziyuantang
Qinpu (Music Scores for the Qin from Ziyuantang, 1802), Jiaoan Qinpu (Music
Scores for the Qin from Jiaoan Temple, 1868), among over forty other collections of
Qin scores.
The piece compares the noble character of plum blossom in standing against cold
winter with snowstorm, alluring to the high moral standard of Chinese against adverse
conditions.
“Sannong” means three thematic transformations hence the piece is in three
sections. According to early written sources, the original flute piece with the same
title includes three variations (Sannong), that is, variations in the high, low and
middle registers (the last Younong in Chinese). In the 33rd volume of Yuefu Shiji (The
Poetry Collection of the Music Bureau), quoting from Gujin Yuelu (Collection of
Ancient and Modern Music), it reads, “There are six tunes from the Qing Dynasty.
The instruments involved are Sheng mouth organ, Di flute (low register, high register
and varied register), Chi (reed flute), Jie clapper, Qin zither, Se zither, Zheng zither,
Pipa lute, eight in total. There are also four songs with string instruments.” In spite
of this explanation, there remains certain mystery to the real meaning of the title. The
three variations of the theme of the Qin piece also appear in different registers of the
instrument: the high register (or Shangzhun, near the fourth and fifth Hui pitch marks),
middle register (or Zhongzhun, near the seventh Hui), low register (or Xiazhun, near
the ninth and tenth Hui). The style of variation relates to the three techniques of
variations in performing ancient flute music.
Meihua Sannong is based on two contrasting themes. The first is bright, with a
bouncing character, and based on Gong (first degree) and Zhi (fifth degree) of the
pentatonic scale, featuring intervals of a fourth, fifth and octave, rendering a sense of
freshness for the melody.
Example 5-10. Excerpt from second section of Qin piece Meihua Sannong
This theme appears in the fourth and the sixth sections respectively. The second
nong (the fourth section) appears at the middle register, with the melody in harmonics
being played an octave lower; the third nong (the sixth section) appears at the middle
register. Despite the identical pitches of its appearance in harmonics at lower and
upper registers, the melody at the third nong contains many octave leaps, and Jiahua
(adding embellishments) technique of embellishment is applied at the ending, as
the music unfolds, enhancing the contrast and making the music more vivacious
compared to the music from the first and the second nong.
After each presentation of the theme rich in harmonics, there is an emotionally
coherent melody highlighting agile maneuvering techniques of the left hand. The first
appearance of this subsidiary theme exploits the bass register of Qin, interspersed with
strong timbre of open strings, providing much energy to the melody.
The fifth section exploits the higher range, and in this respect, is unique in
the whole piece. The melodies are expanded, displaying techniques such as Gun
(downward glissando), Fu (plucking backward with thumb or four fingers) and Cuo
(plucking by left hand). The rhythm is active and a new melody is unfolded.
The seventh to ninth sections create excitement by rapid, brief melodies, as well as
leaps of two octaves, leading to a climax.
Meihua Sannong is conceived by assigning the variations to different ranges of
Qin. Contrast is achieved by different means of tone production, including pressing
strings, harmonics and the use of open strings, so as to distinguish the two themes
of contrasting characters, and provide a somewhat expected mundane atmosphere of
authentic Qin music.
(3) Guan Pinghu (1897–1967) and Liushui (Flowing Water)
Guan Pinghu was born in Beijing, even though his ancestors were from Suzhou
in Jiangsu Province. Guan’s fingering techniques for Guqin are steady and firm,
carrying a profound meaning in music aesthetics; his repertoire for Qin includes
Guangling’san (Story of Guangling), Liushui (Flowing Water), Yangchun (Early
Spring), Yuge (Fishing Song), Qiuhong (Autumn Geese), Ainai (Sound of Oar) and
Shuixian’cao (Song of Narcissus). He also took the lead in transcribing ancient scores,
hence has contributed much to the preservation of the performing tradition. He made
the first performing score (involving skills known as Dapu, interpreting score) of
Guangling’san, which has become the standard version.
Liushui (Flowing Water) is based on the legend of Boya performing Gaoshan and
Liushui (High Mountain and Flowing Streams) to the appreciative friend Zhong Ziqi,
and the incidence was first recorded in Liezi’s (an ancient scholar) Tangwen (Questions
of Tang) dated back to the pre-Qin Period. The current Qin score is much more recent,
as it was first seen in Shenqi Mipu (Mysterious and Secret Musical Scores) edited by
Zhu Quan in 1425. The general understanding in this book is that “Gaoshan (High
Mountain) and Liushui (Flowing Water) were originally one piece. Gaoshan describes
high mountains, which is appreciated by the kind-hearted, while Liushui depicts
flowing water, music for the bright mind. The piece was divided into two by the Tang
Dynasty, and in the Song Dynasty, Gaoshan had four verses while Liushui eight
verses.
Liushui (Flowing Water) was included in over 40 scores in the Ming and Qing
Dynasties. Zhang Kongshan, a famous Guqin player of Chuan School at the end of
Qing Dynasty, finalized the transcription of Liushui from his teacher Feng Tongyun,
who had added the sixth section highlighting the techniques Gun (downward
glissandos) and Fu (plucking backward with thumb or four fingers) to the popular
eight-section version forming a nine-section piece. Zhang’s version is called “72
Gunfu Flowing Water”, or “Chuan School’s Flowing Water”, “Grand Flowing Water”
or “Zhang Kongshan Flowing Water”. It was published in Tianwenge Qinpu (1876) by
Tang Yiming, and it has been disseminatng for a few generations.
Regarding the essence of Liushui, Ouyang Shutang (pupil of Zhang Kongshan)
has the following vivid descriptions in his postscript of the piece in Qinxue Congshu
(Collected Series of Qin Tutorial, edited by Yang Zongji 1910), “The second and third
sections describe the streams sounding in spacious mountains; the fourth and fifth
sections portray small streams branching out from the mountains, gradually merging
into a larger stream, with water flowing like sea waves; until the Gunfu (up-and-
down glissandos) section, portraying the waves surging in the sea, as if a dragon were
roaring. When listening to it carefully, we feel that we sit on a hazadous boat, passing
the Wuxia Gorge, bewildered and losing consciousness. It is a challenge to our souls.
We imagine that we are running into the mountains, and jumping over the rivers. The
seventh, eighth and ninth sections describe the boat passing through waves, while
the stream runs smoothly, although there are small waves hitting the stones, and
sometimes a small vortex is formed. After listening to the piece, one sighs, ‘Woo, the
sea! The old tune can rarely be heard!’”
Liushui has nine sections. First section, with Sanqi (free rhythms), is the Prelude;
the main theme is concealed in slightly truncated and blurred melody.
The Second and Third Sections reinforce the first theme in a facile style, featuring
harmonics to portray continuous flowing river.
Example 5-11. Excerpt from the second section of Liushui
The Fourth and Fifth sections are played with pressing technique of the left hand,
hence generating a firmer tone. There is a robust melody depicting upsurging water, in
contrast to the somewhat hollow harmonics from the Second and Third sections.
Example 5-12. Excerpt from the fourth section of Liushui
The Sixth Section encompasses plenty of techniques, including Gun (downward

glissando), Fu (plucking backward with thumb or four fingers) on the right hand,
Chuo (sliding upward) and Zhu (sliding downward) on the left hand, creating the
lively scene of vigorous rapids that roar forcefully, and to reach the climax of the
piece.
The Seventh Section is sort of transition; its short and rapid harmonics abate the
tension. The concluding Eighth and Ninth Sections involve intermittent Gun and
Fu techniques to evoke the appeasing water waves. When the player switches from
harmonics to pressed notes, the final crisp harmonic gives an impression of motionless
water in a serene atmosphere.
The whole piece is based on a lyrical theme, aiming to impress the listener through
mimicking the natural scenery.
New compositions of the instruemnt are relatively small in number: famous
examples include Shengli’cao (Song of Triumph, by Wu Jinglue), Zanmen Xinjiang

Haodifang (Xinjiang is a Nice Place, arranged by Wu Jinglue) and Meiyuan Yin (Chant
of Plum Garden, by Gong Yi).
2. Zheng Zither
(1) About Zheng Zither
The earliest documentation of the history of Zheng is seen in “Li Si Jian Zhukeshu”
(Guest Eradication Proposal by Li Si) in Volume 87 of Shiji (Book of History), “Beating
jars, playing Zheng, and beating the thigh while singing. The music was so beautiful
that it was real music from Qin State. 64” This proves that in the second century
B.C. (Pre-Qin period), musicians in Qin State were using Zheng to accompany
singing. In 1970, coffins deposited on the cliff dated 500 B.C. were uncovered in
the tomb clusters of Xianshui Yan of Guixi County of Jiangxi Province. There are
two instruments resembling the thirteen stringed Zheng. If these are indeed early
remnants of Zheng, the discovery will open a new pathway for the historical origin of
the instrument, which corroborates that in the early Qin period, the use of Zheng was
not restricted to Qin State, but also in Yue Countries in South China. This piece of
evidence is dated four centuries before the Shiji (Book of History, written in 93 B.C.,
West Han period), and over a millennium before any documentation of Zheng that
resembles thirteen-string instrument.
According to Liyue’ji (Rites and Music Records) citing from Fengsu Tongyi (A
Comprehensive Account on Customs) written by Yingshao in Han Dynasty, “Zheng
has five strings, with body like Zhu zither.” Xu Shen of the Eastern Han Dynasty
writes in Shuowen Jiezi (Interpreting Words, ancient dictionary), “Zheng, with
plucking strings, and body like Zhu zither” … “Zhu, five string instrument played
with a bamboo stick”. These quotations show that Zheng was originally a five-string
instrument, and it bore resemblance to Zhu in its physical appearance. While Zheng is
plucked with fingers, Zhu is struck with bamboo stick. Zheng subsequently developed
into a 12-string instrument in the Qin and Han Dynasties, increasing to 13 strings
in the Tang and Song Dynasties, 14 and 15 strings in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties
and 16 strings in the Qing Dynasty. Zheng and Se are similar in shape, and are sister
instruments. The difference between them is that Se consists of at least 23 or 25
strings. Owing to this factor, Zheng and Se have different sequencing of phonemes.
In addition, Se is reserved for ceremonial music, while Zheng can be performed in all
occasions, such as Xianghe’ge in Han Dynasty, Qingshang Yue in South and North
Dynasties, as well as Nine and Ten Kinds of Court Music at imperial palaces of the
Sui and Tang Dynasties.
Since the foundation of People’s Republic, the number of strings of Zheng has
been increased first to 21, then 25, and 26. The modern instrument is used in solo
performance, as well as part of an ensemble, and as accompaniment.
64 夫击瓮叩缶，弹筝搏髀而歌呼呜呜，快耳目者，真秦之声也。Si Maqian (Han Dynasty): “Li Si Jian

Zhukeshu” (Guest Eradication Proposal by Li Si) in Volume 87 of Shiji (Book of History).Beijin: China’s
Publishing House (Zhonghua Shuju), first edition, 1959, pp 2543-2544.
Physical changes of Zheng include the use of nylon-steel wound strings besides
those previously made of steel, nylon or silk. The body of the traditional Zheng
is rectangular, but the modernized instrument has different shapes, including one
modelled on butterfly. Physical reforms of the Zheng have led to rapid development of
performing technique.
13 stringed Zheng: A—d2

16 stringed Zheng: A—a2
21 stringed Zheng: D—d3
25 stringed Zheng: A1—g3 (option 1); D—b3 (option 2)
Illustration 5-2. The range of Zheng of different designs
The tunings of the strings are based on the pentatonic scale. Fa and si are executed
by pressing the mi and la strings. This is based on the principle of “Yiyun Busheng”
(using rhyme to supplement pitches), or playing pitches other than tuned strings–
particularly pitches to decorate the pentatonic scale–by means of pressing strings with
the left hand. This technique of using the left hand to obtain the rhyme will enrich
expressive power, and is therefore a unique feature of Zheng melodies. The technique
has two melodic applications: the first is chromatic embellishment, which has no
modal/tonal function. It is found in Zheng music in Shandong, Henan as well as that
of Hakka people. The second application is functional, which leads to modal/tonal
change, and is mostly seen in Zheng music of Chaozhou. Modes such as Qing’sanliu
(unpressed three and six), Zhong Sanliu (pressed three and six) and Huowu (movable
five) can be acquired through the left hand technique “Yiyun Busheng”. Most Northern
Zheng pieces are in D mode, while those of other regions use the modes of D, G, C
and A.
When performing Zheng, the left hand is used for pressing the strings, while
the right hand for plucking. Basic techniques of right hand include Pi (thumb plays
inwards), Tuo (thumb of right hand playing outwards), Mo (index finger plays
inwards), Tiao (index finger plucks outwards), Gou (middle finger plays inwards), Ti
(middle finger plays outwards), Da (fourth finger plays inwards), Dazhi’yao (thumb
trill) and Shizhi’yao (index finger trill). Performing techniques of the left hand include
tremolos, string-pressing, sliding (upward and downward), vibrato and harmonics.
Gua, or thumb playing a glissando, is a main feature, as it produces a characteristic
effect which shaping a melody, which can either be regarded as melodic or ornamental.
When Gua is used as an embellishment, it does not make any fundamental change to
the melody as the core pitches stand hence the execution is short and transient. When
Gua technique is applied melodically, it has the task of extending it, hence becoming
very conspicuous.
(2) Important Zheng Zither Schools
Owing to the differences in language, living condition and customs, Zheng
music in China has developed into various local styles with their own features.
Representative regional styles include Zhongzhou Gudiao (Ancient Tunes of Henan
Province in Central China), Qilu Qinqu (Shandong tunes for Qin), Wulin Zheng (Silk
and bamboo music of Hangtan ), Fujian Zheng (Fujian Zheng music), Hakka Zheng
(Hakka Zheng music) and Chaozhou Zheng (Silk and bamboo music of Hanjiang).
Shandong Zheng music is popular in Juancheng Counties of Heze region in
Shandong. The genre was originally performed in conjunction with Shandong
Qinshu (Dulcimer Songs of Shandong, a kind of narrative singing) and later became
independent instrumental music. Famous artists of Shandong Zheng music include Li
Lianjun, Zhang Niansheng, Zhang Weizhao, Zhao Yuzhai, Fan Xiyu, Gao Zicheng,
Zhang Yingyi and Han Tinggui. Famous pieces of Shandong Zheng music include
Gaoshan Liushui (High Mountains and Flowing Streams), Hangong Qiuyue (Autumn
Moon Over the Han Palace), Zhaojun’yuan (Zhaojun’s Resentment, also known
as Meinv Sixiang, meaning Beautiful Girl Missing Her Hometown), Fengxiang’ge
(Phoenix Song), Da’baban (Large Eight Beats) and Siduan’jin (Four Beautiful
Sceneries).
Henan Zheng music is popular throughout the Province. The genre is based on
musical materials of Henan opera, Dadiao Quzi Bantou’qu (Instrumental Introduction
of Narrative Singing of Henan), and also style of local theatrical works. Famous
performers include Wei Ziyou, Lou Shuhua, Cao Zheng, Liang Zaiping, Cao Dongfu,
Wang Shengwu and Ren Qingzhi. Important repertoire includes Tianxia Datong
(A Great Universal Unity), Xikai’lian (Starting a New Beat), Gaoshan Liushui
(High Mountains and Flowing Streams), Dayan (Hunting Wild Geese), Guiyuan
(Sorrows of a Maiden), Zhaojun Hefan (Zhaojun Marrying a Foreign Prince to Make
Peace), Luoyuan (Landed on Yard), Shanglou (Going Upstairs) and Xialou (Going
Downstairs).
Hakka music refers to folk instrumental music popular in Cantonese Regions
inhabited by people speaking Hakka dialect. Hakka Zheng music is chiefly popular
among Hakka people in Guangdong and Southwest Fujian Provinces. Hakka Zheng
music is influenced by Hanju opera music (local opera in Hubei Province) and local
folk music, forming a unique style. Famous performers of Hakka Zheng music
include He Yuzhai, Luo Jiuxiang, Rao Qingxiong and Li Deli. Important repertoire
includes Chushui’lian (Floating Lotus), Pingshan Le (Happiness of Pingshan
Mountain), Yashan’ai (Sorrows of Yashan Mountain), Jiaochuang Yeyu (Evening Rain
Beating on the Leaves of Japanese Banana Window Outside), Tiaolian (Opening the
Curtain), Feicui Dengtan (Jade Emerges from Water), San’chuci (A Chuci Poem),
Yu’lianhuan (A Jade Chain), Qianli’yuan (Predestined Relations from Thousand Li)
and Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General) . The tonalities of melodies of Hakka Zheng
music is divided into Yingxian (hard strings) and Ruanxian (soft strings). The former
means light and pretentious music styles; the latter is applied to melodies that are
primitive and elegant, with meandering outline.
Chaozhou music refers to folk instrumental music popular in Cantonese regions
dominated by people speaking Chaozhou dialect. It is popular in Chaozhou, Shantou.
Zheng music in these regions is an integral part of Chaozhou Xianshi (Poetic Strings
of Chaozhou, a local instrumental ensemble). Famous performers include Guo Ying,
Su Wenxian, Lin Maogen, Huang Changfu and Huang Huiyuan. Important repertoire
includes Hanya Xishui (Winter Ravens Flying Over Water), Huangli’ci (Oriole Poem),
Zhaojun’yuan (Zhaojun’s Resentment), Liuqing’niang (A Slender Lady), Pingsha
Luoyan (Wild Geese Alighting on a Sandy Beach) and Xiaotao’hong (A Little Red
Peach). Modes for Chaozhou Zheng music include Qing Sanliu (unpressed three and
six), Zhong’sanliu (heavy three and six) and Huowu (movable five), and they are
played with varied timbres.
The music of Qing’sanliu (unpressed three and six) is light and lively; that of
Zhong’sanliu (heavy three and six) is winding and thick; while Huowu (movable five)
nurtures a sad and austere mood. Chaozhou Zheng music relies much on tonal and
metre changes to develop the melodies.
Besides the traditional pieces, folk musicians have also composed or arranged
music that can are important Zheng repertoire, such as Yuzhou Changwan (Singing
of Fishing Boat at Night, arranged by Lou Shuhua, and fingering by Cao Zheng),
Nao’yuanxiao (Celebrating Lantern Festival, fifteenth of the first month, arranged by
Cao Dongfu), Qing’fengnian (Celebrations of Harvest Year, arranged by Zhao Yuzhai)
and Xin’kaiban (New Opening Beat, arranged by Ren Qingzhi).
(3) Analysis of Hanya Xishui (Winter Ravens Flying Over Water)
Chaozhou Zheng piece Hanya Xishui is one of the ten famous pieces of Chaozhou
Xianshi Ruantao (Soft Suite of String Ensemble of Chaozhou) music (mode of
Zhong’sanliu, or pressed three and six).
The piece depicts the naughty scene of jackdaw playing with water. The melodies
are exceptionally attractive, richly decorated by pressed notes and trills, and
imaginative changes of tone colour. The alternate appearance of notes in octaves,
coupled with swift and light sliding effect, create a unique scene of the birds enjoying
themselves.
Hanya Xishui is in the so called “Sixty-eight Beat Form”, also known as “Baban’ti
(Eight Beats Form )”.
The “Baban’ti” has the following features: “Baban” was originally an instrumental
Qupai (labelled tune) popular across China, and its structure is organized into 68 bans
(that is 68 bars). “Baban’ti” is thus a form based on this Qupai scheme. According to
traditional music practice, a group of 8 downbeats is called one Daban (Big Beats).
Hence eight such phrases are eight Dabans. 68 beats refers to Eight Dabans with extra
4 Dabans (normally inserted after the fifth phrase), and the form is called “Baban’ti”.
Many traditional Zheng pieces are conceived in this structure, such as Chushui’lian
(Flouting Lotus) in Hakka Zheng music, Hanya Xishui (Winter Ravens Flying Over
Water) in Chaozhou Zheng music, Gaoshan Liushui (High Mountains and Flowing
Streams) in Shandong Zheng music and Suwu Sixiang (Suwu Missing Home) in
Henan Zheng music.
Hanya Xishui is in three sections. These three sections are based on the same tunes
with different rhythmic patterns.
First part, called Erban (Double Beats), is also known as Touban (First Beat), is in
4/4 metre and Lento;
Second part, called Kaopai (Off Beats, also known as Kaoda), is in 1/4 metre and
in syncopated rhythm;
Third part, Sanban (Third Beat), also known as Zhongban (Middle Beat), is in
1/4 metre and Allegro. This section is played with a technique called “Cui (Rushing
Beats)” employed in Chaozhou music, which is essentially a kind of variation based
on changing rhythmic patterns, usually applied to end a piece in fast and lively
atmosphere. Occasionally, Hanya Xishui is performed with only the first Lento
section.
Example 5-13. Comparison of melodies of each section of Chaozhou Zheng piece Hanya Xishui:
Erban, Kaopai, Sanban, Sanban Cui
Hanya Xishui uses the mode of Zhongsanliu (heavy three-six), one of the modes
characteristic in Chaozhou Shixian. Zhongsanliu applies the technique of pressing on
the pitches of “three (la)” and “six (mi)” to produce the pitches of ↓si and ↑fa. Thus,
it produces tonal changes in performing, culminating in the sequence of sol, (la), ↓si,
do, re, (mi) ,↑fa, sol sequence, deviated from the original sequence of sol, la, do, re,
mi, sol. This adds colour to the profound emotion expressed.
(4) Analysis of Yuzhou Changwan (Singing of Fishing Boat at Night)
Yuzhou Changwan, with score transcribed by Lou Shuhua, and edited and
performed by Cao Zheng, is a piece inspired by a line from a poem entitled
Tengwangge Xu (Preface of Tengwang Pavilion) written by Wang Bo of the Tang
Dynasty. The famous line reads: “Fishing boat singing at night, and the sound spreads
all over the Pengli Lake.65” It vividly depicts the scene of fishermen boating back at
the sunset, aptly expressing the author’s passion for the beautiful scenery, either real
65 渔舟唱晚，响穷彭蠡之滨。
or imagined.
The piece is in two parts. The first part is a lento to introduce a serene, evocative
and singing scene by water at night. Coupled with the decorative technique of vibratos
of the left hand, the music presents a poetic view of a beautiful fishing village.
Melodic structure of the first section is that the theme is introduced and it finishes
on a half-cadence with the Jue (the third degree) as final (bar 1-5); it is re-enforced
and repeated in a shortened form, ending in Zhi (the fifth degree), the tonic of the
mode (bar 6-9). It then leads to a slightly contrasting section with Shang (the second
degree) as final (bar 10-13); the theme is reiterated in a varied form, and ends on
the tonic of the mode (bar 14-18). This is followed by a transition making use of
rhythmic pattern of the second section. When the note fa is played with pressing and
vibrato technique, amidst lively glissandi and delicate modal changes (switched from
A-Zhi mode, the fifth degree is on A, to a-Shang mode, the second degree on a); these
instigate an emotional turmoil.
Example 5-14. Excerpt from Yuzhou Changwan
The second section begins with continuous changes of rhythmic patterns, pushing
the melodic development twice in the speed of allegro, and as exciting emotions build
up, there are vivid presentations of the hectic sounds of oar and scull movements, as
well as water splashing. As these picturesque sound patterns are compressed, and the
pace quickened, the music resorts to Cuiban (rushing beats), a performing technique
unique to Zheng, to portray the happy scene of fishing boats approaching the bank as
songs are being sung.
The coda of the piece brings the music back to a serene atmosphere, closing the
piece on the D-Zhi mode a fifth lower, echoing the mode at the end of the first section.
Yuzhou Changwan (Singing of Fishing Boat at Night) is based on the melodic
changes of the piece Baban (Eight Beats), which is intertwined with Gong (third
degree)-Che (second degree)-Shang (first degree), solmization mi- re- do; or, Gong
(third degree)-Che (second degree)-Shang- (first degree)-Si (sixth degree)- He (fifth
degree), solmization mi- re- do- la- sol. However, in the juxtaposition of different
phrases, the changes are considerable, and the musical structure is compact and
rigorous, particularly in the application of imitations and accelerando in the second
part, where the simple means are used to portray extra-musical ideas. The melodies
are fresh and inspiring, which are unique characteristics of Zheng music. The structure
of the piece deviates from the traditional Baban, and it became a new form in Zheng
music since the 1930s.
(5) Newly Composed Zheng Pieces

Examples of newly composed Zheng music include Qing’fengnian (Celebrations
of Harvest Year, composed by Zhao Yuzhai), Chundao Lasa (Spring Coming to
Lhasa, composed by Shi Zhaoyuan), Donghai Yuge (East Sea Fishing Song, composed
by Zhang Yan), Lin Chong Yeben (Lin Chong Escaping at Night, composed by Lu
Xiutang and Wang Xunzhi), Huanxiang’qu (Fantasy, composed by Wang Jianmin)
and Lin’an Yihen (Remaining Regret at Lin’an, composed by He Zhanhao). Recent
prominent Zheng performers include Zhang Yan , Xiang Sihua, Wang Changyuan and
Fan Shang’e.
3. Pipa Lute
(1) About Pipa Lute
Pipa is an instrument with a name derived from its performing style: “Pi” and “Pa”
refer to the two performing techniques of the right hand. Shiming (Explanations of
Names) by Liu Xi of the Eastern Han Dynasty, reads, “Pipa is played on horseback.
Plucking outwards is Pi, while plucking inwards Pa. The name shows how the
instrument is to be played.” During the Qin and Han Dynasties, two types of
Pipa were documented. One is referred to as “Pipa with straight finger board”, an
instrument that has a long handle and circular sound box, which is covered with skins
on both sides, and it is said to have evolved from tao drum (small double-framed
dish-like drum with a handle) around the end of the Qin Dynasty. Hence, it is also
known as “Qinhan’zi”. The other type drew inspiration from a range of instruments
made of wood, such as Zheng zither, Zhu zither and Konghou harp. The instrument
has a wooden, straight finger board, circular sound box, four strings and twelve
frets, which is to be played with hands. It is also known as “Ruan” or “Ruanxian”
for an instrumentalist named Ruan Xian, a scholar of the Jin Dynasty renowned as a
performer. In the Eastern Jin Dynasty, “Pipa with bent neck” was introduced to North
China from Xiyu (the western region). After modifications through in the Tang and
Song Dynasties, Pipa finally took the form of a pear-shaped, four-string, fourteen frets
instrument.
“Zhengdiao (Authentic tuning)”: A d e a;

“Zhenggong Biandiao (Altered Authentic Mode)”: A B e a, A d a a, etc;
“Nanyin Pipa (Southern Tune Pipa)”: d g a d1.
Illustration 5-3. There are different ways of tuning the Pipa, three most common ones being:
The modern Pipa has 6 Xiang frets (on the upper neck) and 24 Pin frets (on the
body). Its range is A–e3 covering all the semitones within.
The playing techniques of Pipa are very imaginative, both for left and right hands.
Right-hand techniques include Tan (index finger of right hand plucking outwards),
Tiao (thumb plucking inwards), Lunzhi (five fingers playing Pipa strings quickly in
turns), Zhefen (index finger and thumb of right hand plucking strings together) and
Saoxian (sweeping four strings together); left-hand techniques include Tui (pushing),
La (pulling), Yin (small amplitude vibrato) and Rou (big amplitude vibrato). One can
play single notes, double notes, triple notes and quadruple notes. It is also possible
to play chords like major and minor triads (root position and inversions), dominant
seventh and minor seventh chords. However, the effect will be better if the chord can
involve one or two open-strings. Pipa can also be used to play polyphonic music,
especially as heterophonic accompaniment.
The art of Pipa performance underwent rapid development in the Tang Dynasty.
In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Pipa performance was divided into Southern and
Northern Branches. Other than a handful of scores which have survived from the Tang
Danasty, most extant Pipa scores belong to these two Branches preserved since the
mid-Qing Dynasty. The following are examples of Pipa scores currently available:
Dunhuang Pipa’pu (Dunhuang Pipa Score, 933 A.D.): it was originally stored in a
secret location at Dunhuang Mogao Caves. There 25 pieces collected.
Fanjia’chong (Pipa Accompaniment Score, 774 A.D.), extant score of Japanese
Tianping from the Tang Dynasty.
Wuxian’pu (Five-string Score, c. tenth century). There are a total of 28 pieces for
Wuxian Pipa (Five-string Pipa).
Yisuzi Pipa’pu (Pipa Score Edited by Yisuzi, 1762). The collection includes Gudiao
Bacao (Eight Variations on Old Tunes) and Xindiao Bacao (Eight Variations on New
Tunes).
Nanbei Erpai Miben Pipapu Zhenchuan (True Copy of Secret Pipa Score of
Southern and Northern Branches, 1819) collected and preserved by Hua Qiuping, and
edited by Hua Wengui.
Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqu Pipa Xinpu (New Edition of Thirteen Great Pipa Pieces
from North and South), with scores edited by Li Fangyuan) printed in 1895.
Yingzhou Gudiao (Ancient Tunes from Yingzhou), edited by Shen Zhaozhou,
published in 1916.
Pipa’pu (Pipa Score), edited by Wang Yuting (1942).
From mid-Qing Dynasty, main figures in Northern and Soutern Pipa Branches
include: Wang Junxi, Chen Mufu, Hau Qiuping, Xu Yuezhuang, Wu Wanqing and
Yang Yinliu of Wuxi School in Jiangsu Province; Li Tingsen, Li Yu, Li Shengyong,
Li Qiyu, Li Fangyuan, Wu Mengfei, Cheng Wujia, Wu Baijun, Zhu Xingqing, Fan-
Boyan and Yang Dajun of Pinghu School in Zhejiang Province; Jiang Tai, Huang-
Xiuting, Shen Zhaozhou, Liu Tianhua, Xu Lisun and Cao Anhe of Chongming School
in Jiangsu Province; Chen Zijing, Yan Qingxu, Wang Huisheng, Shen Haochu, Wang-
Yuting and Lin Shicheng of Putong School in Shanghai.
According to Yang Zhengxuan Pipa’pu (The Musical Score for Pipa by Yang
Zhengxuan), the repertoire of Pipa can be divided into two major categories, namely,
Taoqu (suite, or sectional pieces) and Xiaoqu (small tune). The former refers to pieces
that are either long or consist of multiple consecutive Qupai (Labelled Tunes) in
variation form, which can be further divided into Wutao, or Wuqu (Military Style),
Wenban, or Wenqu (Elegant Style) and Daqu (Long Pieces).The latter are pieces
written in Liuba’ban (Six-Eight Beats) form.
Pipa Wutao (Music in Military Style) is a descriptive or narrative genre organized

according to a plot, similar to a novel in chapters, hence it is usually conceived in
grand scale, so as to accommodate vivid depiction with twists and turns. Techniques
such as Saoxian (sweeping four strings together), Shayin (using right hand to stop
strings vibrating), Jiaoxian (making two strings intertwined), Tuipin shuangxiang
(pushing and pulling two strings back and forth), Pai (right hand beating the Pipa
body), Ti (index finger of right hand flipping Pipa body) and Manlun (five fingers
playing Lun once) are used to creative a vigorous atmosphere. Its repertoire includes
Shimian Maifu (Ambush on All Sides), Bawang Xiejia (The Warlord Disrobing His
Armour), Haiqing Na’tianer (Eagle Catching the Swan), Han Jiangjun’ling (Song of
the General of the Han Dynasty), Man Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General of the Qing
Dynasty) and Shuijun Caoyan (Exercises of the Navy).
(2) Analysis of Shimian Maifu (Ambush on All Sides)
Shimian Maifu is based on the historical event when the Han army besieged the
Chu army in the Battle of Gaixia in 202 B.C., hence evoling the title of the piece.
According to Shiji (Book of History), in the Battle of Gaixia, Liu Bang gathered an
army of 300 thousand soldiers from his warlords to besiege Xiang Yu’s army of 100
thousand soldiers in Gaixia. The Chu army of Xiang Yu had gone out of supplies,
hence all soldiers were exhausted, and they were defeated in daylight. When night
falls, Liu Bang followed the proposal of his think tank Zhang Liang, and ordered his
Han army to sing songs from Chu regions, so as to harass Xiang Yu’s army by testing
their morale. Xiang Yu realized that he was going to lose the battle, and drank wine in
midnight, as well as bidding farewell to his concubine Yu Ji, a famous scene in Beijing
opera. Xiang then led a troop of 800 and tried to break through the surrounding
enemies at night, but in vain. At dawn, Xiang Yu ordered his senior general Guan Ying
to pursue his enemies. As Xiang Yu crossed the Huaihe River, only a hundred of his
men survived. When they arrived at Yin Ling (present north-west Dingyuan County,
Anhui Province) they lost their way. Xiang Yu asked a peasant for direction, but was
betrayed and entered a swamp where they came across Guan Ying. By then, Xiang Yu
only had 28 soldiers left, in contrast to a thousand cheering soldiers of the opposite
Han army. Xiang Yu was seriously injured and killed himself by the side of Wujiang
River, ending the five-year War between Chu and Han.
The origin of Shimian Maifu. Towards the end of the Ming and beginning of
Qing Dynasty, Wang Youding documented the lively scene of Tang Yingzeng, a
well-renowned Pipa performer, playing the piece Chuhan (Chu and Han Dynasties)
in a chapter “Tang Pipa” collected in the book Sizhaotang Ji (Collection from
Sizhaotang),“ The piece called Chuhan describes battle of two sides. The sound
astonishes sky and earth, as all houses seem to be destroyed. When listening to it
carefully, there are sounds of metal, drum, bow and arrows, shouting and crying of
people and horses. Sometimes, there is silence, but later, there seem to be the song
of Chu State. The sad mood seems to be the weeping of Warlord Xiang Yu. There
are also valedictory signals, people falling into a swamp, pursuers coming up; then
at Wujiang River, there are sounds imitating the suicide of Xiang Yu, pursuers riding
horses over his corpse. The audiences are sometimes excited, and sometimes scared,
but all are cheered up finally. It is really a touching piece.” In this written analysis,
the programme of the piece Chuhan played by Tang Yingzeng is consistent with the
popular Pipa piece Shimian Maifu, regarding its content, images and structure. Hence,
the ancient Pipa piece Shimian Maifu was already popular in the Ming Dynasty.
The development of the music of Shimian Maifu is basically the same as what is
reported in Shiji (Book of History). The piece consists of three main sections. There
is a prologue called “Lieying” (Gathering Troops). The first section is the preparation
for battle, consisting of four paragraphs, Chuida (Military Band), Dianjiang (Calling
for the Generals), Paizhen (Lining Up) and Zoudui (Marching). The second section
consists of three small paragraphs Maifu (Ambush), Xiaozhan (Small-scale Battle),
and Dazhan (Large-scale Battle). The third section comprises two short paragraphs,
namely Xiangwang Baizhen (Warlord Xiang Yu Being Defeated) and Wujiang Ziwen
(Committing Suicide at Wujiang River); The ending section comprises three short
paragraphs, which are Zhongjun Zoukai (All Armies Celebrating Victories), Zhujiang
Zhenggong (Generals Competing for Credits) and Desheng Huiying (Triumphal
Return to Camp).
“Lieying (Gathering Troops)” is the prelude of the piece, and it imitates the sound
Example 5-15. Excerpt from Lieying of Shimian Maifu

of drums and horns, instruments for music in the battlefield, by condensing music
materials. The compactness of the melodies has contributed much to the exceptionally
intense atmosphere of war. The rhythm of drums builds up a sense of urgency, as
the horns play the melody at the high register. The leaps of fourths are characteristic
of music of ancient horns. The tunes are bright, catching and combative, setting the
mood of a fierce battling scene.
The four short paragraphs “Chuida”, “Dianjiang”, “Paizhen” and “Zoudui”
portrait the army of the Han preparing for the forthcoming battle. “Chuida” is a type
of ancient military music performed on grand occasions, when generals show up for
inspection. “Paizhen” and “Zoudui” apply the technique of unrestrained development
of core materials. The image of the superiority of the Han army is presented by
melodies at different registers, strong plucking tone and transpositions.
The second section is the core of the piece. “Maifu” lays the emotional groundwork
for “Dazhan (Large-scale Battle)”, and the latter is preceded by “Xiaozhan (Small-
scale Battle)”. This allows the melodies of the climax “Dazhan” to be presented in
an organised fashion. As the conflict portrayed between “Maifu” and “Xiaozhan”
escalates, particularly by the placement of “Xiao flute Sound” before “Shouting”, as
well as the abrupt change of rhythmic patterns, performing techniques, and emotion of
music in general. The effect of “Shouting” has been intensified. Several characteristic
techniques of the Pipa are displayed here. For example, Xiaozhan (Small-scale Battle)
applies the unique “Sha (squeezing two strings together)”, vividly depicting the
clashing sounds of the battle.
“Dazhan (Large-scale Battle)” is the climax of the piece. It begins with a very
rhythmic passage using fingering techniques “Kuaijia’sao (Four strings of Pipa played
together in a fast tempo)”, injecting fragments of fast motives with part of “Chuida”
melodies to symbolize the power of the Han army. The “Dazhan” includes a section
entitled “Sound of Xiao flute”, which uses melancholic melodies to depict the emotions
of Chu army missing their homes, and in general apprehensive about the war. The
climax of “Dazhan” is the section “Shouting”, which is the climax of the piece. The
simple technique of “Tuipin shuangxiang (pushing and pulling two strings back and
forth)”, characteristic of Pipa, is used to describe the intense fighting between the two
armies. The sounds of “shouting” appear three times in the original version, which is
normally referred to as “Three Rises and Three Falls (Sanqi Sanluo)”.
The third section depicts the victory of the Han army and defeat, and eventual
suicide of Xiang Yu. This part has been expurgated in modern performances, since
after Nahan (Shouting), it is common that the strings get out of tune and the climax
is in the previous “Dazhan” part. In this section, the main part is Wujiang Ziwen
(Committing Suicide at Wujiang River). It conveys a deep sighing melody played
in the lower register of Pipa. It is a touching commemoration for the defeated hero,
Xiang Yu.
The ending section consists of two popular Qupai: Wusheng Fo (Praising Buddha
Five Times) and Hangdong Shan (Shaking Mountain, i.e. the melodies of “Zhongjun
Zoukai (All Armies Celebrating Victories)”, “Zhujiang Zhenggong (Generals Taking
Example 5-16. “Wujiang Ziwen” from Shimian Maifu
Credits)”, “Desheng Huiying (Triumphant Return to Camp)”. The programme here

surrounds the victorious and joyous celebrations of the Han Army.
The chief artistic characteristics of the Pipa Piece Shimian Maifu is that it presents
the historical event of “War of the Chu and Han States”; the battle of Gaixia is chosen
to accentuate the hectic scene of shouting, leading to its climax, and accomplishing
the vivid picture of the attackers and the attacked, as well as victors and the defeated,
presenting the grand and complex scene on the ancient battlefield.
As to its compositional technique, it resorts to some kind of verismo. There is an
attempt to imitate the sound of drum and horn on the old battlefield, the former in
form of rhythm, and the latter on melodies. “Chuida” is used to present the leader
of the Han army, whereas“Maifu” and “Dazhan” express the tension, vibrancy and
danger of the battle. The piece includes the use of creative techniques, so that the
visual aspect of the battle is integrated with emotions, leading to a feeling of inter-
activeness between the music and the audience. The highlight of the piece is the
building up to the heroic scene of the old battlefield.
Shimian Maifu epitomizes the creativity in ancient Pipa music in military style,
and the zenith of performing art of the instrument. This large-scale composite work
has a characteristic musical structure and tonal layout.
(3) Bawang Xiejia (The Warlord Disrobing His Armour)
Bawang Xiejia depicts the defeat of Warlord Xiang Yu in the war at Gaixia in 202
B.C. The date of the original piece remains unknown. The earliest extant score is
included in Hua Qiuping Pipa’pu (Musical Score for Pipa by Hua Qiuiping, 1819).
Bawang Xiejia comprises sixteen parts. Apart from Yinggu (Camp Drum), Bieji
(Farewell to Concubine) and the last part Zhongjun Guili (All Soldiers Returning
Home), all other parts are variations of a single theme. In early sources, each part only
has a title and performing techniques; more details on the plots of the battle appear in
scores published later. Bawang Xiejia is in effect a predominant theme that describes
the figure of Xiang Yu.
The need to express certain emotions has made it necessary for the tuning of Pipa
to change from the usual pitches A d e a to A B e a. This facilitates the accentuation of
Yu (sixth degree) and Jue (third degree), in keys of D and G, to build up a despondent
atmosphere.
The prologue Yinggu (Camp Drum) of Bawang Xiejia resembles the “Lieying” of
Shimian Maifu. However, while the drum in Shimian Maifu sounds bright, sonorous
and tense, “Yinggu” of Bawang Xiejia is overcast and heroic. The piece starts in the
low register of Pipa to unfold the story; the ominous ending is hinted by the low, slow
and blurry beating of the drum and intermittent sound of the horn. This presages the
tragic ending in this battle for Xiang Yu.
Example 5-17. Excerpt from Yinggu of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
(to be
continued)
Example 5-17 (continued). Excerpt from Yinggu of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
The theme that depicts the character of Xiang Yu is stated at Shengzhang (Getting
the Troops Ordered), which is based on free melodic development founded on a slow
and steady rhythmic pattern. However, a strong sense of segmentation is created by
plucking the four strings on the weak beat. The melody only has a narrow range; as it
is developed, the mood remains dark and ominous, as if the image of Xiang Yu were
to be split, an effect produced by alternating the degrees Gong tonic and Yu, sixth
degree, as well as the application of fingering technique of pushing and pulling of the
left hand. The tunes are sad, amidst the background of portraying the heroic and grand
statue of Xiang Yu.
Example 5-18. Excerpt from Shengzhang of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
(to be
continued)
Example 5-18 (continued). Excerpt from Shengzhang of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia
“Dianjiang (Calling for the Generals)” extracts the core motive from Shengzhang
in the first four beats, and moving sequentially on each degree of the pentatonic scale,
forming a unique melody. In the following parts, the melody of “Dianjiang” is varied
using traditional techniques, reinforcing the character depicted in “Shengzhang” and
“Dianjiang”.
The piece portrays the scene of Bieji (Farewell to Concubine) through indirect
means. The tunes are sad, and as they meander, sorrow begins to deepen, as if
supporters of Xiang Yu weep for his defeat. As the music transposes a fifth higher,
that is, from e as Yu (sixth degree) to b as Yu, it accentuates the dramatic effect of the
tragedy. The introduction of Gujiao Jiasheng (Sounds of Drum, Horn and Weapons)
further catalyzes the tragic ending. This section highlights fingering techniques of
Example 5-19. Bieji of Pipa piece Bawang Xiejia

Lunzhi for exquisite performance, allowing the profound meaning of the story to
unfold.
Bawang Xiejia is a Pipa “Wutao (Military Music)” yet it is a narrative and
tends to expressive a deep inner-feeling. It portrays the character Xiang Yu on an
instrospective level through parts such as “Yinggu”, “Shengzhang” and “Bieji”. The
piece is characteristic in the application of a wide range of fingering techniques for the
Pipa.
(4) Xiyang Xiaogu (Sounds of Vertical Flute and Drum at Moonlit Night)
Pipa Wenqu (Music in Elegant Style) is characteristically brief and lyrical. It
expresses inner-feelings with simple and refreshing melody, and brings listeners
to an inviting mental state. It often employs left-hand techniques as Tui (pushing),
La (pulling), Yin (small scale vibrato) and Rou (big scale vibrato), Dai (left finger
plucking a string), Da (beating, one finger pressing a note while another beating
another note) and also harmonics. Important repertoire of Pipa Wenqu includes Xiyang
Xiaogu (Sounds of Vertical Flute and Drum at Moonlit Night), Yue’ergao (The Moon
on High), Hangong Qiuyue (Autumn Moon Over the Han Palace), Saishang’qu (Song
of Frontier Fortress), Qinglian Yuefu (Green Lotus Music Bureau) and Feihua Diancui
(Snow Flurry Adding Colour).
In the treatise Jinyue Kaozheng (Authentication of Contemporary Music) by Yao
Xie (1805–1864) in the Qing Dynasty, an entry named Xiyang Xiaogu was listed in the
supplement of the repertoire of Jiangnan Pipa School. Xiyang Xiaogu first appeared
in the transcribed Pipa score compiled by Ju Shilin (c. 1736–1820) and the manuscript
of Wu Wanqing. Later scores that contain the piece include Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqu
Pipa Xinpu (New Edition of the Thirteen Great Pipa Pieces from North and South), in
which it was renamed Xunyang Pipa (Pipa of Xunyang); and Yangzhengxuan Pipa’pu
(The Score for Pipa by Yangzhengxuan). In the 1920s, “Datong Yuehui (Musical
Society of Great Unity)”, an organisation for the promotion of instrumental music
established in 1920, arranged this piece for folk orchestra, a piece also known as
Chunjiang Huayue’ye (A Flowery Moonlit Night on the Spring River).
The piece comprises eleven sections, and as these are based on the same motive, it
is in some kind of variation form.
The first theme appears in the “Prelude” (the first section). The “Prelude”, uses
disjoint rhythmic patterns to portray the sounds of the drum and Xiao flute (Xiao and
drum make an ancient ensemble that also includes Jia horn. The prelude contains
some of such characteristics). The core pitches of the theme (mi, sol, la and re) appear
in the background of the sounds of drum and Xiao flute, depicting the beautiful scenes
along the river at night.
The core pitches and the first theme based on it make their appearance in the
second section.
Example 5-20. The prelude and theme of Xiyang Xiaogu (Sounds of Vertical Flute and Drum at
Moonlit Night)
The 4 bars of the first phrase include the core material (first 2 bars) and its
sequence a second lower (following 2 bars). The 4 bars of the second phrase are
developed from the core material, and providing some contrast. It links the two halves
(2+2) of the first phrase seamlessly, and creates a minor fluctuation for the paragraph.
The third phrase is based on the melody of the last two bars of the first phrase, and
continues in a sequence a second lower. The last 3 bars are the ending of this section.
The theme of Xiyang Xiaogu is beautiful, fluent and delicate, which is typical of
Southern melodies. The second theme is the foundation of the whole piece, and its
variations are founded on downward sequences of a second in G-gong mode, invoking
a steady atmosphere without drastic emotional changes.
The second core material appears in the fourth section, and later in the fifth,
seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth sections. It usually proceeds in D-gong mode and
is presented in sequence either upwards or downwards, undergoing some structural

changes. The melody is refreshing, and produces more impetus compared with the
first core material.
Xiyang Xiaogu is based on the development and variation of the two core
materials. Its overall layout consists of eleven sections that can be divided into three
large parts.
The first part consists of Sections 2 to 5, which is the exposition. Sections 2 and
3 are the exposition of the first theme, while Sections 4 and 5 are exposition of the
second theme, as well as some kind of consolidation of the first theme.
The second part consists of 6 sections based on material of the first theme, which is
emotionally implicit, and mainly presented in the lower register.
The third part is the recapitulation and further development of the theme. The
seventh section is based on expansion of previous melodic patterns, and it shows a
strong affiliation to the second section. It is also a contrasting section after the sixth
section. The eighth and ninth sections mainly return to the melodies of the fourth
section, making the sixth and seventh sections more unified. As the climax, the tenth
section develops the music intensively by compressing the second melody to two
measures. As the melody descends, much momentum is accumulated, evoking the
happy scenes of waves and boats approaching the river bank.
The ending is a partial integration of the prelude and main theme, as the mood
returns to the tranquil and beautiful scenery of the beginning of the piece, with the
same speed, intensity and emotion.
The piece is based on the technique of continuous unfolding of melody. Core
materials include two melodic patterns, and as they develop and evolve in an
unconspicuous manner, their fundamental characteristics are retained. Each section,
after the material is fully developed, ends with common material, which is a device
called “Hewei (Common Ending)”. This reflects traditional Chinese aesthetics of
producing new expression and emotion in an atmosphere of stillness, and the music is
embedded in the beauty of the Golden Mean and elegance.
Characteristics of Pipa Daqu (Long Pieces) include comprehensive application of
performing techniques of Wenqu (elegant music) and Wuqu (military music), and in a
free, refreshing and predominantly cheerful mood. Outstanding Daqu pieces include
Yangchun Guqu (Early Spring Old Tunes), Dengyue Jiaohui (The Flashing and
Sparkling of Lights and the Moon), Shuilong’yin (Recital of the Water Dragon) and
Longzhou (Dragon Boat).
(5) Yangchun Guqu (Early Spring Old Tunes) for Pipa
The piece can be called Yangchun for short. Yangchun Guqu depicts the scene of the
annual recuperation of land, and the energetic and lively scene of spring through the
joyous and breathless melodies. The mood is light-hearted, with its musical language
being plain and simple. The work not only provides insight on the rich expression of
traditional music, but also reflects the active and optimistic spirits of the Chinese.
While Yangchu Guqu cannot be dated precisely, the title is found in the poem
“Chang’an Chunxue’qu (Chang’an Spring Snow Song)” written by Wang Zhideng of
the Ming Dynasty.The last two lines of the poem reads, “Holding it and only selecting
the piece Early Spring, plucking as the large and small jade pearls on a plate.66” This
poem was probably popular among musicians in the Ming Dynasty, yet whether
this “Yangchun’qu” refers to the present piece with the title “Yangchun” remains an
open question. The earliest version of Yangchun Guqu (Sunny Spring Old Tunes) is
found in the manuscript Pipa Score written by Ju Shilin in 1860 (known as “Liuban-
Six Beats”); it was later included in Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqu Pipa Xinpu (New
Edition of Thirteen Great Pipa Pieces from North and South), edited by Li Fangyuan
in 1895). The piece is also found in Yangzhengxuan Pipa’pu (The Score for Pipa by
Yangzhengxuan), edited by Shen Haochu, and the piece is called Yangchun Baixue
(Snow in Early Spring). It can also be found in the collection of Wang Yuting, under
the title Yangchun Guqu, which remains a popular version of the piece. The melodies
and their development, as well as the general structure of each version, are different.
The scores comprising twelve sections compiled respectively by Li Fangyuan and
Shen Haochu were later referred to as Dayang’chun (Large Early Spring), which is
rarely played nowadays; the seven-section score transcribed by Wang Yuting was
called Xiao Yangchun (Small Early Spring), Yangchun (Early Spring) or Kuaiban
Yangchun (Early Spring in Fast Beat), and it is the one we will discuss in this book.
The piece originally comprised seven sections, but structurally, these can be
grouped into four parts, with each part introduced by Lao’liuban (Old Six Beats).
(i) Part one (original first section): thematic presentation;
(ii) Part two (original second and third sections): further development and
consolidation of the theme;
(iii) Part three (original fourth, fifth and sixth sections): central development;
(iv) Part four (original seventh section): recapitulation and ending of the piece.
Part one of Yangchun Guqu is based on folk melody Lao’liuban (Old Six Beats).
Lao’liuban and Lao’baban are instrumental Qupai (Labelled Pieces) popular in
both north and south China; they have been reworked by folk artists for generations,
hence appear in different guises, such as Kuai’liuban (Fast Six Beats), Dao’baban
(Reversed Eight Beats) in fast tempo; Hua’liuban (Ornamented Six Beats), Zhonghua
Liuban (Moderately Ornamented Six Beats) in slow tempo of Jiangnan Bamboo and
Silk music; and Jinshang Tianhua (Laying Flowers on the Brocade) for Zheng. In its
course of development, a middle sectioin called Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beats)
was added to Lao’liuban (Old Six Beats), forming Xiaoqu (small tune) in Liuba’ban
(Sixty-Eight Beats) structure. The first part of Yangchun Guqu consists of Liushui’ban
in Liuba’ban form.
The first part of Yangchun includes simple decorations to the melody in
Liushui’ban to balance the rhythm smoothen the melody. Technical features include
the use of fingering techniques Tiaolun (thumb of right hand plays the lowest string
outwards, while remaining fingers play other strings), Saolun (index finger sweeps
four strings, followed by four fingers plucking each string in turns) and Tantiao (index
66 抱来只选《阳春曲》，弹作盘中大小珠。
finger and thumb playing alternately). The effects lead to strong and clear timbres to
create a lively, bright and optimistic atmosphere.
While many versions of the theme Lao’liuban and fragments of Liushui’ban appear
in the four parts, new elements are introduced where appropriate to create the right
atmosphere. For example, after the restatement of the opening theme in the second
part, the melodies move to the high register. The use of Saoxian (sweeping four strings
together) creates a mild stirring up of emotions. The variations of the new theme
involve many reiterations of the same pitches, hence constantly splitting the melodies.
This is a kind of diminution borrowed from folk wind-and-percussion music.
Towards the end of the third part (i.e. the third section), new material is developed
with repetition of each note to divide the melody evenly. The fragments are then
reconnected with each repetition shortened, a technique typical of Chuida music
(Military Band). In this process, the technique Banlun (half continuous plucking) is
applied with dynamic changes so as to generate more coherency, and to make the
melody more agile and fluctuating emotionally. The same material is repeated in the
third part (i.e. the fourth section) when it is presented in syncopation, which endows
the music with a particular flavour.
New material is introduced in part III after the melody from the first part is
repeated. This part involves the Pipa technique Zhefen (index finger and thumb of
right hand pluck strings together) so that the melodies are kept steadily, with even
rhythms (all are quavers), in contrast to the bouncing theme of the entire piece.
Against the background of a drone (player continuously plucking a fixed pitch), the
lively melodies in harmonics, alternating strong and weak beats and irregular rhythms,
create an effect of quasi-polyphony. Musical ideas in this part are innovative, coupled
with imaginative performing techniques, evolving a relaxed and joyful atmosphere.
Part four re-presents the melodies of the first two parts. The tempo accelerates, and
the strings are swept hard on the downbeats. This is a grandiose scene of “a great river
flowing eastward, rushing for a thousand miles”. The whole piece is concluded in a
most hectic atmosphere.
(6) Newly Composed Pipa Pieces
There are many recently composed pieces for the Pipa: repertoire in the 1920s
and 1930s include Gewu’yin (Song and Dance), Gaijin’cao (Song of Progress) and
Xulai (Unreal Eternity) by Liu Tianhua; Dalang Taosha (Big Waves Washing the
Sand), Zhaojun Chusai (Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier) and Longchuan (Dragon
Boat) by Hua Yanjun, and many others. After the founding of the People’s Republic,
arranged pieces include Yuanfang’de Keren Qingni Tingxialai (Guests Coming Afar
Please Stay, arranged by Liu Dehai), Liuyang’he (Liuyang River, folk song arranged
for Pipa by Liu Dehai), Tianshan Zhichun (Spring in Tianshan Mountain, arranged for
Pipa by Wang Fandi) and Xi’xiangfeng (Blissful Encounter, original music composed
by Feng Zicun, arranged for Pipa by Kuang Yuzhong).
Outstanding new works include Shudao’nan (Hard Life Along Shu Path, by
Yang Dajun), Yizu Wuqu (Dance of the Yi People, by Wang Huiran), Langyashan
Wuzhuangshi (Five Heroes Jumping Off the Langya Mountain, by Lyu Shaoen),
Chuncan (Spring Silkworm, by Liu Dehai), Tian’e (Swan, by Liu Dehai), Su

(Expressions, by Wu Houyuan) and Chunyu (Spring Rain, by Zhu Yi and Wen Bo).
An outstanding piece is Caoyuan Xiaojiemei (Little Sisters of the Grassland, by Wu
Zuqiang, Wang Yanjiao and Liu Dehai). The last is a concerto for Pipa and orchestra,
which opens a new path for combining a Chinese traditional instrument with the
Western orchestra.
The development of composition for the Pipa surely entails the cultivation of new
performing techniques that will greatly enhance its expressive power. For example,
artificial harmonics and Yaozhi (one finger plucking continuously), provide freedom
to the thumb of the left hand, at the same time changing the movement of right hand
from circular sector to full circular movement, thereby switching the supporting point
from the far joints to the near joints, thus producing a warmer and fuller sound. Since
the 1950s, the art of performing Chinese Pipa has undergone drastic development.
4. Rubab
Plucked string instrument of Uygur and Uzbek people. In Huangchao Liqi Tushi
(Illustrations of the Ritual Paraphernalia at Court) of the Qing Dynasty, Rubab
is categorized in the section of Huibu’yue (Muslim National Music). According to
Qingshi’gao (Draft History of Qing Dynasty) vol. 101, “Rubab, has five silk strings,
two steel strings, with wooden neck connected to the body, which is in the shape of a
half bottle with the bottom covered with leather.67”
Early form of Rubab has a wooden body, with a sound box in hemispheric shape
covered with sheepskin, donkeyskin or horseskin. There are about twenty frets made
of silk on its neck. It has five silk strings, usually one is a chief string, and two courses
(each containing two strings tuned in unison) as resonant strings.
The reformed Rubab’s body is covered by python skin, with frets made of bone
or copper. The size of the instrument is enlarged, so is the range: the bass Rubab, for
example, has a range from d to #a2.
Rubab has many ways of tuning for its one to three main strings. The shape of
the instrument may also differ according to different regions. Most common shapes
include:
First, Kashgar Rubab: mainly used in Kashgar region of southern Xingjiang. It has
five strings. The main string is tuned to e1. The resonant strings are tuned (from inner
to outer) to E, A, d, g.
Second, Dolan Rubab: mostly used among Dolan people in regions. There are two
models: one has a main string; the other with three main strings.
One main-string model: main string is tuned to g, the resonant strings are tuned to c,
g, d1, g1, a1, c2, d2.
Three main-string model has three turnings: (i) the main strings are tuned to d, g, c;
the resonant strings are tuned to f, g, @b, c1, d1, f 1, g1; (ii) the main strings are tuned to e, a,
d1; the resonant string are tuned to g, a, c1, d1, e1, g, a1; (iii) the main strings are tuned
67 Zhao Erxun ( 赵尔巽 Qing Dynasty): Draft History of Qing Dynasty, volume 101. Zhonghua Shuju Press
House, 1st ed., 1976, p 3003.
to c1, d1, g1; the resonant string are tuned to c1, d1, g1, g, g, c1, c1, d1, e1, f 1, g1, a1.
The instrument is held horizontally against the chest. The fingers for pressing the
strings are the index, middle and ring fingers of the left hand. The strings are to be
plucked by a plectrum held by the thumb and index finger of the right hand. Main
playing techniques include Dantan (solo plucking), Shuangtan (double plucking),
Guntan (plucking back and forth rapidly) and Saotan (sweep plucking).
Rubab can be used for solo, accompaniment and in an ensemble. Famous Rubab
players include Dawut Awut and Kurban Ibrahim. Representitive repertoire includes
Tashvay, Gongtepay, Xiadiyana. New compositions include Wode Rewapu (My Rubab,
by Kurban Ibrahim) and Tianshan’de Chuntian (Spring Time in Tianshan Mountain).
5. Dombra
Plucked string instrument popular for Kazak people. Dombra is mainly
disseminated in Altay, Ili, Barkol and other settlements for Kazak ethnic people in
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.
The instrument is made of pine or birch, with semi-gourd shape or flatter body. It
has two strings tuned in a fourth or fifth, and eight to ten frets. Typical tunings are d–g
and e –g, with a range of two octaves.
In 1950s, Dombra went through several modifications. Treble Dombra and bass
Dombra were invented on the basis of the traditional alto Dombra. These three models
can be combined to form a small ensemble. The treble Dombra has four strings.
It has two courses (each has two strings tuned in unison) tuned in fourths or fifths:
c1, c1, g1, g1
d1, d1, g1, g1
Another method is to tune the four strings in fifths: g, d, a1, e2.
Bass Dombra has two strings tuned in a fourth or fifth, and it is an octave lower
than the alto Dombra. The tuning is either C-G or D-G, with a range of two octaves.
Dombra is plucked with fingers. Two basic techniques are Tan (plucking) and Tiao
(plucking backward). Tan is executed by sweeping downward with the index, middle,
ring and little fingers together, whereas Tiao is executed with only the thumb. Other
techniques include Tantiao with the index finger (plucking back and forth rapidly),
Tantiao (index finger and the thumb pluck strings in alternation) and Sao (sweeping
back and forth with four right fingers) and Fu (plucking backward with thumb or four
fingers). In most occasions, two strings are plucked simultaneously. Intervals such as
a third, fourth, fifth, sixth, octave can be played, but it is possible to perform on only
one string on different positions to make specific nuances.
Dombra is often used for solo performance and as accompaniment hence it is
by nature an instrument for self entertainment. Famous players include Aximu,
Simagunuo, Adeerjiang, Alibieke, Taiyile and Dawulieti. The traditional pieces
include Waves of Dayin Lake (Dayinhu de Bolang), Xialafu, Sound of Camel in Desert
(Shamode Tuoling), Red Walking Horse (Zaohongse de Zouma) and Lamed Antelope;
a recently composed popular piece is Early Spring.
6. Yueqin (Moon Lute)
Plucked string instrument popular for Yi, Hani, Buyi and Han peoples. Yueqin is
also known as “Babu”, “Banpi”, “Heba” among Yi people in south-west China, while
Han people may call it “Sixian (Four strings)” or “Xianzi (String instrument)”.
Yueqin has a long history. According to Book of Music, volume 141 by Chen Yang,
“Yueqin has a round body and a long neck, four strings and thirteen frets. It looks
beautiful, and by turning the pegs the strings are tuned. It was invented by Ruan Xian
in the Jin period.68” This means it was in use in the tenth century.
The structure and performing methods of Yueqin may vary greatly depending
on regions and ethnic origins of its players. The Yueqin Yi people play can have
soundboxes in round, hexagonal and octagonal shape, and the number of strings can
vary from two to four, and tuned in fourths or fifths.
Two-string model is tuned to d1, a1; or e1, a1.
The modified Yueqin of Yi people in Liangshan Mountain has three strings, tuned
to d1, a1, d2; or c1, g1, d2; or a, d1, a1.
Four-string model is tuned to d1, d1, a1, a1; or a, d1, g1, c2.
Typical Yueqin of Han people has the shape similar to Ruan, with 5 to 12 frets,
and may have two, three or four strings which are tuned in fourths or fifths, and
occasionally in second — d1, a1 (in fifth); e1, a1 (in fourth); c2, d2 (in second).
The Yueqin of Han people has also undergone great development. The instrument is
used as an accompaniment for Beijing Opera, a solo instrument or even in a concerto
with the Western orchestra. It has different shapes and incorporates very advanced
performing techniques.
The index and the middle fingers are used to pluck the strings (for Han people, a
plectrum is used). It can execute special effects such as double stops, chords, sweeping
notes, vibrato, appoggiatura and glissando. Open notes can be used to achieve a
heterophonic accompaniment.
Yueqin is a major instrument for Yi people, as it is used by young people for
socializing and courtship, as well as accompanying feast and dance. Traditional
repertoire of Yi people includes Ganluo’diao (Tune of Ganluo), Weining’diao (Tune
of Weining), Leibo Diao (Tune of Leibo) , Shuxi’diao (Tune of Shuxi), Caopi’diao
(Turf Tune) , Dali’xian (String of Dali) and Gua’difeng (Wind Sweeping the Earth).
Famous folk artists include Wang Guomin , Li Fuxiang, Shagalihe and Jiziabu. There
are also professional players, such as Shama Wuzhi, to name one.
II. Major Types of Ensemble Music and Their Artistic Characteristics

Folk instrumental ensembles have a long history in China, and there is a diverse
range of varieties, owing to their differing origins and composition. There are
different systems of categorization: this book distinguishes five varieties according to
instrumentation, including Xiansuo music (Stringed Ensembles), Sizhu music (Silk-
and-Bamboo Ensembles), Guchui music (Wind-and-Drum Ensembles), Chuida music
68 Chen Yang (Song Dynasty): Book of Music (Yueshu), volume 141, Guangzhou Jupojingshe Ed., typeset
printing copy from 1876, p 6.
Major Types of Ensemble Music and Their Artistic Characteristics 455
(Wind-and-Percussion Ensembles) and Luogu music (Pure Percussion Ensembles).69

The musical genres have retained their traditional names, or the generic names
assigned by professional musicians since the 1950s.
A. Genres of Xiansuo’yue (Strings Music)
Xiansuo music refers to instrumental music chiefly performed by string
instruments. Three or four string instruments with strong regional characteristics are
normally involved: the principal instruments in Xiansuo Shisan’tao (Thirteen Suites
for String Ensemble) include Huqin fiddle (similar to Erhu), Pipa lute, Zheng zither
and Sanxian lute; Bantou’qu (Instrumental Introduction) in Henan Dadiao Quzi
(Great Narrative Song Genre from Henan) uses Sanxian, Pipa, Zheng and Erhu fiddle;
Chaozhou Xiyue (Refined Music from Chaozhou) uses Erxian (two stringed fiddle),
Zheng and Pipa; and Guangdong Kejia Qingyue (Pure Instrumental Ensemble of
Hakka in Guangdong) uses Touxian (First Fiddle) and Zheng.
1. Xiansuo Shisan’tao (Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble)
(1) About the Ensemble
Xiansuo Shisan’tao refers to the thirteen suites collected in Xiansuo Beikao
(Memorable Scores for String Ensemble), transcribed by Ming Yi (also named Rong
Zhai) in the Qing Dynasty. The publication includes scores with annotations, and it
was dated 1814.70 The titles and structural framework of the 13 suites are as follows:
Suite 1. Shiliu’ban (Sixteen Beats), 16 sections, with a short prelude.
Suite 2. Qingyin’ban (Pure Sound Beats), 10 sections (containing three individual
parts for Pipa lute: the coda, Mulanhua (Orchid Flower), Jiesha (Stopping Beat).
Suite 3. Qingyin’chuan (Pure Sound Cluster), 4 sections, with ending (containing
part scores for sections Chachuan (Clutter) and Zhuzi (Bamboo).
Suite 4. Pingyun’chuan (Level Rhyme Cluster), 3 sections.
Suite 5. Yue’ergao (The Moon on High), 7 sections. There is a title for each
section from the second to the last, namely Guizhi’xiang (Fragrance of Osmanthus
Fragrans), Jie Sanxing (Waking up Three Times), Yubao’du (Jade Around Belly), Jin
Luosuo (Golden Lock), Huamei’xu (Song of Chinese Huamei) and Hongxiu’xie (Red
Embroiderd Shoes).
Suite 6. Qinyin Yueer’gao (The Moon on High with Instrumental Sounds), 7
sections, with same titles as sub-sections of Yue’ergao (The Moon on High).
Suite 7. Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incantation for the Peace), 18 sections, with the
following individual titles:
Chuisi’diao (Fishing Wire); Fotou (Head of Buddha); Puan’zhou (Buddhist
Incantation for the Peace ); Theme 1; First Variation of Theme 1; Second Variation of
69 In 1988, the author put forward a means of classification according to the characteristics of principal
instruments, categorizing a wide range of instrumental music into ensemble led by Di flute ensemble,
ensemble led by Sheng mouth organ and Guan pipa, ensemble led by Pipa, ensemble led by Suona shawm,
ensemble led by strings and Di flute (Sizhu) and ensemble led by percussion instruments. See Yuezhong Xue
(Study of Musical Genres), Beijing: Beijing Huayue Music Publishing House, 1st edition, 1999.
70 Scores transcribed by Rong Zhai in the Qing Dynasty, annotated by Cao Anhe and Wen Yan, and proofread
by Yang Yinliu: First Part of Sansuo Shisantao (Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble). Beijing: Beijing Music
Publishing House, 1955; vol. 2 and 3, 1962.
Theme 1; Third Variation of Theme 1; Theme 2; First Variation of Theme 2; Second

Variation of Theme 2; Third Variation of Theme 2; Theme 3; First Variation of Theme
3; Second Variation of Theme 3; Third Variation of Theme 3; Ending; Jinzi Jing
(Golden Scripture); Wusheng Fo (Calling Buddha Five Times).
Suite 8. Haiqing (Eagle), 19 sections. The 13th section is entitled Chawei
(Removing the Hunting Tools); there is also a title Sanhui Zuo’eming (Third Theme
Describing Swan Cry); and the 19th section is entitled Da’shawei (The Big Ending).
Suite 9. Yangguan Sandie (Three Variations on Yangguan Gate), 6 sections, plus an
ending.
Suite 10. Qingsong Yeyou (Touring at Night in the Forest), 7 sections. The last
section is entitled Weisheng (Ending).
Suite 11. Wuming’ma (Dancing with a Famous Horse), 5 sections. The fifth section
is entitled Dingding’er (Making a Tripot).
Suite 12. Hehuan’ling (Happiness of the Unification), including both original score
and that for Zheng zither. The piece is not divided into sections.
Suite 13. Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General), including original score and score
for Zheng zither, and comprising three sections of introduction, main body and Chugu
Sanduan (Three Sections of Drumming), to be followed by two labelled pieces,
namely Fantian’yao (Sky Accipitridae), Jinchan’bang (Golden Cicadidae), serving as
the ending of the piece.
The Xiansuo Shisan’tao was popular among ordinary people as well as the literary
class in Beijing in the Qing Dynasty. The editor describes the pieces as “ancient music
today” in the introduction. The source of these suites can be traced to Qinyin’ban,
according to the annotation 71,“Qinyin, also called Bianyin (Changed Pitch), was
adapted by Wang Longzhang in current Dynasty, based on Qin zither melodies.72” The
notes for the piece Qinyin Yue’ergao also clarify that the piece “is composed by Wang
Longzhang. These notes name him as a composer for these pieces, and he was said to
have modified and adapted these “old songs” by drawing on performing techniques of
Guqin zither. The compositions also include Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incantation for the
Peace), Haiqing (Eagle) and Yue’ergao (The Moon on High). The piece has a close
association with music for Qin zither and Pipa lute popular in the same period.
The Xiansuo Beikao (Memorable Scores for String Ensemble) includes some clues
for identifying instruments for playing the 13 suites. For example, only Zheng zither
scores are available for Hehuan’ling (Happiness of Unification) and Jiangjun’ling
(Song of the General); the remaining 11 suites invariably use Pipa, Xianzi (three-string
71 Cao Anhe and Wen Yan. Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble, vol. 1. Transcription based on Rong Zhai (Qing
Dynasty)’s Memorable Scores for String Ensemble, proofread by Yang Yinliu. Beijing Music Publishing
House, 1955.
Cao Anhe and Jian Qihua. Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble, vol. 2 and 3. Transcription based on Rong
Zhai (Qing Dynasty)’s Memorable Scores for String Ensemble, proofread by Yang Yinliu. Beijing Music
72 Cao Anhe and Wen Yan. Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble, vol. 1. Transcription based on Rong Zhai (Qing
Dynasty)’s Memorable Scores for String Ensemble, proofread by Yang Yinliu. Beijing Music Publishing
House, 1955, p 6.
instrument), Zheng zither and Huqin (probably Sihu, four-stringed fiddle). Besides,
these suites also include three wind instruments (Xiao flute, Di flute and Sheng mouth
organ) and one bowed instrument (Tiqin, a two stringed fiddle). However, the list
given above is only a possible combination of instruments, as the wind instruments
are “not originally used for stringed ensembles”. Some scores are labelled “unsuitable
for wind instruments” and “extremely unsuitable for wind instruments”, meaning
that such instruments must be avoided. Even though only parts for Zheng zither are
available for Hehuan’ling and Jiangjun’ling, the author notes that “all instruments are
acceptable”, suggesting that the piece is not exclusively for Zheng.
Names of Modes Key Signature and Tuning System for Each Instrument
Pieces Huqin Pipa Sanxian Zheng
Shiliu’ban Tonic = D Xiaogong (third Zhengdiao Zhengdiao ① A B d e #f 1 a b d1
degree) (authentic) (authentic) e1 #f 1 a1 b1 d 2 e3
d1 —a1 Adea A B #f
Qingyin’ Tonic = C Chezi (second Adea A B #f ④ A c d e g a c1 d1 e1
ban degree) g1 a1 c2 d2 e3
d1 —a1
Qingyin’ Tonic = A e1 —a1 Biandiao Biandiao ② A B #c e #f a b #c1
chuan (variable tuning) (Variable e1 #f 1 a1 b1 #c2 e2
ABea tuning)
A A #c #f
Pingyun’ Tonic = A e1 —a1 ABea Pingdiao ②
chuan EAe
Yue’ergao Tonic = C Chezi (second Adea EAe ④
degree)
a — e1
(or c1—g1)
Qingyin Tonic = C Chezi (second Adea EAe ④
Yue’ergao degree)
a — e1
Puan’zhou Tonic = G Zhenggong (fifth G d e a Yuediao ③ A B d e g a b d1 e1
degree) Gdg g1 a1 b1 d2 e2
d1 —a1
Haiqing Tonic = D Xiaogong (third A B e a EAe ②
degree)
d1 —a1
Yangguan Tonic = D Xiaogong (third A d e a Eae ①
Sandie degree)
d1 —a1
Songqing Tonic = C Chezi (second Adea EAe ④
Yeyou degree)
a—e1
Illustration 5-4. The modes of each piece of “Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble” and
the relationship of key and tuning system for each instrument
Wumin’ma Tonic = D Xiaogong (third (1-3 verses) EAe ②

degree) FGea
d1 —a1
Hehuan’ling Tonic = G Zhenggong (fifth A d e a (AB d g) Gdg ③
degree)
d1 —a1
Jiangjun’ Tonic = G Zhenggong (fifth A d e a Gdg ③
ling degree)
d1 —a1
Illustration 5-4 (continued). The Modes of Each Piece of “Thirteen Suites for String
Ensemble” and the Relationship of Key and Tuning System for Each Instrument
(2) Analysis of Selected Work: Hehuan’ling (Happiness of Unification)

Hehuan’ling is referred to as a “Kaishou (Warming Up)” piece, and is one of the
indispensable pieces to be performed during celebrations or festive occasions.
The following is the tuning of each instrument for performing Hehuan’ling, based
on the Xiansuo Beikao:
Huqin fiddle: d1 —a1 (Zhenggong Mode-authentic tuning)
Pipa lute: A d e a (Zhengdiao Mode-authentic tuning) or A B d g (Biandiao-variable
tuning)
Sanxian lute: G d g (Yuediao tuning, tonic=G)
According to the established tradition of performing Hehuan’ling using the
Sanxian, the instrument is tuned to A B #f (Zhengdiao, tonic = D). The Sanxian tunings
for the 13 suites in Xiansuo Beikao include “Zhengdiao (authentic tuning)”, “Pingdiao
(flat mode)” and “Yuediao (Yue mode)”, plus “Biandiao (variable tuning)” as an
extra mode. The four pieces using “Zhengdiao” tuning system include Hehuan’ling
and Jiangjun’ling; seven pieces use “Pingdiao” tuning; one piece uses “Yuediao”
tuning; and one piece uses “Biandiao” tuning. Most pieces should be in “Zhengdiao”,
yet when the suites were transcribed at the turn of the nineteenth century, seven
pieces were in “Pingdiao” tuning. This is probably because “Pingdiao” functioned
as “Zhengdiao” for Sanxian when these string ensemble pieces were notated. Even
though only one piece uses “Yuediao”, such tuning system is standard for Sanxian
as well as Chinese opera, narrative singing and instrumental ensemble music since
the twentieth century (as the “Zhengdiao” authentic tuning system). According to
the changes of Sanxian’s tuning, it shows that the Zhengdiao of Sanxian in Xiansuo
Beikao had been used before the pieces were notated. It also proves that the pieces are
“ancient music today”, as written in the introduction, and that Hehuan’ling has a long
history.
Hehuan’ling includes a prelude and a main section. The structural framework of
the piece is outlined as follows:
A B C B1 D B2 C
Prelude, Part (1), common ending, Part (2), Druming, Part (3), Common ending
Apart from the prelude, the structure of the main section of this piece comprises
“three parts”, including “Hewei (Common Ending)” or “Chugu (Drumming)” in
between each of the two variations. The piece is lively and expressive, and is one of
the most frequently performed pieces among the 13 suites.
2. Henan Dadiao Quzi Bantou’qu (Instrumental Introduction for Great Narrative Song
Genre of Hennan Province)
With a history dated back to the mid-fifteenth century, Henan Dadiao Quzi used
to be called Guzi’qu (Music of Storytelling). The genre was based on folk tunes from
North and South China, particularly those popular in Bianliang (present Kaifeng),
and then gradually incorporating Chaqu (Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and Tunes)
fashionable in the North during the reigns of Emperors Yongzheng (1723–1735) and
Qianlong (1736–1795) of the Qing Dynasty. This independent regional narrative
genre is also influenced by musical language in Central China. There is a reference
in Shishang Xiaoling (Short Fashionable Tunes) in volume 25 of Wanli Yehuo’bian
(Miscellaneous Records in the Reign of Wanli Emperor) written by Shen Defu in the
Ming Dynasty:
“Small tunes in the Yuan Dynasty were performed in Yan and Zhao areas, and
these gradually became fashionable. From the era of Ming Xuande and Zhengtong
(1426–1449) to that of Chenghua and Hongzhi (1465–1505), labelled tunes such as
Suonan’zhi (Locking Southern Branch), Pangzhuang Tai (By the Make-up Table)and
Shanpo’yang (Sheep on Hill) became popular. Mr. Li Kongtong, a native of Qingyang
living in Bianliang, listened to the music, and thought that it possessed the qualities
of the Guofeng (Airs of the States, folk poems collected in Shijing-Book of Songs). Mr.
He Dafu endorsed this view, and has fallen in love with the music.”73
It is therefore possible to conclude that small tunes became highly popular after
the reign of Emperor Hongzhi in the Ming Dynasty. There is another reference in
Shishang Xiaoling (Small Fashionable Tunes):
“After this period (in the Ming Dynasty), there were also labelled tunes such
as Shuai’haier (A Naughty Boy), Zhuyun’fei (Stopping the Clouds Flying) and
Zui’taiping (Enjoying the Peaceful Time). During the Jiajing and Longqing Periods
(1522–1572), labelled tunes such as Nao’wugeng (Celebrating at Dawn), Jisheng’cao
(Parasitic Grass), Luojiang’yuan (Sorrow by the Luojiang River), Ku’huangtian
(Crying the Sky), Gan’heye (Dry Lotus Leaf), Fenhong’lian (Purple Lotus Flower),
Tongcheng’ge (Song of Tongcheng) and Yinniu’si (Threading the Silver String) became
popular. These tunes were less popular in regions stretching from Huaihe River to
Southern Jiangsu Province, even though two labelled tunes - Dazao’gan (Beating
Stem of Dates) and Guazhi’er (Osmanthus Fragrans Tree) - were similar to folk tunes
in the South. These two pieces were enjoyed by men and women alike, and nearly
everyone learned to sing them. Thus they were successfully preserved, as they satisfied
73 Shen Defu (Ming Dynasty): Wanli Yeuo Bian (Miscellaneous Records in the Reign of the Wanli Emperor),
volume 25. Beijing: Beijing Zhonghua Publishing House, 1st edition, 1959, p 697.
Li Mengyang, also known as Kongdong, 1472–1529.
He Jingming, also known as Dafu, 1506–1521.
people’s desires.”74
The source above vividly refers to fashionable folksongs, many of which have
been preserved. There are 34 types of small tunes identified in the Ming Dynasty.
Currently, there are twelve types of Guzi (Narrative) songs. Among these, nine types
belong to those popular in Bianliang, and they can be regarded as Northern tunes,
and these include Shanpo’yang (The Sheep on Hill), Shua’haier (A Naughty Boy),
Nao’wugeng (Celebrating at Dawn), Jisheng’cao (Parasitic Grass), Luojiang’yuan
(Sorrow by the Luojiang River), Ku’huangtian (Crying the Sky), Tongcheng’ge (Song
of Tongcheng), Yinniu’si (Silver Thread) and Dazao’gan (Picking Jujubes). In the
article “Popular Tunes in the Reign of Emperor Qianlong75” written by Fu Xihua, the
author explains how he collected 44 types of tunes from North, South and West China,
and transcribed these in four books, namely Wanhua Xiaoqu (Myriad Colourful
Small Tunes) , Xidiao Huanglidiao Jichao (A Collection of Yellow Warbler Tunes
from Western Area), Mishang Dupu (Subsequent Scores of Rainbow Tune) and Sixian
Xiaoqu (Small Tunes for Strings).76 Printed during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, 21
of these pieces are Guzi music, and they include Xidiao (Western Tunes, also called
Beigong, Plagle Mode, or Xi’niusi-Western Threading String), Jisheng’cao (Parasitic
Grass), Chaqu (Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and Tunes), Pipo’yu (Breaking the
Jade), Jian’dianhua (Cutting Blue Paper Flowers), Dazao’gan (Picking Jujubes),
Bianguan (Frontier Gate), Luojiang’yuan (Sorrow of Luojiang River), Dieluo Jinqian
(Dropping Money), Gua’difeng (Wind Sweeping the Earth), Ku’huangtian (Crying
the Sky), Yichuan’ling (A Cluster of Bells), Yinniu’si (Silver Thread), Yu’elang (A
Handsome Man), Matou (Harbour), Daoban’jiang (Oak Upside Down), Chuiqiang
(Wind Music), Lianhua’lao (The Lotus Flower Tune), Yaya’you (Onomatopoeia),
Tongcheng’ge (The Song of Tongcheng) and Jinniu’si (Golden Threading). The
sources listed above help clarify the close relationship between small tunes popular
in Bianliang and Guzi tunes. The latter genre developed from Northern small tunes
in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and their origins are tunes from Kaifeng (former
Bianliang). Thus, Guzi tunes are essentially from Bianliang.
By the end of the Qing Dynasty, there were changes in the performing style and
content of Guzi tunes in rural areas. These melodies were used in a narrative genre,
and texts were presented mainly in third person (seldomn in first person). As it
evolved, the texts were mostly presented in first person like opera, gradually leading
to the development of four stylized roles, namely Heshang (monk), Laodan (old lady),
Xiaosheng (young man) and Guniang (Xiaodan, young girl). Since these performances
could include acting, the genre became very popular. The dramatic Guzi tunes were
called “Xiaodiao Quzi (Small Tunes)”; the Guzi tunes that retained the original artistic
characteristics were called “Dadiao Quzi (Big Tunes)”.
74 Shen Defu (Ming Dynasty): Wanli Yeuo Bian (Miscellaneous Records in the Reign of the Wanli Emperor),
volume 25. Beijing: Beijing Zhonghua Publishing House, 1st edition, 1959, p 647.
75 乾隆时代之时调小曲。
76 Wanhua Xiaoqu《万花小曲》, Xidiao Huanglidiao Jichao《西调黄鹂调集钞》, Mishang Dupu《霓裳
读谱》, Sixian Xiaoqu《丝弦小曲》。
The traditional Dadiao Quzi (Big Tunes) is performed by a principal singer, with
response from a small vocal ensemble. The songs can also be sung as duets. The lead
singer holds Shouban clapper while other performers sing and play instruments such
as Zheng, Sanxian and Pipa independently. Amongst the accompanying instruments,
the Sanxian is indispensable, and of course, such a combination is similar to that of
“Xiansuo” music popular in Henan, Shandong and Anhui Provinces since the mid-
Ming Dynasty. The performance of “Dadiao Quzi” is usually preceded by several
instrumental pieces. When these pieces develop and expand, they become independent
from dramatic songs, with the instrumental pieces called “Bantou’qu”.
Bantou’qu is popular in many areas, particularly Suiping, Nanyang, Kaifeng,
Qinyang, Dengxian, Xuchang, Zhou Jiakou and Yuxian. Principal instruments for
Bantou’qu are plucked strings, including Sanxian lute, Pipa lute, Zheng zither, Yueqin
lute and Yangqin dulcimer. Bowed strings are also included, such as Erhu (also known
as Erweng), Jinghu (bowed fiddle) and Zhuihu (another kind of bowed fiddle). Wind
instruments are rarely involved; only Xiao flute is occasionally used. Percussion
instruments include Ban (a kind of clapper), Bajiao’gu (Octagonal Drum) and Yuegu
(Yue Drum). The four principal instruments are Sanxian, Pipa, Zheng and Erhu.
The medium-sized Sanxian is used in Bantou’qu; the large and small Sanxian are
rarely involved. The most common keys are F and G, with the instrument tuned to
G-d-g or F-c-f.
The structure of Bantou’qu is based on music of 68 beats. Representative pieces
of Bantou music include: Gaoshan Liushui (High Mountain and Flowing Streams),
Sixiang (Homesickness), Shanglou (Going Upstairs), Xialou (Going downstairs),
Dayan (Hunting Wild Geese), Luoyuan (Landing on the Yard), Qi’yanhui (Crying for
Yanhui) and Guizhong’yuan (Sorrows from a Girl’s Room). Outstanding performers
of the genre include Cao Dongfu from Nanyang, Wang Shengwu from Qinyang, Liang
Zaiping and Cao Zheng from Suiping and Ren Qingzhi from Xuchang.
B. Genres of Sizhu’yue (Silk-and-Bamboo Music)
Sizhu Music: the core of the ensemble is one or two string instruments, with one or
two wind instruments. For example, the instrumental ensemble of Erren’tai Paizi’qu
(Labelled Piece for the Two-narrator Dance-drama Erren’tai) includes Sihu (four-
stringed fiddle), Di flute (known as Mei to local people) and Yangqin dulcimer. In
Jiangnan Sizhu (Silk-and-Bamboo Flute Ensemble in Southern Jiangsu Province),
the core instruments include Erhu fiddle and Di flute (or Xiao flute); In Guangdong
Yinyue (Cantonese Instrumental Ensemble), the principal instruments include Yuehu
(high-pitched fiddle), Qinqin lute (three-string lute, or Pipa lute), Yangqin dulcimer
and Xiao flute (or Houguan, throut pipe).
1. Erren’tai Paizi’qu (Labelled Piece for the Twoo-narrator Dance-drama Erren’tai)
Erren’tai Paizi’qu refers to a folk genre in Fugu and Shenmu of North Shaanxi
Province, Hequ in Northwest Shaanxi, Yike Zhaomeng, Baotou and Huhehaote of
Inner Mongolian, as well as Zhang Jiakou area in Hebei Province. It is traditionally
known as Dazuo’qiang (Seated Singing), Dawan Yier (Playing for Entertainment),
Naohong’huo (Noisy Celebrations), Xiaoqu Zuochang (Small Narrative Tunes
Performed while Seated) and Qingchang (Pure Singing). In its long course of
development, the genre of singing small tunes while sitting gradually expanded
to include an element of narration. Erren’tai Paizi’qu is also influenced by music
for dancing, Yangge (Field Dance) and Shehuo (Folk Festival, Community Fire)
and local operas, as it is evolved from solo singing into duet, and performance in
costumes. The two performers undertake different roles, and they sing while dancing.
Amazing breakthroughs have been made in its dancing and drama, as its name changes
from “Dazuo’qiang” to “Erren’tai”. After “Erren’tai” came into existence, there is a
distinction of three types of performing styles: first, singing and dancing called Huopao
Quzi (Fire Cannon Music); second, narrative singing, which is also known as Yingma’xi
(Hard Opera) or Wenxi (Civil Play); third, instrumental ensemble, which is also known
as Erren’tai Paizi’qu (Labelled Piece for the Two-narrator Dance-drama Erren’tai).
As an independent instrumental genre, Erren’tai Paizi’qu is chiefly performed
prior to the opera proper, or these pieces can be interspersed with other performances.
Sometimes, Erren’tai Paizi’qu is intended as an accompaniment for dances, or it
can reinforce the atmosphere for narratives. Because Errantai Paiziqu is performed
at New Year celebrations, tobacco markets, temple ceremonials, as well as during
travels, it is also called Guojie Paizi (Labelled Tunes for Passing Streets).
Since Erren’tai Paizi’qu is a type of regional instrumental music evolved and
developed from the dramatic genre Erren’tai, it has been incorporating elements of
other musical genres continuously, which include opera, Buddhist music and folk
music, eventually forming its artistic characteristics, which can be lively, facile,
passionate and impetuous.
The instruments involved in Erren’tai Paizi’qu chiefly include Di flute, Sihu (four-
stringed fiddle) and Yangqin dulcimer, while the ensemble may also include Sanxian
lute, Erhu fiddle and Pipa lute. Regional characteristics are intensified by the addition
of percussion instruments Sikuai’wa (Four Pieces of Wooden Clappers).
Erren’tai Paizi’qu is usually in one of four specific modes, according to that of
the major instrument chosen, such as Di flute or Sihu fiddle. The following is an
illustration of the names of the modes, fingerings and the relationship between keys
and tunings of strings.
Mode names Flute fingerings Sihu string tuning (c1–g1) Pitch

Ying Sizidiao 77 Fifth hole as do sol-re Gong (tonic) = F
Man Zhidiao 78 First hole as do re-la Gong (tonic) = bB
Ruan Sizhidiao 79 Second hole as do do-sol Gong (tonic) = C
Wuzhidiao 80 Fourth hole as do la-mi Gong (tonic) = bE
Illustration 5-5. Illustration of the names of the modes, fingerings and the relationship between keys
and tunings of strings of Erren’tai Paizi’qu
77 Ying Sizidiao 硬四字调 Hard sixth degree mode.

78 Man Zhidiao 满指调 Full fingering mode.
79 Ruan Sizhidiao 软四指调 Soft sixth degree mode.
80 Wuzhidiao 五指调 Fifth degree mode.
Zhengdiao (authentic mode) is Ying Sizidiao, Gong (tonic) = F.

Erren’tai Paizi’qu is largely conceived in form of variations; its layout of speed
is consistent with that of vocal counterparts, and usually in lento (4/4), Liushui’ban
(Flowing Water Beat, 2/4) or Niezi’ban (Agitated Beat,1/4).
Important repertoire of Erren’tai Paizi’qu includes Xijiang’yue (The Moon of
Western River), Wushan’ding (Top of Wushan Mountain), Liuqing’niang (A Slender
Lady), Wu’Bangzi (Five Clappers), Huangying Liangchi (A Warbler Flapping its
Wings), Xi’xiangfeng (Blissful Encounter), Bayin Hanggai, Baban (Eight Beats),
Wannian’huan (Myriad Years of Happiness) and Si’gongzhu (Fourth Princess).
2. Jiangnan Sizhu (Silk-and-Bamboo Flute Ensemble in Southern Jiangsu Province)
(1) About Jiangnan Sizhu
Jiangnan Sizhu is popular in Shanghai, as well as surrounding areas, including
South Jiangsu and West Zhejiang Provinces. The earliest organization of Sizhu
music “Wenming Yaji (Civilized Elegant Society)” was founded in 1911. Similar
organizations promoting the genre were later established, including “Juntianji (Society
for Respecting Heaven)”, “Qingping’ji (Society for Qingping Music)” and “Yage’ji
(Refined Music Society)”. In the 1920s, organizations such as “Guoyue Yanjiushe
(National Music Research Organization)”, “Yuelin Guoyue’she (National Music
Organization)” and “Yuehe Yinyue’hui (Clouds and Harmonic Music Society)” have
performed and propagated Sizhu music, even though this was not their primary mission.
There are two types of organizations involved in performing Jiangnan Sizhu,
namely “Sizhu’ban (Silk-and-Bamboo Group)” and “Qingke’chuan (Amateurs’
Group)”. The former refers to professional organizations: all performers are
empoloyed to perform during traditional festivals, weddings or funerals. The latter are
self-entertaining groups organized by music enthusiasts, and they principally perform
at tea houses and private residences.
The smallest ensemble for Jiangnan Sizhu comprises two instruments–Erhu fiddle
and Di flute–yet there are normally three to five performers, sometimes the number
can be increased to seven or eight. The instruments can include Erhu, small Sanxian,
Pipa and Yangqin; Di flute, Xiao flute and Sheng mouth organ; drum, Ban clapper,
Muyu wood block and little bells.
Jiangnan Sizhu tends to generate a light, joyous, lively and celebratory atmosphere.
The music tends to portray the simple but healthy lives of inhabitants in South
China, as well as revealing beautiful natural sceneries in the area. However, there is a
distinction of performing styles between urban Shanghai and that of rural areas, as the
latter puts more emphasis on large pieces of percussion instruments, hence regarded
as simple and rough. Performances in city areas are more elegant, refined, artistic and
lyrical. Famous repertoire of Jiangnan Sizhu includes eight pieces, namely Huanle’ge
(Happy Song), Yunqing (Coming to Celebrate), Xingjie (Walking on Street), Sihe
Ruyi (Suite of Four ad lib Pieces), Sanliu (Three-six), Man’sanliu (Slow Three-six),
Zhonghua Liuban (Moderately Ornamented Six Beats) and Man’liuban (Slow “Six
beats”). They are collectively known as “Eight Famous Pieces”. Other popular pieces
include Lao’liuban (Old Six Beats), Kuai’liuban (Fast Six Beats), Nichang’qu (Tune
of Rainbow Coat), Liuqing’niang (A Slender Lady) and Zhegu’fei (Partridge Flying).

Jiangnan Sizhu music shares the common music structures such as theme and
variations or linkage of several melodies; the most conspicuous aspect is its tendency
to change metre. A good example is the use of the folk labelled tune Lao’sanliu (Old
Three-six), where it is transformed to “Middle Metre Three-six” or “Slow Three-
six”, involving the expansion of 1/4, 2/4, 4/4 and to 8/4 metres. In the ensemble,
Erhu fiddle and Dizi flute are the leading instruments, while other instruments can
join flexibly based on some certain rules, which can set off each other by contrast.
Other devices can include melodies presented in simple and complex forms, in
different registers or exploiting performing techniques of different instruments. Most
Jiangnan Sizhu pieces are in Yu (sixth degree) or Zhi (fifth degree) modes, and there
are frequent changes in emphases of different degrees within a mode: it is possible to
switch between passages highlighting Gong (first degree), Zhi (fifth degree) and Yu
(sixth degree) within the same mode; a short phrase can begin in Gong (first) or Zhi
(fifth) and ends on Yu (sixth); the Gong may also be transposed a fifth higher, leading
to modulation.
Modes Names 81 Fingering of Dizi Tuning of Erhu (d1—a2) Pitch names and
Pitches
Xiaogongdiao Third hole is do do—sol Shang the first
degree = tonic = D
Zhenggongdiao Sixth hole is do sol—re Fan, the fourth
degree = Tonic = G
Chezidiao Second hole is do re—la Yi, the seventh
degree = Tonic = C
Yizidiao Pipe pitch is do fa—do He, fifth degree =
Tonic = A
Illustration 5-6. The relationship of mode names, fingerings, tunings, pitch names and
pitches of leading instruments Dizi and Erhu in Jiangnan Sizhu music
(2) Analysis of Zhonghua Liuban (Moderately Ornamented Six Beats)

Zhonghua Liuban is arranged from the folk instrumental piece Lao’liuban (Old Six
Beats), which is widespread in China. The Jiangnan Sizhu piece calls for the technique
of changing beats, which is a common device to develop a melody, and to create an
independent piece (or a large-scale suite). Wudai Tongtang (Five Generations Living
in the Same Family) is a famous piece was conceived with this technique based on
the melody Lao’liuban. The most lyrical and singable picec in Wudai Tongtang is
Zhonghua Liuban.
81 Xiaogongdiao 小工调，Small Gong mode.

Zhenggongdiao 正宫调 , Authentic mode.
Chezidiao 尺字调 , The mode with the pitch Che, second degree, as tonic.
Yizidiao 乙字调 , The mode with the pitch Yi, the seventh degree, as tonic.
The theme of Lao’liuban has evolved into five independent pieces, namely:
Lao’liuban (Old Six Beats), Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beat), the original tune,
with simple melody;
Kuai’liuba (Fast Six Beats), Liushui’ban (Flowing Water Beat), the melody is
more vivid and brighter with the ornamentations;
Zhong’liuban (Medium Speed Six Beats), Yiban Yiyan (One downbeat and one
upbeat), the melody is smooth but still joyous;
Zhonghua Liuban (Moderately Ornamented Six Beats), Yiban Sanyan (One
downbeat and three upbeats), the speed is moderate, with more ornamentations, and
the melody is lyrical, beautiful, and with typical style of Jiangnan Sizhu, that is being
joyous and flowing smoothly.
Man’liuban (Slow Six Beats), Yiban Qiyan (One downbeat and seven upbeats), the
original melody has been transformedf a lot because there are many ornamentations;
the style is exquisite yet not as touching compared with Zhonghua Liuban.
The theme of “Zhonghua Liuban” is developed by expansion and ornamentation,
transforming one beat in “Lao Liuban” to four beats. The skeletal notes of “Lao
Liuban” remain unchanged, on the strong beats or the third beat in 4/4 metre, yet
some are shifted to weak beats to ensure the melody flows smoothly. The original
melody is changed to meandering melodic lines, with other degrees of the pentatonic
scale presented. The melody performed by Erhu fiddle is decorated, and becomes
more colourful.
The method of developing the melody in Zhonghua Liuban is simple: the Erhu
manages to produce a timbre strong in local flavor, as if drawing a picture comprising
the impressive scenes of beautiful water villages in South China.
(3) Analysis of “Three-six (Sanliu)”
The original title for Sanliu (Three-six) is Meihua Sannong (a different piece from
the Qin zither piece sharing the same title). This Jiangnan Sizhu piece conveys a
mood of liveliness, joy and passion, and is optimistic and full of vitality.
Example 5-21. Theme of Jiangnan Sizhu piece Sanliu (Three-six):
Sanliu (Three-six) is based on cyclic structure, interspersed with characteristics

of variations, and with a theme appearing five times unchanged. The melody above
begins with a leap of a fifth, evoking a bright and vivid atmosphere.
There are two melodies in addition to the cyclic themes. One of the melodies has
three variations, the main change being its tonality, as there is transposition up a fifth.
The other subsidiary melody is more lyrical, and it appears only once in the piece.
It is also the only melody transposed up a fourth from the original key, hence creating
a contrast. The appearance of “Qingjue (fourth degree)” provides a sense of freshness,
giving some novelty to the piece. The melody has a special role because of the
difference, and is considered a step forward in traditional instrumental music.
The ending of Three-six incorporates the labelled piece Chunguang’hao (Good
Scenery in Spring). Based on changes in rhythms, speed and intensity, the rapid and
joyous melody brings the piece to a climax, and ends in a celebratory atmosphere.
Three-six is not merely lyrical and mellow, but has moments of brightness and
strength. Its method of shifting the mode and tonality is typical of Sizhu music in spite
of its brevity.
(4) Xingjie (Walking on Street)
Xingjie is based on pieces collected in Luogu Sihe (Suite of Four Pieces of
Percussion Music) popular in Pudong regions of Shanghai, and it is also known as
Xingjie Sihe (Suite of Four Pieces “Walking on Street”). The piece therefore comprises
four sections, including Xiaobai’men (Small Paying Respect), Yu’elang (A Handsome
Man), Yunyang’ban (Clouds Beat) and Jiji’feng (Desperate Wind). Since the piece is
usually performed at festive occasions such as the temple fair and wedding, it may be
the reason for its title Xingjie, meaning performers and audience are outdoors.
The melodies of “Xiaobai’men (Small Paying Respect)” and “Yu’elang (A
Handsome Man)” generate the feeling of being lyrical, steady and flowing, and the
piece is in moderate tempo without much melodic expansion.
The ensuing Yunyang’ban (Clouds Beat) is presented in greater contrast,
particularly with mixed metres, breaking the steady melodic flow, in addition to
frequent changes in dynamics, speed and rhythms, generating an atmosphere of
liveliness, joy and excitement.
Example 5-22. “Yunyang Ban” of Jiangnan Sizhu piece Xingjie
The ending of “Xinjie” comprises Jiji’feng (Desperate Wind); after the mixed
metres and exciting mood of Yunyang’ban, Jiji’feng further develops the bright and
joyous mood, concluding the music as soon as it reaches the climax.
The melodies of Xingjie are bold and unconstrained, with metres and rhythms
changing frequently and displaying a strong flavour of folk lives. The piece has major
characteristics of traditional folk music in China.
3. Guangdong Yinyue (Cantonese Instrumental Ensemble)
(1) About Guangdong Yinyue
“Guangdong Yinyue (literally ‘Cantonese music’)” refers to a particular
instrumental genre popular in Guangzhou and Zhujiang River Delta, and later the
genre has also gained popularity in Shanghai, Tianjin and Beijing. Cantonese music,
as a genre, came into existence towards the end of the Qing Dynasty, and it is derived
from small tunes, labelled pieces and staged music used in operas of the region.
The earliest organization involved in performing Cantonese music was the opera
instrumental ensemble “Bayin’hui (Society of Eight Sources of Sound)”. Other music
societies were also organized, including “Jilong”, “Sushe”, “Zhongsheng Cishan’she
(Bell Sound Charity Organization)”. In the 1930s, influenced by urban commerce,
Cantonese music was also performed during the filming of silent movies and on the
radio, and its common venues for performance included teahouses and ballrooms.
The early Cantonese music ensemble comprised five instruments, including Erxian
fiddle, Tiqin fiddle (similar to Banhu fiddle, yet bigger), Sanxian lute, Yueqin lute, and
Hengxiao flute; it was named Wujia’tou (Ensemble of Five Instruments) or “Yinggong
(Hard bow)”. In 1926, Lyu Wencheng changed the ensemble to “Sanjia’tou (Ensemble
of Three Instruments)”. This was by incorporating the Erhu fiddle from Shanghai
Sizhu music, and changed the Erhu to Yuehu (Cantonese fiddle); he also took the
Qinqin lute from Chaozhou music and added the dulcimer, which was popular
in Guangdong Province, to the ensemble. Later there were two more instruments
added to the ensemble, the Dongxiao flute and Yehu fiddle; the ensemble was called
“Wujia’tou (also means Ensemble of Five Instruments)”. Sanjia’tou and Wujia’tou are
both called “Ruangong (Soft bow)”.
It is possible to divide the relative short development of Cantonese music into a
few important phases, the formative period, prosperous period, and developed period.
Different from other genres of traditional music, there were professional composers
of Cantonese music. There are popular pieces arranged from folk songs such as Yuda
Bajiao (Rain Beating on the Plantain Leaves), Santan Yinyue (Three Pools Reflecting
the Moon), and Hangong Qiuyue (Autumn Moon over the Han Palace), as well as
music composed by a master such as He Laolie, such as Hantian’lei (Thunder in a
Rainless Sky), Daochui’lian (Curtain Upside Down ) and Lianhuan’kou (Interlocked
Chain). When Cantonese music was at its peak, there were outstanding figures such as
He Liutang and his two relatives - his brother He Yunian and niece He Shaoxia, who
dominated the scene. Representative works of He Liutang include Sailong Duojin
(Winning the Boat Race at Dragon Boat Festival), Niao’jingxuan (Birds Astonished
by the Noise), Zuiweng Laoyue (A Drunkard Dragging for the Moon from Water),
Qixing Banyue (Seven Stars Accompanying the Moon), Xiaomeng Tiying (Awaken
from a Dream by Nightingales) and Huiwen’jin (Returned Brocade). Works by He
Yunian include Chuiyang Sanfu (Willows Played Three Times), Songfeng Shuiyue
(Soughing of Pines and Reflections of the Moon on Water), Qingfeng Mingyue (Gentle
Breeze and Bright Moon), Xiaoyuan Chunhui (The Spring Returning to the Garden),
Guangzhou Qingnian (Young Persons of Guangdong) and Wuye Yaowen Tiemasheng
(Hearing Horse Trotting Sound in Midnight). Works by He Shaoxia include Motou
Liuse (Willows on the Side of Road), Xiali Baren (Ordinary People) and Santiao’jian
(Mountain Stream Falling Three Times).
In the 1920s, the famous master of Cantonese music Lyu Wencheng revolutionized
the ensemble for Cantonese music. His major efforts include changing the traditional
“Wujia’tou (Ensemble of Five Instruments)” to “Sanjia’tou (Ensemble of Three
Instruments)”, replacing the Erhu with Yuehu (Cantonese fiddle). While performing,
two legs will hold the appropriate part of Yuehu sound-box to improve the timbre
and volume, rendering the melodies of Cantonese music softer and more expressive.
The outer string of Yuehu is made of steel, while the tuning is a fourth higher than the
Erhu, in order produce a brighter, purer and more elegant sound. The Yuehu has to
be performed in many positions, that is changing the old tradition of performing the
Erhu with the left hand staying in one position. Lyu Wencheng’s unique performance
represents a new style, bestowing Cantonese music with its novel characteristics. He
composed a large number of works, over 200 pieces, including Yinhe’hui (Meeting at
Galaxy), Ba’longchuan (Rolling a Dragon Boat), Pinghu Qiuyue (Autumn Moonlight
over the Serene Lake), Zhuying Yaohong (Swing of the Shadow of Candle Light),
Jiaoshi Mingqin (Rocks and Sounding Zither) and Bubu’gao (Stepping High). His
brilliant performance and outstanding compositions established the Yuehu fiddle as the
main instrument in Cantonese music ensemble.
Outstanding works from this period also include Yule Shengping (Happiness in
Peace and Tranquility), Shizi Gunqiu (Lion Rolling a Ball) and Shuanglong Xizhu
(Two Dragons Playing Beads) composed by Qiu Hechou; Kongque Kaiping (Peacock
Showing its Feathers) and Huajian’die (Butterflies Among Flowers) by He Zemin (also
known as He Dasha); Xijiang’yue (The Moon of West River) by Chen Deju; Niaotou
Lin (Birds Flying to the Forest) by Yi Jianquan; and Huazhou Yingxiong (A Han Hero)
by Yin Zichong.
After the founding of the People’s Republic, there was State support for Cantonese
music, leading to lost scores being restored, as well as new pieces being composed
and performed. Outstanding compositions in this period include Chunjiao Shima
(Taming a Horse in Countryside in Spring) by Chen Deju, Chundao Tianli (Spring
Coming to the Fields) by Lin Yun, Yuyou Chunshui (Fish Swimming in Spring Water)
by Liu Tianyi, Xikai’lian (Happy Harvest) by Liao Guixiong and Shanxiang Chunzao
(Early Spring Arriving at Mountain Village) by Qiao Fei.
Cantonese music is characterized by its concise structure, smooth transition
and condensed development of its melodies. Early works are based on one short
melody or a labelled piece, and with ornaments added or the melodies varied. For
example, Da’baban (Large Eight Beats) is transformed into Ema Yaoling (Hungry
Horses Shaking their Bells) and Yuda Bajiao (Rain Beating on the Plantain
Leaves); Guafu Suyuan (Widow Complaining) is transformed to Lianhuan’kou
(Interlocked Chain).
Yuehu fiddle is the main instrument of Cantonese music. The following is an
illustration of the names of the modes, the relationship between keys and tunings of
strings.
Modes names Strings tuning (g1-d2) Keys
Heche’diao82 Zhengxian (Transverse Mode)83 sol-re gong (tonic) = C
Shangliu’diao84 Fanxian (Transverse Mode)85 do-sol gong (tonic) = G
Xiaogong’diao86 Kuhou’xian87 la-mi gong (tonic) = bB
Wudiao88 Fanxian89 re-la gong (tonic) = F
Illustration 5-7. The names of the modes, the relationship between keys and tunings of strings of
Yuehu fiddle used in Guangdong Yinyue
“Zhengxian” and “Fanxian” are by far the modes most frequently used. Pitches of
the open strings of the Yuehu fiddle often govern the modes of the music. The pieces
with Zhengxian (sol-re) tuning often apply Zhi mode, and when the tuning of the
fiddle is Fanxian (do-sol), the predominant mode is Gong.
The Yuehu can apply special effects such as portamento (generating the pitch
of a minor third either downwards or upwards), adding ornaments, Xianfeng’yin
(Anticipation)90 and Beizai (Carrying a Baby)91. Vibratos are, however, not produced
by moving the fingers back and forth, but rather, by pressing and releasing the
pressure on the string vertically; the effect of open string staccatos is also exploited.
Bowing techniques include successive application of short and fast bow strokes;
strong beats are often designated to an upbow.
(2) Analysis of Yuda Bajiao (Rain Beating on the Plantain Leaves)
Yuda Bajiao is a lively piece expressing the cheerful mood of the picturesque scene
of rain falling on the leaves of banana, with the main instrument Yuehu fiddle, which
shows a strong local flavour, depicting the natural scenery in South China.
The piece comprises two sections, portraying the different views from two
perspectives using contrasting melodies.
The theme of the first section is lyrical, fluent and very singable. The three phrases
are cleverly organized by means of Hewei (the first and ensuing phrases sharing the
82 Heche’diao 合尺调
83 Zhengxian 正线
84 Shangliu’diao 上六调
85 Fanxian 反线
86 Xiaogong’diao 小工调
87 Kuhou’xian 苦喉线
88 Wudiao 五调
89 Fanxian 梵线
90 Xianfeng’yin ( 先锋音 ) refers to several decorative notes led by Yuehu fiddle at the beginning of a piece.
91 Beizai ( 背仔 ) a series of decorations frequently played at the end of a piece to compensate the effect of the
relative lack of long notes in Cantonese music.
same end) and Hetou (the second and the third sentences sharing the same beginning).
The sweet sound of Gaohu high pitched fiddle, which is the protagonist, aptly leads
the audience to the realms of beautiful scenery in South Canton.
Example 5-23. Excerpt from Cantonese music Yuda Bajiao
The second section emphasizes the changes in rhythm patterns, melodic leaps
and special performance technique. It is worth noting the effect of syncopations and
accents in creating a stark contrast to the first section. The scene of falling rain is
portrayed by continuous staccato bowing.
The ending combines the themes of the two sections skillfully, while introducing
some subtle changes.
Yuda Bajiao is characterized by inherent performing features of string instruments,
highlighting the use of a broad range, harmonics and portamentos, as well as some
techniques borrowed from the Pipa. The melodies possess the features of early Cantonese
music, and the piece is believed to be composed by He Liutang based on short folk tunes.
(3) Analysis of Shuangsheng’hen (The Bitterness of the Double Voice)
Shuangsheng’hen is also called Shuangxing Hen (Bitterness of the Double Star),
with its score transcribed by Zheng Risheng. The earliest version of the piece includes
lyrics, expressing the grudge and resentment of Niulang (legendary herdsman) and
Zhinv (knitting fairy) towards the repression of the Empress in Heaven, reflecting
the sympathy for the two lovers who were only allowed to meet once a year on the
seventh day of the seventh month in the lunar year.
The piece comprises three sections. The first section contains a sad theme
expressing the inner pain shared by Niulang and Zhinv, which is duly delivered by
the adoption of traditional “Yifanxian” mode92 (fa is played as↑fa, and si as↓si). It is
similar to the Zhong’sanliu (Pressed Three and Six) mode of Chaozhou Sixian (Poetic
Strings of Chaozhou) music, which is used for strengthening the mood of sadness.
92 Yifan mode emphasizes two auxiliary pitches “Yi” (sol-fa name “si”) and “Fan” (sol-fa name “fa”).
@
According to traditional performing convention, sol-fa pitch-name “si” is slightly higher than “ si” and “fa”
#
is slightly lower than “ fa”.
Example 5-24. Excerpt from first section of Cantonese music Shuangsheng’hen
The second section adopts the Zhengxian mode, which creates a sharp contrast
with Yifan mode, evolving an atmosphere of brightness and cheerfulness, as if there
were a general feeling towards a better future.
The third section returns to Yifanxian mode, with the simple melody presented
faster and in a more exciting mood, while further developing the theme from the
second section.
As Zhengxian and Yifanxian modes have different characteristic, melodies in the
different sections can create a natural contrast. In addition, the music contains many
double phrases, a simiple theme can achieve varieties with the changes of metre, which
is highly effective in a short piece. This is why the piece has become so popular.
(4) Analysis of Sailong Duojin (Winning the Boat Race at Dragon Boat Festival)
Sailong Duojin was composed by He Liutang, and it describes the vibrant and
festive scene of dragon-boat race during the Dragon Boat Festival on the fifth of the
lunar fifth month, a Chinese tradition of paying respect to the ancient patriotic poet
Qu Yuan, as well as the, wit, enthusiasm and co-ordination of the people in group
activities.
The Introduction features the Suona cornet in announcing a catching melody in
energetic rhythms in the high register, akin to a kind of trumpet call.
The main section of the piece portrays the hectic scene of dragon boat competitions
by a simple melody ascending gently upwards, yet with much vigour. This somewhat
bouncing melody is combined with robust gong and drum rhythms, to depict the
liveliness and tense atmosphere as the race begins. The core motive appears in
different guises throughout this section.
Example 5-25. Excerpt from Sailong Duojin

There is not much programmatic description of dragon boat races. It is worth

noting that melodic expansion here by means of quasi-imitative technique is a rarity in
folk music. After the presentation of core melodies for two boats, the first passage in
the development highlights the melody of the second boat. It emphasizes Biangong (si,
seventh degree) and Shang (second degree), at the same time undergoing transposition
of a fifth, adding some surprise.
The composer exploits the rhythmic characteristics of the first development in
the following section, allowing the two melodies of the dragon boats to appear,
symbolizing the fierce race. The melodies are developed by addition of sequences, as
well as rhythmic changes. The emphasis on Qingjue (fourth degree) provides a sense
of freshness to an ongoing robust melody.
The continuous appearance of two melodies representing the dragon boats leads to
a long passage in fortissimo, bringing the piece to a climax.
The closing section features syncopations and dotted notes in moderate tempo,
portraying the joyous scene of winning the boat race.
The piece represents the summit of Cantonese music, an art that combines artistic
creativity with musical portrayal of scenes of daily lives. Such kind of realism cannot
be generated without real experience of celebrative events at Dragon Boat Festival in
South China.
(5) Analysis of Pinghu Qiuyue (Autumn Moonlight over the Serene Lake)
Pinghu Qiuyue was composed by Lyu Wencheng. The major artistic characteristics
of his works lie on his ability to excel in the performing techniques of Gaohu (also
called Yuehu, high pitched two stringed fiddle for Cantonese music). In fact, early
Cantonese music relies largely on string techniques to develop the melodies, as in
compositions of Yan Laolie and He Liutang. In the 1920s, Lyu Wencheng modified
the Cantonese music ensemble by assigning the Gaohu as the principal instrument.
The theme of Pinghu Qiuyue is lively, refreshing and lyrical, very appropriate for
depicting the attractive and poetic scene implied in the title. The piece reflects the
composer’s obsession of the positive aspect of life in his pursuit for artistic creation.
This is a testimony of his ability to inherit a rich music tradition, with a view of
developing the genre by creative techniques.
The piece exploits the timbres of the inner and outer strings of Gaohu, and the
characteristics of the first and second positions of the left hand to create contrasts.
In this short piece, the second position is used to introduce tension to music, as it
allows the range to broaden, helping achieve a climax. Lyu Wencheng demonstrates
in the piece his style of performance - powerful bowings, firm and flexible fingering
techniques, frequent vibrato, particularly in the application portamentos in changing
positions - to highlight the uniqueness of early days of Gaohu in Cantonese music.
(6) Analysis of Niao’toulin (Birds Flying to the Forests)
Niao’toulin was composed by Yi Jianquan in 1931. The piece contains refreshing
beautiful melodies to depict the serene scene of sunset, with hundreds of birds
returning to nests, and the poetic Southern scenery. It gained growing popularity after
it was performed by Lyu Wencheng and being recorded, creating a new trend for the
Cantonese music in the early 1930s.

Niao’toulin applies traditional doubled sentence techniques for melodic
development. The theme is also allowed to change freely, as it revolves around the
central pitches. Core pitches of the piece progress from Shang (second degree) → Jue
(third degree) → Zhi (fifth degree) →Gong (first degree).
When the last core pitch Gong (first degree) is reached, the passage representing
free and elegant bird chirping appear. The bright timbres and portamento fingering
techniques associated with Gaohu are used to depict the intermittent chirping sound
made by hundreds of birds returning to their nests.
The expression of emotion and depiction of scenery are combined in the piece,
with very refreshing and touching style. The cadential improvisation is inspired by
Guchui music (Wind-and-Drum Ensemble), a sign that the piece has a strong folk
origin.
4. Chaozhou Xianshi (Poetic Strings of Chaozhou)
(1) About Chaozhou Xianshi
Chaozhou Xianshi is generally known as Xianshi’yue (String Poem Music), as
the original melodies were sung to words. The genre is predominantly popular in
Chaozhou and Shantou regions of Guangdong, as well as in Southern Fujian. Chinese
migrants, including merchants and workmen from these regions have brought this
popular genre to the Hongkong and Macau, as well as countries of Southeast Asia.
Chaozhou Xianshi has a long history. According to the old tradition of “Ersi’pu
(Two-four Notation)”, the genre was conceived after the Ming Dynasty and preserved
in flute scores, which were used alongside with “Gongche” notation. Hence, it is
possible to postulate that it has a history of at least six hundred years.
Chaozhou Xianshi can be divided into “Rujia (Confucian)” and “Pengding (Ritual)”
music, according to styles and circumstances of performance. “Rujia” music is
performed by instrumental ensembles sponsored by the upper echelon or communal
organizations of the public. The performing style is refined and elegant, chiefly
intended for occasions such as wedding, funeral, festive and celebrating occasions,
as well as for self-entertainment. “Pengding” ensemble is chiefly organized for local
operatic performance, catering for the need to support the story plots. Its performing
style is relatively simple, rudimentary and coarse. The type of Chaozhou Xianshi
currently popular among ordinary people largely belongs to “Rujia” tradition.
Most Chaozhou Xianshi pieces are based on ancient scores from Central China.
In the long course of artistic development, it has also integrated a wide range of local
folk tunes, Buddhist music, flute music and tunes from outside the region, as well
as Cantonese tunes from local opera; it is also possible to identify folksongs and
short folk tunes from Southeast Asia. Famous pieces of Chaozhou Xianshi include
Zhaojun’yuan (Zhaojun’s Resentment), Xiaotao’hong (A Little Red Peach), Hanya
Xishui (Winter Ravens Flying over Water), Huangli’ci (Oriole Poem), Yue’ergao
(The Moon on High), Da’baban (Large “Eight Beats”), Pingsha Luoyan (Wild Geese
Alighting on a Sandy Beach), Fengqiu’huang (Phoenixes Courting), Yu’lianhuan (A
Jade Cluster) and Jinshang Tianhua (Laying Flowers on the Brocade). Other popular
pieces include Shizi Xiqiu (Lion Playing with a Ball), Liuqing’niang (A Slender
Lady), Langtao’sha (Waves Washing Sand), Qianjia’deng (Lanterns of Thousand
Families), Caidie Caihua (Butterflies Picking Flowers), Chushui’lian (Floating Lotus),
Hongmei’tou (Head of Red Blum), Fenhong’lian (Pink Lotus Blossom), Huamei
Tiaojia (Mockingbird Jumping to Frame), Sichun (Missing Spring) and Shengui’yuan
(The Resentment of an Insular Girl’s Room).
The ensemble of Chaozhou Xianshi comprises Zhuxian (bamboo bowed fiddle),
Dongxiao flute and Yuexian (fiddle popular in Chaozhou). In the last three centuries,
it has incorporated string instruments, including Erxian (two stringed fiddle,
characterized by its high pitch, from Waijiang music, as the principal instrument),
Yehu fiddle, Tihu (known as Damaohu, a big two stringed fiddle), Yangqin dulcimer,
Sanxian lute, Pipa lute, Qinqin (a round lute) and Huluqin (gourd fiddle) and Piqin;
sometimes, Zheng zither is used. Apart from Dongxiao flute, wind instruments also
include large and small horizontal flutes; some pieces employ large and small Suona
cornets; percussion instruments include small drum, Muyu (temple block), Muban
clapper, and these percussion instruments are of paramount importance, as they dictate
the rhythms and control the performance, including all variations of the melody.
The performing style of Chaozhou Xianshi is rigorous, varied, and uniquely
characteristic. Many of the traditional pieces are named after the poems on subjects
such as flower, moon, fish and insect, and are predominantly expressive pieces.
(2) Analysis of Selected Work: Shizi Xiqiu (Lion Playing with a Ball)
Shizi Xiqiu reveals the lively and spectacular scene of lion dance with silk balls.
There are several modes used in Chaozhou Shixian, including Qing’sanliu’diao mode
(Unpressed Three-six Mode, with mi and la in scale), Zhong’sanliu Diao (Pressed
Three-six Mode, with fa and si in scale), Huowu’diao (Movable Five, with flat-mi in
scale). The mode Zhong’sanliu Diao is used in Shizi Xiqiu.
The prelude of the piecer is introduced by percussion instruments with strong local
flavor: its lively rhythm depicts the humorous and lively scene of lions dancing with
silk balls. It is based on a four-measure fixed rhythm pattern repeated four times. The
melody repeats itself, with rests segmenting the phrases, and its unusual 3/4 metre
aptly portrays the light steps and nimble manner of lions.
The core motive of the theme is developed by means of repetition, ornamentation,
repositioning and expansion. The theme describes the lively image of lions playing,
watching and capturing silk balls while dancing gracefully. Its melodic structure can
be summarized as “Qi (starting, phrase a)”, “Cheng (continuing, phrase a1)”, “Zhuan
(changing, phrase b)”, and “He (returning, phrase d)” (See Music Example 5-26).
Example 5-26. Prelude and theme of Chaozhou Xianshi music Shizi Xiqiu
(to be
continued)
Example 5-26 (continued). Prelude and theme of Chaozhou Xianshi music Shizi Xiqiu
After the appearance of theme, the music is developed by variation techniques,

among which “Cui (Rushing beats)”, a typical technique in Chaozhou Shixian music,
is frequently applied. Different bowings are used to characterize a rhythm pattern,
which is a feature of Cui. Originally, Cui can only be applied with one style of bowing
to match a rhythmic pattern to vary the theme, yet it is now possible to include many
forms of Cui techniques in one variation. The theme of Shizi Xiqiu is varied four
times. In the ending section, ornaments with a range of a second are added, while
there are considerable melodic changes, especially alternating keynote “Zhi (fifth
degree)” with “Shang (second degree)” in fast rhythms, leading to a climax with great
intensity bofore the close.
5. Fujian Nanyin (Southern Sound of Fujian Province)
(1) About Fujian Nanyin
Fujian Nanyin is also called “Nanqu (Southern Tunes)”, “Nanyue (Southern
Music)”, “Nanguan (Southern Pipe)” or “Xianguan (Strings Pipe)”. It is popular in
Quanzhou, Jinjiang, Xiamen in Fujian Province. Chinese immigrants have brought the
genre to Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan, as well as countries in Southeast Asia.
Music scholars take a great interest in the early history of Fujian Nanyin, especially
in determining when the genre came into existence. Since written sources on the topic
are rare, researchers are divided on the issue, and so far unable to reach a conclusion.
It is generally believed that Fujian Nanyin developed when there was active migration
of population. A huge number of Han people settled in Southern Regions, especially
in Quanzhou and South Fujian to escape war, and for social or economic reasons
during the Periods of Eastern Jin, Tang, Five Dynasties and Song. These migrants
from Central China brought with them traditions, customs, religions, culture and art to
areas they had settled.
Based on the shapes and performing postures of several principal instruments in

Fujian Nanyin, it is possible to substantiate its long history. For example, the Nanpa
(Pipa in Southern Style) used in Fujian Nanyin differs considerably from Pipa in
the rest of China: two crescent-shaped sound-holes appear on the surface of the
soundboard, and the instrument is held horizontally while performing. This aligns with
the Pipa performing posture of pottery figurines of the Tang Dynasty unearthed, and
that of “Hanxizai Yeyantu (Picture of Night Feast of Han Xizai in the Tang Dynasty)”.
Dongxiao flute used in Fujian Nanyin is 60cm long, the same as the ancient musical
instrument Chiba (while the current folk instrument Dongxiao is invariably longer
than 1.3 metres). The specifications of Dongxiao - ten sections and nine knots, made
of bamboo - have remained unchanged from the Tang Dynasty. The construction and
performing techniques of Paiban clapper are akin to those of the Tang Dynasty. The
Erxian (two stringed bowed fiddle) used is almost identical to that of Xiqin described
in Chen Yang’s Yueshu (Book of Music), apart from the added “Qianjin (strings
divider)” and horsetail bow hair. These instruments were found in wooden sculptures
in Kaiyuan Temple in Quanzhou, which was constructed in the second year of
Chuigong of the Tang Dynasty (that is in 686 A.D., renovated in the Ming Dynasty).
Another iconographic source is the Flying Apsaras carved on the roof of the main hall
of Kaiyuan Temple; its instruments and performing postures are identical to that of
current Fujian Nanyin. Repertoire of Fujian Nanyin dated before the Tang Dynasty
include Mohe Doule, Ziye’ge (Midnight Song), Hangong’qiu (Autumn of Han Palace)
and Houting’hua (Flowers of Backyard); Daqu (Composite Music) from the Tang
Dynasty include Santai’ling (Song of Santai), Liangzhou’qu (Music from Liangzhou)
and Ganzhou’qu (Music of Ganzhou). The instruments, composition of ensemble,
tunes, scales, modes, score, techniques of melodic development and musical structure
of Fujian Nanyin encompass the heritage of a rich musical culture from different
stages in history; the genre could therefore be dated back to the Tang Dynasty. As
it has a long history, it has incorporated features of Daqu (Composite Music), Song
poems of Song Dynasty, labelled tunes of Yuan Dynasty, Kunqu opera, Yiyangqiang
music, Buddhist music, and above all, local opera in Southern Fujian Province
(Liyuanxi, Liyuan Opera, for example). Fujian Nanyin was enriched and developed
under the influence of numerous folk musicians.
Three Essences of Fujian Nanyin: “Zhi (Fingers)”, “Pu (Scores)” and “Qu (Music)”.
“Zhi (Fingers)”: Folk musicians refer to “Zhi” as “Zhitao (Finger Suites)”, a large-
scale composite set of songs with lyrics, scores and fingering techniques (for Pipa).
The lyrics and melodies are derived from Chinese operatic music, so it is a set of
songs sung to instruments (the work is not performed in complete set nowadays).
The traditional repertoire includes 36 large suites, which have been augmented to 48,
and each suite is with certain story plot. There are five famous large sets of songs,
including Zilai (Coming by Itself), Yizhi (A Piece of Paper), Chenshang (Appreciation),
Xingan Bosui (Worries from Heart) and Weijun (For the Respected).
“Pu (Scores)”: “Pu” is also referred to as “Dapu (large score)”, that is, instrumental
suites. The traditional repertoire includes 12 suites, which have been augmented to 16.
Each suite can comprise either concatenation or variation of three to ten tunes. The
four famous “Pu” suites include Sishi’jing (Four Seasonal Views), Meihua’cao (Song
of Plum Blossom), Zouma (Walking Horses) and Bainiao Guichao (Hundreds of Birds
Returning to Nests), which are collectively known by their abbreviated titles as “Si,
Mei, Zou and Gui”.
“Qu (Labelled Tunes)”: “Qu” refers to “Xiaoqu (Samll tune)” or “Sanqu (Loose
Pieces)”, which are independent vocal works. “Qu” pieces are extremely popular, as
indicated by their large quantities, differentiated according to styles. A special term
has been designated to each style, while the collective term “Gunmen” is applicable
to all styles. Titles for individual styles include “Changgun (Long Piling Phrases)”,
“Zhonggun (Middle Piling Phrases)”, “Duangun (Short Piling Phrases)”, “Xugun
(Prelude Piling Phrases)”, “Dabei (Big Double)”, “Zhongbei (Middle Doubled)” and
“Xiaobei (Small Doubled)”. Each “Gunmen” uses a special metre, key and melody.
A number of labelled titles are included in each “Gunmen”, and each title contains
several tunes. The lyrics in each tune can relate to human emotion, scenery or a story.
There are currently three published scores for Fujian Nanyin instrumental music.
Wenhuatang Chuke Zhipu (First Printed Fingering Scores from Wenhuatang): The
score was published in the seventh year of the reign of Emperor Xianfeng in the Qing
Dynasty (1857) in Xiamen. The four volumes of scores contain 36 suites with Pipa
lute fingerings and 12 “Dapu” great suites, with a total of 48 suites.
Quannan Zhipu Chongbian (Fingering Scores Recompilation from Southern
Quanzhou): The scores were compiled and edited by Lin Jiqiu (the work was
published by Shanghai Wenrui Shuzhuang in 1912). The six volumes of scores contain
42 suites with Pipa fingerings; adding 13 suites categorized as “Dapu (Great Suites)”,
there are 55 suites of different titles.
Nanyin Zhipu (Nanyin Fingering Scores): Edited by Lin Xiangyu, the work was
published in 1914 in Taiwan. The four volumes contain 36 suites with Pipa fingerings
and 17 suites of “Dapu (Great Suites)”, totaling 53 suites.
The most common metres found in Fujian Nanyin include: “Qiliao (8/2, one strong
beat and seven weak beats)”, “Man’sanliao (slow Three-six, 4/2, one strong beat and
3 weak beats)”, “Jin’sanliao (fast Three-six, 4/4)”, “Diepai (doubled beat, 2/4)” and
“Jindie (fast beat, 1/4)”.
The keys, or “Guanmen” (Pipe Keys), chiefly include following four types, and
“Wukong’guan”or “Zhengdiao” (authentic mode).
Sikong’guan: do = F;
Wukong’guan: now there two keys, do = G / do = C;
Wukong Siche’guan: do = C;
Beisi’guan: do = D
The types of ensemble include Shangsi’guan (Upper Four Pipes) and Xiasi’guan
(Lower Four Pipes).
Shangsi’guan (Upper Four Pipes) features the Pipa lute. When the main wind
instrument is Dongxiao (a vertical bamboo flute), the ensemble is named “Dongguan”
(Dong pipe). Other instruments include Pipa, Sanxian (three stringed lute), Erxian
(two-stringed fiddle) and Paiban clapper. When the principal wind instrument is
Pinxiao (horizontal bamboo flute), the ensemble is called “Pinguan” (Pin Pipe), with
other instruments identical to those when “Dongguan” is used. Pinguan is tuned a
minor third higher than that of Dongguan. “Shangsi Guan” is frequently used for
indoor performances, where singing is elegant and the atmosphere less agitated.
“Xiasi’guan” (Lower Four Pipes) ensemble is based on “Shangsi’guan”, but
Dongxiao (or Pinxiao) is replaced by Nanai (alto Suona cornet); the Paiban clapper
is not used, instead the percussions comprise Xiangzhan (small bell), Goujiao (small
gong), Duo (Muyu clapper), Sibao (four pieces of bamboo), Shengsheng (bumping
bells) and flat drum. “Xiasi’guan” are largely used for outdoor performances or
“Xingyue” (procession music), where the mood of music is lively and cheerful.
(2) Analysis of Selected Work: Bajun’ma (Eight Fine Horses) of Fujian Nanyin
Bajun’ma (Eight Fine Horses) is a famous instrumental suite of Fujian Nanyin,
and it was previously known as Zouma (Walking Horses), and later with an interim
title of Ba Zouma (Eight Running Horses). The work consists of eight sections with
subheadings, which refer to the eight racing horses owned by King Mu in the Zhou
Dynasty. The characteristic theme and rhythmic patterns portray different actions of
the horses, such as walking, standing, whinnying and galloping.`
The beginning of the first section is in free rhythm, leading to a main body
featuring a range of rhythmic patterns to develop and expand freely around Gong (first
degree) to depict licentious and mysterious characteristics of these famous horses
clearing the way.
The introduction in free metre is followed by a theme in 1/4 metre; the ever-
changing rhythm and lively melodies with leaps present a vivid picture of optimism
and prosperity. The application of “Yanyue” mode (also known as ancient scale, with
the fourth degree raised) demonstrates how an apparent simple means can create
elegance for Nanyin music. The melodies appearing later in the first section are used
as endings for all sections, solidifying the relationship between the different sections,
and contributing to the building up of the cyclic structure for the piece. The melodies
of “Hewei (Common Tail)” accentuate the leap between the two core degrees “re”
and “sol”, which are exquisitely combined with repeated rhythmic pattern, depicting a
vivid scene of jumping houses.
Example 5-27. “Hewei” (Common Tail) of each section of Fujian Nanyin piece Bajun’ma
Another theme, comprising eight measures, appears at the beginning of the second,
fourth, fifth, seventh and eighth sections. The technique of Hetou (Common Head) is
applied to link the common melody of eight measures to the remaining part of each
section, sometimes accommodating changes that are drastic, as in the fifth and seventh
sections.
There are new elements in the third and sixth sections, with new themes and
modes, contrasting with the preceding and following sections.
The melodies of Bajun’ma are unique, which portray vivid images. Apart from the
free metre at the beginning, the piece is based on Jindie’pai (Fast Beats) with a fast
tempo, creating much tension. The music features active repeated rhythmic patterns
throughout the piece, showing the themes in a lively, bouncing and refreshing style,
which is impressive.
C. Genres of Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum Music)
Wind-and-Drum music (Guchui’yue) is performed by a folk ensemble involving
one principal wind instruments, such as Guanzi pipe, Suona cornet, Haidi cornet
or Di flute, and also with other wind and string instruments and percussion. There
are three genres of Guchui’yue based on the designation of prinicipal instruments.
Guchui’yue with Guanzi pipe is popular in Heibei, Shanxi 93, Liaoning, Henan
and Shandong Provinces, and the representative genres include Heibei Yinyuehui
(Musical Association of Villages in Hebei), Jingbei Shengguanyue (Sheng-and-Wind
Music in North Shanxi), Beijing Zhihua Temple Music (Wind-and-Drum Music
at Zhihua Temple in Beijing), Liaonan Shengguanyue (Sheng-and-Wind Music in
South of Liaoning), Luoyang Shipanyue (Ten Pan Music in Luoyang) and Jiaodong
Shengguan’yue (Sheng-and-Wind Music in Eastern Shandong). Guchui’yue music
featuring Suona (or Haidi) is popular in the regions of Northeast, North, Northwest
and Central China; the representative genres are Jilin Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum
Music in Jilin), Liaoning Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum Music in Liaoning), Jidong
Guchui’yue (Drum-and-Wind Music in Eastern Hebei), Luxinan Guchui’yue (Wind-
and-Drum Music in Southwest Shandong), Shanxi Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum
Music in Shanxi) and Yili Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum Music in Yili, Xinjiang).
Guchui’yue featuring Di flute is popular in Hebei, Shandong and Anhui Provinces.
1. Hebei Yinyue’hui (Musical Association of Villages in Hebei) and Its Music
(1) About Hebei Yinyuehui
The music of Hebei Yinyue’hui (Music Association) is popular in Baoding,
Shijiazhuang, Langfang and Hengshui of Central Hebei Province, hence the title of the
genre “Wind Music of Central Hebei Province”, with Buddhist monks, Taoistists and
folk musicians involved in performances. Unlike most folk ensembles, musicians of
the Association are not involved principally in performances at weddings or funerals.
Apart from regular training and self-entertaining activities, they usually perform
during religious festivals and secular customs annually in villages, such as Yulanpen
Festival on 15th of the seventh lunar month (Ghost Festival or Light Festival). Each
village organizes its grand worshipping rituals and music activities. Besides, around
93 Shanxi Province, 山西省。

15th of the first month, there will be “visits between villages” to promote music
performances, raisding the spirit of festivity to a climax.
In the long course of development, Hebei Music Association has evolved into two
branches, the “Association of Northern Style” and “Association of Southern Style”.
The performing tradition and principal characteristics of the genre are preserved in
“Association of Northern Style”, as it has strict rules for forming an ensemble–which
includes two Guanzi pipes, two Di flutes, two Sheng mouth organs, two Yunluo set of
gongs and one big drum–even though its composition may change slightly according
to circumstances. The instruments in “Association of Northern Style” has a small
volume, and therefore ready to perform in elegant style, especially suites in large
scale; examples of the style are found in ensembles of “Qujiaying Music Association”
(Qujiaying Yinyue’hui) in Gu’an County of Langfang and “Music Associations” in
Xiongxian and Xianghe Counties. The alternative name of “Association of Southern
Style” is “Chuige (Wind Songs)”, which developed based on the music of “Association
of Northern Style”. The ensemble features multiple Guanzi pipes, Di flutes and Sheng
mouth ogans, and it is more involved in performing small labelled tunes and folk
songs, normally in a vivid mood. Amongst the performing groups, the Wind Music
Associations in Ziwei Village of Ding County (Dingxian Ziweicun Yinyue) organised
by Wang Chengkui and Qianmin Village of Xushui County are most famous.
Representative pieces of “Association of Northern Style” include over ten
suites, such as Na’tiane (Catching the Geese), Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incantation),
Zhoujin’tang (Brocaded Hall), Jintang’yue (The Moon of Brocaded Hall) and
Qi’yanhui (Crying for Yanhui). Repertoire of “Association of Southern Style” includes
Xiao’erfan (Two Small Variations), Haha’qiang (Haha Melodic Type), Xiu’hongxie
(Embroidering Red Shoes), Fanglyu (Herding Donkeys), Chebu’duan (Links of a
Bracelet), Douye’huang (Bean Leaves Turning Yellow), Tuo’bushan (Undonning
Clothes), Yanguo Nanlou (Geese Flying Over Southern Tower) and Jixian’bin
(Propitious Guests Gathering).
Keys Fingering sequences Pitches

Zhengdiao (authentic, also known as
Third hole as do (tonic) do = @A
Zhenggong’diao, Zhengzi’diao and Liuzi’diao94
Fandiao (also known as “Da’fandiao”) 95 Guanzi pipe-pitch as do do = @E
Shangzi’diao96 Sixth hole as do do = @D
Didiao (also known as “Gongzi’diao”) 97 First hole as do do = F
Shangzi’diao in low octave Fourth hole as do do = @B
Kaofan’diao98 Second hole as do do = G
Illustration 5-8. The relationship of keys, fingering sequences and pitches of Guanzi pipe
as principal instrument in ensemble of “Association of Southern Style”:
94 Zhengdiao ( 正调 ); Zhenggong’diao ( 正宫调 ); Zhengzi’diao ( 正字调 ); Liuzi’diao ( 六字调 ).

95 Fandiao ( 凡调 ); Da’fandiao ( 大凡调 ).
96 Shangzi Diao ( 上字调 ).
97 Didiao ( 低调 ); Gongzi’ diao ( 工字调 ).
98 kaofan’diao ( 靠凡调 ).
A famous musician of “Association of Southern Style” is Yang Yuanheng (1894–

1959), who was a Taoist priest at Lvzu Temple in Jiaoqiu Village, Anping County.
He excelled at playing several instruments, among which Guanzi pipe was his best.
He was often invited to teach instruments and music reading skills in Ziwei Village,
Dingxian County. In the 1950s, Yang taught at the Central Conservatory of Music, and
he was the teacher of the first cohort of professional Guanzi players in Beijing. He has
recorded over a hundred pieces of music.
(2) Analysis of Selected Work: Fanglyu (Herding Donkeys), a piece of “Association
of Southern Style”
Fanglyu (Herding Donkeys) is an instrumental piece reflecting the lives and
customs in central Heibei, depicting an amusing scene of folk dance Paolyu (Running
Donkeys) in celebratory festivals.
There are many versions of Fanglyu: the most frequently performed version
comprises three sections, with the first a Lento and Allegro for the second and third.
When the third section is omitted, the piece is renamed Xiao’fanglyu (Small Fanglyu).
The theme of the first section carries strong characteristics of Hebei folk song, with
lyrical melodies portraying vibrant emotions, nurturing an atmosphere of being bold
and unrestrained, in the context of dance music for peasants, with only mild changes in
rhythms. The first long pitch is humorous and shrewd, depicting the scene of running
donkeys. There is a dialogue between the Guanzi pipe and other instruments in the
ensemble; as the gong and drum join in, the antithesis of melodies is emphasized, and
the pulse of the flowing melody is also quickened. The regular structure of music, with a
repetitive symmetry, matches the image of donkeys running in the countryside.
Example 5-28. First section of Fanglyu of “Association of Southern Style”
The second allegro section is development of the piece, and it is based on the
developmental technique of folk Durm-and-Wind music “Suizi (Expansion of
phrases)”99, as notes around core pitches change freely. The melody is treated using
99 Sui, 穗子 .
the techniques of Tuoqiang (Expanding Melody) and Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4).
The former is akin to slow passages of singing in opera, but it is interrupted by lively
percussion, with stretchy rhythm, and with pitches changing freely in the manner of
an impromptu. The melody of Kuaiban is in the metre of Liushui (Flowing Water) or
Yuanban (Original Metrical Pattern), with symmetrical regular phrases, nurturing a
lively mood with a dialoge between Guanzi pipe and the ensemble.
The melodies in the third section are treated by “Golden Olive” technique, or
expansion and contraction of the melodies in an orderly manner. Such changes
coincide with the process of unfolding and restraining of programmatic content,
according to the shape of an olive.
Example 5-29. Excerpt from the third section of Fanglyu
The ending is in the metre of Liushui (flowing water), and as the double phrases
“shrink”, the amplitude of melodic contour increases.
The vivid piece Fanglyu is highly popular, and judging from the composing and
performing techniques, a strong local folk flavor is retained.
2. Jinbei Shengguan’yue (Sheng mouth organ and Guan pipe music in Northern
Shanxi Province) 100
(1) About Jinbei Shengguan’yue
Jinbei Sheng (mouth organ) and Guan (pipe) music is popular in Northern Shanxi
Province and part of Northeastern area, including Wutai, Yuanping, Daixian, Fanshi,
Dingxiang, Xinxian, Yingxian, Hunyuan, Zuoyun, Datong and Yanggao. Other than
being performed in religious rites of the Buddhists and Taoists, the genre is also
100 Shanxi Province ( 山西省 ) or Jin ( 晋 ) for short.

performed by secular groups known as “Xiangda (Sounding and Beating)”, “Gufang

(Drum House)” and “Guban (Drum Ensemble)”. At the beginning of twentieth
Century, there were over twenty ensembles just this genre in Wutai county, and they
were engaged in performances at weddings, funerals, celebrations in villages and
temple fairs. The music is also performed as self-entertainment.
There are eight famous sets of instrumental ensemble suites performed by Sheng-
Guan-music ensembles known as Shanxi Bada’tao (Eight Large Suites of Shanxi).
Each suite consists of a number of tunes performed in a fixed order, with its name
based on that of the first piece.
The following are traditional sets of instrumental ensemble suites.
The first suite: Tui’luzhou, comprises 9 works, including Tui’luzhou (Pushing Reel
Shaft), Pu’difeng (Catching Ground Bees), Wang’daniang (Aunt Wang), Jisheng’cao
(Parasitic Grass), Dieduan’qiao (Tripping at Broken Bridge), Moli’hua (Jasmine
Flower), Buzhi’ming (Unnamed), Diaobang’chui (Hanging a Stick) and Baban’er
(Eight Beats).
The second suite: Qingtian’ge (Blue Sky Song), comprises 4 works, including
Qingtian’ge (Blue Sky Song), Zhuma’ting (Halting the Horse to Listen), Shanpo’yang
(Sheep on Hill) and Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor).
The third suite: Zhenyan (Incarnation), comprises 15 works, including Zhenyan
(Incarnation), Wusheng Fo (Praising Buddha Five Times), Dieluo Jinqian (Dropping
Money), San’bayin (Scattered Eight Sounds), Kan’sdongshan (Watching the East
Mountain), Gua’zhener (Hanging Needle), Bapai’zi (Eight Beats), Qier (The Second
Variation), Qisan (The Third Variation), Qisi (The Fouth Variation), Qiwu (The Fifth
Variation), Qiliu (The Sixth Variation), Qiqi (The Seventh Variation) and Moliao’ci
(Last Words).
The fourth suite: Banzhuang’tai (By the Dressing Table), comprises 9 works,
including Banzhuang’tai (By the Dressing Table), Liuyao’jin (Gold Swung by Slender
Willow), Dao’chunlai (Spring Coming), Dao’xialai (Summer Coming), Wannian’hua
(Myriad Years of Happiness), Dao’qiulai (Autumn Coming), Dao’donglai (Winter
Coming), Yue’ergao (The Moon on High) and Xifang’zang (Buddhist Works from the
West).
The fifth suite: Quanjin’bei (Persuading Another Cup), comprises 6 works,
including Quanjin’bei (Persuading Another Cup), Mianda’xu (Cotton Catkins),
Jing’piner (Clean Bottle), Zouma (Walking Horse), Yufu (Old Fisherman) and
Caicha’ge (Tea Picking Song).
The sixth suite: Elang’tao (Goose Suite), comprises 17 works, including Elang’tao
(Goose Suite), Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incantation), Sizi Pashan’hu (Mountain Tiger in
Sizi Mode), Kan’shandong (Watching the East Mountain), Bapai’zi Qiyi (The First
of Eight Beats), Qier (The Second), Qisan (The Third), Qisi (The Fourth), Qiwu (The
Fifth), Qiliu (The Sixth), Qiqi (The Seventh), Elang’er Touduan (The First Section of
a Goose), Erduan (The Second Section), Sanduan (The Third Section), Siduan (The
Fourth Section), Bapai’zi Qiba (The Eighth of Eight Beats) and Moliao’ci (Last Words).
The seventh suite: Shier’ceng Lou (Twelve-Storey Mansion), comprises 5 works,
including Shier’ceng Lou (Twelve-Storey Mansion), Yanguo Nanlou (Geese Flying

Over Southern Tower), Maisui’huang (Ears of Wheat Turning Yellow), Wang’daniang
(Aunt Wang) and Santou Wuhe’dong (United Three and Five in East).
The eighth suite: Dama Yulang (Scolding the Jade Boy), comprises 2 works,
including Dama Yulang (Scolding the Jade Boy) and Zui’taiping (Enjoying the
Peaceful Time).
These eight suites originate from 45 labelled tunes and folk melodies. According
to the titles of the pieces, it is possible to suggest that they are preserved from the
Dynasties of Tang, Song, Jin and Yuan, and many of them are from the Ming and Qing
Dynasties. For example, the piece Bapai’zi (Eight Beats) is from the Tang Dynasty;
the lablled tunes Zui’taiping (Enjoying Peace) and Yufu (Old Fisherman) are from the
Song Dynasty; Sanqu pieces Jisheng’cao (Parasitic Grass), Caicha (Tea Picking),
Ma’yulang (Scolding the Jade Boy) and Yanguo Nanlou (Geese Flying Over Southern
Tower) are from the Jin Dynasty. Some works are obviously derived from Buddhist
music, such as Zhenyan” (Incarnation), Wusheng Fo (Praising Buddha Five Times),
Pu;an Zhou (Buddhist Incantation) and Xifang’zang (Buddhist works from the West).
The ensemble of Badatao consists of seven to eight musicians, with one to two
players of Guanzi pipe, the principal instrument. In addition, the ensemble includes
one Di flute, two Sheng mouth organs and one Haidi cornet. Percussion section
includes drum, small cymbals and Yunluo set of gongs, and when necessary, other
percussion instruments may be added, such as Ban drum, large cymbals, large Gong,
small Gong and Bangzi clapper. “Dama Yulang” is the only suite that does not involve
the Guanzi pipe; in its place two Suona cornets of high and low pitches are assigned
as major instruments.
Guanzi pipe in B
Mode names
Fingering sequences Tone pitch
101
Bendiao (Chezi’diao, basic mode) Sixth hole is do He (fifth degree) = do =E
Shangzi’diao (Hezidiao)102 Second hole is do Shang (first degree) = do =A
103
Fanzi’diao (Sizidiao) Third hole is do Che (second degree) = do =B
Xiaofan’diao104 Fourth hole is do Gong (third degree) = do =#C
Gongzi’diao105 Pipe pitch is do Si (sixth degree) = do =#F
Juediao106 Fourth hole is do Fan (fourth degree) = do =#D
Meihua’diao 107
First hole is do Yi (seventh degree) = do =#G
Illustration 5-9. The relationship of mode names, fingering techniques and tone pitch of
Guanzi pipe as principal instrument of Badatao
101 Bendiao ( 本调 ); Chezidiao ( 尺字调 )

102 Shangzi’diao ( 上字调 ); Hezidiao ( 合字调 )
103 Fanzi’diao ( 凡字调 ); Sizidiao ( 四字调 )
104 Xiaofandiao ( 小凡调 )
105 Gongzi’diao ( 工字调 )
106 Juediao ( 角调 )
107 Meihua’diao ( 梅花调 )
Most important modes of Badatao fingering techniques include Bendiao (Basic

Mode), Shangzi’diao (First step as tonic) and Fanzi’diao (Fourth step as tonic),
collectively known as “Dasan’diao (Three Primary Modes)”. Pieces using “Bendiao”
include Qingtian’tao (Blue Sky Suite), Tui’luzhou (Pushing Reel Shaft), Shier Cenglou
(Twelve-Storey Mansion) and Zhenyan (Incarnation); pieces in “Shangzi’diao”
include Banzhuang’tai (By the Dressing Table), Dama Yulang (Scolding the Jade
Boy) and Quanjin’bei (Persuading Another Cup); small tunes and miscellaneous tunes
are mostly in “Sizidiao”; “Juediao” is used for funeral music; “Xiaofan’diao” and
“Meihua’diao” are rarely used.
(2) Analyses of Selected Works: Caicha (Tea Picking) and Elang’tao (Goose Suite)
Caicha (Tea Picking) is a piece incorporated to Quanjin’bei suite of Badatao. It is
an independent work often performed in North Shanxi. Tracking down its origin from
its title, the piece may be a labelled tune from the Song Dynasty. The work comprises
some variations on the tune based on changes of metre and tempo, and it is in two
parts. The first part is slow, with a sweet melody, showing the characteristic timbre of
Xiao flute and vibratos of Guanzi pipe so often found in music of North Shanxi. The
Xiao flute timbre produced by Guanzi pipe at the high register is soft and non-piercing,
akin to the timbre of the Di flute; the low register of Guanzi pipe produces thick and
rich sound of the Xiao flute, as if a Dongxiao flute were playing. The melody of this
part highlights contrasts in different registers, transpositions (tonic shift of up a fifth),
performing techniques and different metres to produce the desired melodic characters.
Example 5-30. Excerpt from the piece “Caicha” of Badatao in north Shanxi province
The second part is in fast rhythm, and comprises three variations developed
from the melody of the first part. The music incorporates the “Shuanyin (big scale
ornamentation)” technique from Hebei Southern Style Music Association, which adds
vitality and a new flavour to the Sheng-and-Guan music in North Shanxi.
Elang’tao (Goose Suite) is a famous suite of Bada’tao music in Shanxi. It is
unique among the Badatao suites owing to its fresh image, complexity in structure
and unique performing techniques. The theme is based on the piece “Eagle Capturing
Swan”, which depicts the daily activity of hunting of herdsmen in North China. Since
the Tang and Song Dynasties, this theme has existed in many different forms and
performing styles, and it has been popular in many genres of folk and religious music;
its incorporation in “Elang’tao” suite is just an example of its widespread influence.
According to the preserved tradition of performing “Elang’tao”, the work
comprises eight pieces of labelled tunes.
First, Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incarnation), Fanzi’diao, gong (tonic) = B;
Second, Pashan’hu (Mountain Tiger), the ending with Gong-and-drum music,
Fanzi’diao;
Third, Jian’denghua (Paper Cutting), Xiao Fanzi’diao, gong (tonic) = #C;
Fourth, Pashan’hu (Mountain Tiger), Gongzi’diao, gong = #F;
Fifth, Caicha (Tea Picking), Bendiao, gong (tonic) = E;
Sixth, Bapai’zi (Eight beats), Bendiao;
Seventh, Elangzi (A Goose), Gongzi’diao, interlude of Gong-and-Drum music,
gong (tonic) = #F;
Eighth, Moliao’ci (Last Words)
The first tune Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incarnation), the third Jian’denghua (Paper
Cutting) and the seventh Elang’zi (A Goose) begin with long introductions in Sanban
(free metre), naturally dividing the work into three parts. Furthermore, the second,
the fourth and the seventh tunes all conclude with long percussion music, further
strengthening such divisions. It is possible to suggest that Pashan’hu (Mountain
Tiger) and Bapai’zi (Eight Beats) play the roles of transitions, while Moliao’ci (Last
Words) is the ending. Hence Elang’tao (Goose Suite) is in tripartite form, including
head (prelude), body and ending.
The prelude of Elang’zi (A Goose) is Puan’zhou (Buddhist Incarnation), while
Pashan’hu (Mountain Tiger) is the link to the body.
The body of the piece consists of Jian’denghua (Paper Cutting), Caicha (Tea
Picking) and Elang’zi (A Goose); Pashan’hu (Mountain Tiger) and Bapai’zi (Eight
beats) function as links between the labelled tuns of body; and Moliao’ci (Last Words)
is the end of the whole suite.
The tonal scheme of the suite is distinctive. Tonic of Bendiao (basic mode) is E,
and with other modes transposed up a fifth in succession, as the following illustration
shows:
Key: E → B → #F → #C
Chinese names: Bendiao Fanzi’diao Gongzidiao Xiao Fanzi’diao
Suite names: Caicha Puan’zhou Elang’zi Jian’denghua
Bapai’zi Pashan’hu Moliao’ci Pashan’hu
Illustration 5-10. Key relationships of the four modes used in Bada’tao of Shanxi
The beginning and the end of the suite echo with each other with a fifth in
Gongdiao mode. Fanzi’diao in the first piece is the core mode, then other pieces
modulate up to a fourth (Bendiao, basic mode), a fifth (Gongzi’diao) or a second

(Xiao Fanzi’diao). Xiao Fanzi’diao is different from Fanzi’diao by a second, and
in traditional Chinese Gongdiao system, it is the most common way that the tonic
modulates up a second in Yu and Zhi modes, sharing the same tonic, but alternate with
one other. In the pentatonic system, there is only one accidental if music modulates
up a fourth or a fifth; there are two accidentals if it modulates up a second, and one
of the accidentals is Jue (third degree) in Xiao Fanzi’diao, which changes from
“He” to “Zhong” in Fanzi’diao. Hence, the modulation up a second is for a related
key in Gong system, other related modulations include up a fourth or a fifth. Such
arrangement of keys and modes in the suite is characteristic of traditional Chinese
Gong system.
3. Luxinan Guchui’yue (Wind-and-Drum Music in Southwest Shandong Province)
(1) About Luxinan Guchui’yue
Luxinan Guchui’yue is popular in Heze and Jining Regions in Southwest
Shandong, and it can be divided into three categories according to the different leading
instruments: Suona cornet, Xidi (small Suona) and Dizi flute. The ensemble with
Suona cornet is the most influential form of Guchui music in the Province, hence its
reputation of “home to Suona” in China. The performing art and numerous musicians
of the genre have played a significant role for professional Suona cornet performance.
There are four types of Luxinan Guchui’yue, based on the use of instrumentation:
for example, when an alto Suona cornet is featured, the music is called “Dan’dadi
(Single Large Flute)”; when two alto Suona cornets are highlighted, the genre is called
“Dui Dadi (Paired Large Flute)”; the ensemble with Xidi cornet (Haidi cornet made of
slender stick) is featured in local opera; and there are ensembles especially for “Kaxi
(Imitating Operatic Songs)”, which perform complete sets of music.
Luxinan Guchui’yue was derived from four sources. The first refers to all
variations based on the tune Kaimen (Opening Gate), such as Liuzi (Fifth Degree)
Kaimen, Shangzi (First Degree) Kaimen, Dahe’tao (A Great United Suite) and
Fengjiao’xue (Wind Blowing with Snow). The second refers to variations based on
the tune Tai’huajiao (Carrying Sedan for Bride), such as Bai’huatang (Bowing at
Marriage Hall), Dadi Erban (Big Flute in “Two Beats”) and Dadi’jiao (Big Cornet
Expressions). The third refers to labelled tunes used in local opera and instrumental
music, among which Shandong Bangzi opera plays a major role, and melodies include
Yizhi’hua (A Flower), Jixian Bin (Propitious Guest Gathering), Bainiao Chaofeng
(Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix), Qinghe’ling (Song of Celebration) and Caicha
(Tea Picking). The fourth refers to “Kaxi (Imitating Opera Songs)”.
Variations based on the labelled tunes Kaimen (Opening Gate) and Tai’huajiao
(Carrying Sedan for Bride) are most important pieces. Outstanding musicians
of Luxinan Guchui’yue include Yuan Ziwen, Wei Yongtang, Ren Tongxiang, He
Guanxian, Zhang Yubai , Niu Yunhai, Sun Yuxiu and Ding Xianchun.
The modal names of the principal instrument Suona shawm of Luxinan Guchui’yue
are based on two traditional systems, as illustrated by the following chart, showing the
relationship of modal names, fingering sequences and keys of Suona in the ensemble:
Modal Names of Folk Fingering Sequences Notated Notes and

Modal Names of Liuzi opera
Wind-and-Drum Music of Suona Keys
Pingdiao108 Liuzi’diao The sixth hole as do Liu=Gong=A
109
Yuediao Chezi’diao The third hole as do Che=Gong=E
110
Erba’diao Shangzi’diao The second hole as do Shang=Gong=D
111
Xiadiao Fanzi’diao The fifth hole as do Fan=Gong=G
112
Qidiao Wuzi’diao Pipe Pitch as do Si=Gong=B
Illustration 5-11. The relationship of modal names, fingering sequences and keys of
Suona in the Luxinan Guchui’yue
(2) Analyses of Selected Works: Yizhi’hua (A Flower) and Dahe’tao (A Great

United Suite)
a. Yizhi’hua (A Flower)
Yizhi’hua (A Flower) is a unique Suona piece popular in Southwest Shandong
Province. The melody is derived from vocal music and instrumental labelled tunes
in Shandong Bangzi opera, and the piece is performed at celebrations and festive
occasions.
Yizhi’hua consists of “Sanban (Free Metre)”, “Zhongban (Metre of Moderate
Tempo)” and “Kuaiban (Fast Beat, or 1/4)”. The melodies of “Sanban” and
“Zhongban” are lyrical, soft and beautiful, and the performer has to apply a skilful
breath control. The incorporation of a sharpened fourth degree as decoration enriches
its regional characteristics. The emphasis on the seventh degree at the end of “Sanban”
allows the smooth switching between the modes of the fifth degree (Zhi) and the first
degree (Gong).
Example 5-31. “Sanban” of Luxinan Guchui’yue Yizhi’hua (A Flower) performed by Ren

Tongxiang, with score transcribed by Chen Jiaqi
(to be
continued)
108 Pingdiao 平调 ; Liuzi’diao 六字调 .

109 Yuediao 越调 ; Chezi’diao 尺子调 .
110 Erba’diao 二八调 ; Shangzi’diao 上字调 .
111 Xiadiao 下调 ; Fanzi’diao 凡字调 .
112 Qidiao 起调 ; Wuzi’diao 五字调 .
Example 5-31 (continued). “Sanban” of Luxinan Guchui’yue Yizhi’hua (A Flower) performed by

Ren Tongxiang, with score transcribed by Chen Jiaqi
The allegro section is based on the developmental technique of folk music, Suizi
(expansion of phrases)113, as notes around core pitches change in the manner of an
impromptu. The lyrical part of the melody is akin to slow passages of singing in
opera, but it is interrupted by lively percussion passages. This section also involves
the change of core pitches, as the appearance of Biangong (si, the seventh degree)
produces a change in tonality, allowing an upward transposition of a fifth of Shang
(second degree), to produce contrast.
Technically, the section incorporates intense Huashe (colourful tongue), Kuyin
(sorrowful pitch) scale (with the fourth degree sharpened, and the seventh degree
flattened), portamentos and staccatos; some of these devices are originally used in
operas to create an intense or joyous atmosphere, forming a stark contrast with the
more sentimental melodies of moderate metre (Zhongban).
b. Dahe’tao (A Great United Suite)
Dahe’tao (A Great United Suite) is an outstanding piece of Luxinan Guchui’yue
arranged by Yuan Ziwen, a renowned folk musician in Shandong Province. Its eye-
catching title is the outcome of an integration of a range of techniques of melodic
development associated with the genre.
Dahe’tao (A Great United Suite) is one of the most representative and typical
works derived from the labelled tune Kaimen (Opening Gate).
The piece consists of three parts: the first is based on the folk instrumental piece
Kaimen (Opening Gate) and its three variations; the second is the development in
the style of an impromptu known as Suizi (expanding phrase); the third is the Allegro
ending.
The first part integrates many key elements of music expression, including
innovative changes to melodic lines, stark contrasts of rhythms and metres, flexible
applications of performing techniques, appropriate distribution of musical range and
variety of dynamics. These factors contribute to regional characteristics of the piece,
especially its somewhat coarse melodies in form of a theme and three variations based
on Kaimen (Opening Gate).
113 Sui, 穗子。

The second part of Dahe’tao is referred to as “Suizi”, meaning that it is evolved

from the rest of the piece independently, by developing contrasting elements of the
melody.
It is preceded by a passage which is relatively steady, in the manner of variation
of a labelled tune. With the emergence of “Suizi”, there will be free and flowing
development around core pitches of the melody, intensively echoing passages of
percussion music. It is akin to local operatic music, that is, with songlike slow
passages interrupted by lively percussion passages. The result is consistent mounting
up of emotion, leading eventually to a climax.
The melody of “Suizi” is developed in a slightly fragmented manner, but
with much freedom, as the style is similar to that of an impromptu. The melody
progresses freely around central pitches, even though these pitches may change and
transpose, themselves becoming the essence of “Suizi” melodies. There is logical
order of developing the melody, such as revolving core pitches, free development,
change of modes and transposition; these devices are applied predominantly in the
context of the pentatonic mode. The leaps of a fourth or fifth have become a feature
of the piece.
Example 5-32. Excerpt from “Suizi” of Luxinan Guchui’yue: Dahe’tao
The shift of central pitches have some implications for tonal functionality, as the
music can be presented in modes such as Zhi (fifth degree) or Gong (first degree),
while staying in the same tonal centre.

The “Suizi” part develops around central pitches of the melody, and it is
accompanied by different rhythmic patterns to expand its power of expression,
especially with materials drawn from the development in expanding the end of a
phrase. Contrast is achieved by the constant repetition of the same pitch, forming a
compact and regular rhythmic pattern. The application of syncopation, in particular,
has made the melody more passionate and lyrical, at the same time building up great
excitement. “Suizi” also allows performers to display their virtuoso performing
techniques, such as sophisticated breath control, vibratos, tongue vibrations (Huashe),
harmonics, Xiaoyin (Xiao flute sound), portamentos and Qigong’yin (air blowing
sound)114. These features have added much colour to the melodies.
4. Wind-and-Drum Music in Shanxi Province
(1) About the Genre
The Wind-and-Drum music with Suona cornet as principal instrument is very
popular throughout Shanxi Province, as it is deeply rooted in the history and cultural
of the Province. The Yuehu system (registering musicians of each household) in olden
days was a special cultural phenomenon began in the Northern Wei Dynasty, and
abolished in 1732 during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor in the Qing dynasty.
The General Annals of Shanxi (Shanxi Tongzhi)115 records, “The Huangfus, from
Hedong County, were registered musicians in Northern Wei Dynasty. At the beginning
of Jingming Period, Yang Feng and others, some 750 people, from Hedong County
were registered as musician household.” The appearance of Yuehu recorded by the
historical document is a testimony that professional Wind-and-Drum music in Shanxi
came into being then, some 1500 years of its existence.
The Wind-and-Drum musicians are called Yuehu (Music Family), Chuigong
(Technician for Wind Instruments), Chuishou (Wind Player), Gujiang (Workman
of Wind Instruments), Chuigu’shou (Wind Musician) or Guijia (a derogatory term
for someone classified as tortoise), and the organization of Wind-and-Drum music
performance is generally called Gufang. Social activities in the countryside of Shanxi
Province are important carriers of Shanxi Wind-and-Drum music, for instance, the
activities related to social customs, religion, folk rituals and ceremonies, festival
customs, and recreation. Wind-and-Drum music in Shanxi is therefore an essential
element of major social activities, and these include idolatrous procession, wedding
and temple fair.
The basic Wind-and-Drum music ensemble includes 3 to 4 performers of the
Suona shawm (one or two), a flat drum and small cymbals. When there are two
Suona cornets, musicians are divided into Shangshou Suona (Upper-hand player) and
Xiashou Suona (Lower-hand player).
The ensemble described above is the most common form involved in processional
music and seated performances. For funeral, two pairs of Suona cornets of the key
114 Qigong’yin (air blowing sound) 气拱音。

115 Shanxi Tongzhi 山西通志。
will be needed, as well as a Ruluo gong, totalling five musicians. According to

circumstances of the music organizations, other instruments may be added, such as
Sheng pipe, Changjian cornet, Dangzi gong, Huhu fiddle and Erhu fiddle.
Suona is the leading instruments of Shanxi Wind-and-Drum music, and the
following chart shows the relationship of Modes, Fingering Techniques and Pitches of
the instrument:
Modes Fingering sequences Pitches

116
Bendiao 1 Pipe pitch is do 1=E
117
Fandiao 1 Third hole is do 1=A
Liuzi’diao 2118 Fourth hole is do 1=B
119
Meihua’diao 2 Sixth hole is do 1=D
Illustration 5-12. The relationship of modes, fingering techniques and pitches of the
Suona used in Wind-and-Drum Music in Shanxi Province
Famous Shangxi Wind-and-Drum music suites include Badatao (Eight Great

Suites) in Yanbei, Dade’sheng (A Great Victory) in Xinxian and Dingxian counties,
Da Angu (A Great Angu Drum) in Yuanping county, Shiyang’jin (Ten Sceneries) in
Daizhou, and Shifan’gu (Ten Variations of Ensemble with Drum Solos) in Shangdang.
(2) Analysis of Selected Work: Dade’sheng (A Great Victory)
Dade’sheng (A Great Victory) is a spectacular Suona cornet suite, which is popular
in North Shanxi Province, including the counties of Xin, Ding, Wutai, Dai, Yuanping
and Dingxiang. The sonorous grandious melody in vibrant rhythm depicts the
triumphant and military prowess in the ancient battlefield, showing the heroic aspect
of the Chinese.
The suite consists of the following ten labelled tunes:
First, Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General), also called Chudui’zi (Expeditions),
Bendiao (basic mode), do = E;
Second, Shua’wazi (A Naughty Boy), Liuzi’diao, do = B;
Third, Liao’danzi (Opening Curtain), Bendiao (basic mode), do = E;
Fourth, Chaozi (Noisy Percussion), Bendiao (basic mode);
Fifth, Guojie (Passing Street), Liuzi’diao, do=B;
Sixth, Bian’luokuang (Making a Basket), also called Bubu’jin (Step by Step),
Liuzi’diao;
Seventh, Erqin Xiangma (Two In-laws Quarrelling), Liuzi’diao;
Eighth, Raotian’fei (Flying Around the Sky), Liuzi’diao;
Ninth, Diaobang’chui (Hanging a Stick), Liuzi’diao;
Tenth, Raotian’fei (Flying Around the Sky), Liuzi’diao.
116 Bendiao 本调
117 Fandiao 凡调
118 Liuzidiao 六字调
119 Meihuadiao 梅花调
These ten tunes can be divided into two parts: the first part consists of the first four
tunes, while the second comprises the remaining pieces.
Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General) is the centre of the first part. The heroic theme
is repeated and varied twice; in variations there are free expansions of the ending of
the theme, akin to the technique “Jie”120 in ancient music. Then the tune Shua’wazi
(A Naughty Boy) is varied twice, and the melody is treated by contrasting Gongdiao
modes (the mode is transposed up to a fifth, with original Shangdiao mode changed
to Zhidiao mode). After that, the Liao’danzi (Opening Curtain) appears. In fact,
“Liao’danzi” is not a labelled tune or independent piece, but merely music freely
developed from the theme “Jiangjun’ling”. Gongdiao is changed from Liuzi’diao to
Bendiao, but the mode shifts from Shangdiao of “Jiangjun’ling” to Gongdiao, which
further brightens the mood. In short, Liao’danzi is like Suizi (expanding phrases) in
the structure of Qupai Lianzhui (a connected sequence of labelled pieces).
Chaozi (Noisy Percussion) is a short transition, and the mode reverts to Shangdiao
mode of Bendiao, which echoes the beginning of “Jiangjun’ling” in the first part.
The entire second part is in Liuzidiao mode, which is in contrast to the first part.
The central section here comprises the eighth to tenth tunes, and “Diaobang’chui”
(Hanging a Stick) is inserted between the two tunes of Raotian’fei (Flying around the
Sky). In any case, “Raotian’fei” is developed in the manner of an impromptu based on
core pitches extracted from one of the melodies of “Jiangjun’ling”, with percussion
accompaniment. This is akin to slow vocal melodies in opera, but interrupted by lively
percussion passages; it is also similar to Suizi (expansion of phrases) in Wind-and-
Drum music in Shandong. In this section, the themes develop fully, and performers
have an opportunity to display their virtuoso techniques, which will generate a lasting
experience to the audience.
5. Wind-and-Drum Music in Liaoning
(1) About the Genre
Liaoning Wind-and-Drum Music is popular across the whole Province, and in
particular its Southern areas, such as Anshan, Haicheng, Niuzhuang and Shenyang.
The genre is performed by folk organizations such as “Guyue’ban (Drum Music
Ensemble)” or “Guyue’fang (Drum Music House)”, which are hired tto perform at
weddings and funerals.
There are two types of such performances: one is for wedding (involving two small
Suona) and the other for funeral (comprising two large Suona). Other instruments
include one small barrel drum, one pair of small cymbals, one Xiyue (Small Gong,
also called “Yuezi” or “Diaodangzi”) and one Tonggu drum (also called “Geda Luo”,
or a gong with a big central boss).
Liaoning Wind-and-Drum Music can be divided into four categories; some titles
may have obscure meanings, which are provided in Pinyin below.
a. Hanchui
Hanchui is music for funerals, and it is performed in a style known as Zuopeng
120 Jie, 解 . Resolving or expansion of coda in ancient vocal and instrumental music.
(Sitting Under Tent, implying indoor performance). Famous repertoire includes

Da’zhaoyang (A Great Sunny Morning), Xiao’zhaoyang (A Soft Sunny Morning),
Dama Yulang (Scolding the Jade Boy), Xiaoma Yulang (Gently Scolding the Jade
Boy), Da’ou Tiange (Singing the Sky Song Loudly) and Xiao’ou Tiange (Singing the
Sky Song Softly).
The structure of Hanchui music is as follows:
Prelude: in free metre and the melody “Prelude for Hanchui” is performed, which
is a special piece for all the Hanchui pieces;
Body: with melody in Lento, in 4/2 or 4/4 metre, performed repeatedly;
Ending: with melody in Moderato, changing to Liushui’ban (Flowing Water
Metre) in 2/4 metre, then changes to 1/4;
Shaoqu (Light Melodies): comprises folk melodies, Allegro.
b. Da Paizi’qu (Large Labelled Tune)
Da Paizi’qu (Large Labelled Tune) is performed at weddings and funerals, and in
Zuopeng (sitting indoor) style. Popular repertoire includes Yitiao’long (A Dragon),
Sanfeng (Three Winds), Sipo (Four Breaks), Yaner’luo (The Wild Geese Alighting)
and Yizhi’hua (A Flower).
The structure of Da Paizi’qu is:
Body: a long section or several small tunes linked;
Ending: the notes Gong Che Shang (Mi-Re-Do) as conclusion.
c. Xiao Paizi’qu (Small Labelled Tunes)
Xiao Paizi’qu (Small Labelled Tunes) is performed at weddings and funerals,
as well as other rituals and ceremonies, such as those of greeting guests and social
routines involving music. Important repertoire includes Haiqing’ge (Song of Eagle),
Wannian’huan (Myriad Years of Happiness), Xiao’kaimen (Opening A Small Gate),
Liuqing’niang (A Slender Lady), Lao’baban (Old Eight Beats) and Ku’huangtian
(Crying the Sky).
The structure of Xiao Paizi’qu is based on variations of single labelled tunes.
Since there is no prelude or ending, folk artists refer to the style of performance as
Yicuo’qiang (A Group of Melodies).
d. Shuiqu (Water Music)
Shuiqu (Water Music) is mostly performed at weddings and funerals, and
particularly for funerals in Zuopeng (sitting indoor) style. Representative works
include Taiping’chun (Great Peaceful Spring), Ku’changcheng (Crying at the Great
Wall), Daluojiang’yuan (Sorrows of Daluojiang River), Batiao’long (Eight Dragons)
and Jinling’suo (Golden Bell Lock).
The structure of Shuiqu is generally based on variations of single labelled tunes,
and there are three varieties for the genre:
First, the Shuiqu only with a “body”;
Second, some pieces comprising a “body” and an “ending”;
Third, the pieces are organized into three sections, including a “prelude”, “body”
and “ending”.
Suona is the leading instruments of Liaoning Wind-and-Drum music, and the
following table shows the relationship of Modes, Fingering Techniques and Pitches of
Suona:
Modes Fingering sequences Pitches

Bendiao121 Pipe pitch is do 1=G
Beidiao122 Third hole is do 1=C
123
Liuyan’diao First hole is do 1=A
Meihua’diao124 Second hole is do 1=B
125
Lao’bendiao Fourth hole is do 1=D
126
Mengong’diao Fifth hole is do 1=E
Sidiao127 Sixth hole is do 1=F
Illustration 5-13. Tthe relationship of modes, fingering techniques and pitches of Suona
used in Wind-and-Drum Music in Liaoning
The modes frequently used for the genre include Bendiao (basic or authentic
mode) and Beidiao (alternative or plagal mode).
In Liaoning Wind-and-Drum music, “Jiezi (Borrowed Pitches)”128 is a technique of
variation frequently used. The technique of Jiezi includes:
First, Yashang (Pressing one pitch): Gong (first degree) is changed to Biangong (si,
the seventh degree), transposing the melody up a fifth;
Second, Shuangjie 1 (Changing two pitches, type 1): based on the “Yashang”, Zhi
(fifth degree) is changed to Bianzhi (sharpened fourth degree), transposing the melody
up a major second;
Third, Sanjie 1 (Changing three pitches, type 1): based on the “Shuangjie 1”,
Shang (second degree) is changed to Qinggong (sharpened first degree), transposing
the melody up a major sixth;
Fourth, Danjie (Changing one pitch): Jue (third degree) is changed to Qingjue
(fourth degree), transposing the melody up a fourth;
Fifth, Shuangjie 2 (Changing two pitches, type 2): based on the “Danjie”, Yu (sixth
degree) is changed to Run (flattened seventh degree), transposing the melody down a
major seventh;
Sixth, Sanjie 2 (Changing three pitches, type 2): based on the “Shuangjie 2”, Shang
(second degree) is changed to Bianjue (flattened third degree), transposing the melody
down a major sixth.
121 Bendiao 本调
122 Beidiao 背调
123 Liuyan’diao 六眼调
124 Meihua’diao 梅花调
125 Lao’bendiao 老本调
126 Mengong’diao 闷工调
127 Sidiao 四调
128 “Jiezi” refers to the regular changes of fingerings in the continuous variations of a melody to effect changes
in melodic contour and modality.
The technique “Jiezi (Borrowed Pitches)” can be used in conjunction with

modulation in the same Gong system between five different modes, including Gong,
Shang, Jue, Zhi and Yu. Theoretically, a labelled tune can be performed in seven Gong
systems, and five modes in each Gong system; thus, a piece can be played in 35 ways
with different modes and tonalities.
The characteristics of Liaoning Guchuiyue–such as ensemble structure, categories
of works, structures of music, and traditional Jiezi technique–can also be found in
Jilin Guchuiyue (Wind-and-Drum Music in Jilin) and Jidong Guchuiyue (Drum-and-
Wind music in East Hebei).
D. Genres of Chuida’yue (Wind-and-Percussion Music)
1. Shifan Luogu (Ten Variations of Wind-and-Percussion Music)
(1) About Shifan Luogu
Shifan Luogu is also called “Shifan (Ten Variations)” or “Luogu (Gong and Drum)”
in short. Historically, there have been other names for the genre, such as Shiyang’jin
(Ten Sceneries) or Shibu’xian (Ten Non-stops), and these mainly refer to music
popular in Suzhou, Wuxi and Changshu of Jiangsu Province, which was then spread
to Beijing as Court music and to Tianjing in the Qing Dynasty. The two famous folk
musicians excelled at Shifangu and Shifan Luogu were Zhu Qinfu from Wuxi and
Mao Zhongqing from Suzhou.
Written sources in the Ming Dynasty such as Shen Defu’s Wanli Yehuo’bian
(Miscellaneous Records in the Reign of the Wanli Emperor) and Zhang Dai’s Taoan
Mengyi (A Dream Records from Taoan Temple) confirm that Shifan Luogu as a folk
music genre had been popular in areas such as Suzhou city since the Ming Dynasty.
Shifan Luogu is mainly performed by Buddhist or Taoist musicians for religious
rituals or by folk ensembles “Tangming” in funerals as well as folk celebrations. The
musicians are semi-professionals.
The percussion ensemble of Shifan Luogu is further divided into “loud” and “soft”
types. Instruments in the loud percussion ensemble include among others: Tonggu
drum, Bangu drum, large Gong, Xi gong and Qi cymbals; instruments in the soft
percussion ensemble include small cymbals, medium sized gong, Chun gong, Nei
gong, Tang gong, big cymbals, bells and Yue gong, as well as instruments from loud
percussion ensemble.
Famous repertoire of Shizhu Luogu percussion ensemble includes Xiaxi’feng (Wind
Blowing from West), Wanhua’deng (Myriad Lanterns), Dahong’pao (Red Official
Gown), Xi’yuanxiao (Happy Yuanxiao Festival, fifteenth of the first lunar month),
Shouting’hou (Song of Guan Yu, using soft percussions), Xiangdai (Fragrant Pouch)
and Shiba’pai (Eighteen Beats). Important repertoire of Qing’luogu (Pure Percussion
Music) includes Shiba Liusi’er (Ten-Eight-Six-Four-Two), Qinluo (Arrested Gong)
and Qingbo Luogu (Pure Gong and Drum).
The main characteristic of the percussion music in Shifan Luogu–in addition to the
Luogu Paizi (Percussion Labelled Tunes) with single-rhythmic pattern and multiple
rhythmic patterns–lies in the rhythmic nomenclature of “one, three, five, seven” ,
each of which refers to segmentation of rhythmic pattern according to onomatopoeia
notation illustrated as follows:

“One” refers to one beat with one onomatopoeia sound, such as:
Zhang
“Three” refers to two beats with three onomatopoeia sounds, such as:
Zhang Zhang Zhang
“Five” refers to three beats with five onomatopoeia sounds, such as:
Zhang Zhang Yi Zhang Zhang
“Seven” refers to four beats with seven onomatopoeia sounds, such as:
Zhang Zhang Yi Zhang Yi Zhang Zhang
A pattern is the basic unit of percussion music in Shifan Luogu, which can belong
to one of the eight phrase structures listed below:
First, a phrase in normal order, such as 1, 3, 5, 7.
Second, a phrase in reversed order, such as 7, 5, 3, 1.
Third, a phrase in jumping order, such as 1, 5, 7, 3 and others.
Fourth, a phrase with only one rhythmic pattern, such as 3,3,3,3 and others.
Fifth, a phrase in two mirrored orders, such as 1,3,5,7,5,3,1 or 1,3,5,7,7,5,3,1.
Sixth, a phrase with only three rhythmic patterns, such as 3,5,7 or 7,5,3.
Seventh, an irregular phrase, which is a kind of free combinations.
Eighth, a phrase combining two or more phrases to form a composite structure.
For example, the piece Shiba Liusi’er is based on concatenating rhythmic patterns
1,3,5,7 in the sequence of 3+7=10, 1+7=8, 1+5=6, 1+3=4, 1+1=2, to form a special
kind of rhythmic structure, as the title indicates.
Example 5-33. Luogu Paizi piece Shiba Liusi’er

Example 5-33 (continued). Luogu Paizi piece Shiba Liusi’er
Another Luogu Paizi piece Yuhe’ba (Equals to Eight) uses the same numbered
rhythmic patterns, with the sequence: 7+1=8, 5+3=8, 3+5=8, 1+7=8. Since this Luogu
Paizi piece must be played with Muyu (wooden fish), and the sum of each numbered
combination is 8, the piece is called Yuhe’ba, meaning that the (wooden)-fish equals
to eight, hence the abbreviated title Equals to Eight.
Example 5-34. Luogu Paizi piece Yuhe’ba
Example 5-34 (continued). Luogu Paizi piece Yuhe’ba

Since the Di flute can be the principal instrument for Shifan Luogu, it is necessary
to define the relationship between modal names, fingering techniques, degrees and
pitches.
Modal name Di Flute Fingering Techniques Degree/Pitches

Xiaogong third finger hole is “do” Shang (first degree) = Gong (tonic) =D
Zhenggong sixth finger hole is “do” Fan (fourth degree) = Gong (tonic) =G
Liuzi’diao fifth finger hole is “do” Gong (third degree) = Gong (tonic) =F
Illustration 5-14. The relationship between modal names, fingering techniques, degrees
and pitches of Di flute used in Shifan Luogu
(2) Music Analysis: Xiaxi’feng (Wind Blowing from West) for Di flute and Loud
Percussion
Xiaxi’feng (Wind Blowing from West) is a representative piece in Sizhu Luogu
music for Di flute and Loud Percussion. The title Xiaxi’feng comes from the first three
words of the original song text:
In Chinese: 下西风黄叶纷飞，染寒烟衰草萎靡。
Romanization Xia Xi Feng Huang Ye Fen Fei, Ran Han Yan Shuai Cao Wei Mi.
English translation: Wind flowing from the West, yellow leaves fly in the air,
Coming with cold air, grass becomes dispirited.
It consists of 19 sections.
First, Jiji’feng (Desperate Wind)
Second, Melody (in G)
Third, Jiji’feng
Fourth, Melody (in G)
Fifth, Percussion section
Sixth, Melody (in G)
Seventh, Percussion section
Eighth, Melody (in G)
Ninth, Xizou’ma (Running of a Fine Horse)
Tenth, Dasi’duan (Great Four Variations)
Hetou (common head), 1st variation, Hewei (common coda)
Hetou (common head), 2nd variation, Hewei (common coda)
Hetou (common head), 3rd variation, Hewei (common coda)
Hetou (common head), 4th variation, Hewei (common coda)
Eleventh, Labelled piece Hong Taren (Placating Others, in D)
Twelfth, Qiduan
Thirteenth, Labelled piece Anzhi’jian (Only Thing I Can See, in D)
Fourteenth, Xizou’ma (Running of a Fine Horse)
Fifteenth, Yuhe’ba (Equals to Eight)
Sixteenth, Xizou’ma (Running of a Fine Horse)

Seventeenth, Jin’ganlan (Golden Olive)
Eighteenth, Xizou’ma (Running of a Fine Horse), then Jiji’feng (Desperate
Wind)
Nineteenth, Luosi Jieding (Screw Reaching Its End)
The nineteen sections can be divided into four parts. The first part covers the first
to the ninth sections, is the prelude of the piece in a bright and lively mood, where the
melody of Jiji’feng (Desperate Wind) is highlighted, and joyous materials are added.
The second part is the body that covers the tenth section “Dasi’duan (Great Four
Variations)”, where percussion music is performed four times, hence being called
“Sifan (Four Variations)” by the folk musicians. “Dasi’duan” is an indispensible
element of the body in Shifan Luogu suite, hence its inclusion in Xiaxi’feng; the
structure of the Dasi’duan can vary, but the melody must be performed for four times.
The third part, comprising the eleventh to sixteenth sections, is a kind of transition
from the body of the piece to its ending. It begins with two fast melodic passages
with the incorporation of the Luogu Paizi piece Qiduan (Seven Phrases). The melody
is transposed up a fifth, and the speed increases to create an appropriate mood for
the development. The appearance of Yuhe’ba (Equals to Eight) - also performed
four times - hence called Xiaosi’duan (Short Four Sections), and Xizou’ma brings
the music to the ending part; The fourth part, covering the seventeenth to nineteenth
sections, is made up of several percussion pieces. Here, the fast and impetuous
rhythms drive the piece to its climax.
The body of the piece comprises the characteristic “Dasi’duan (Great Four
Variations)”. The four variations follow the sequence “Qi (Qi cymbal), Nei (Nei
gong), Tong (Tong drum) and Wang (big gong)”, while the rhythmic combination of
“One, Three, Five, Seven” is unique. Characteristics of Rhythmic Changes of Each
Variation of “Dasi’duan (Great Four Variations)” of Xiaxi’feng are as follows:
1st variation 2nd variation 3rd variation 4th variation

One (Qi) Three (Nei) Five (Tong) Seven (Wang)
Seven (Nei) Five (Tong) Three (Wang) One (Qi)
Three (Tong) One (Wang) Seven (Qi) Five (Nei)
Five (Wang) Seven (Qi) One (Nei) Three (Tong)
Illustration 5-15. Characteristics of rhythmic changes of each variation of “Dasi’duan

(Great Four Variations)” of Xiaxi’feng of Shifan Luogu
Viewing the table either longitudinally or horizontally, each variation has a

rhythmic change that adds up the sum of one, three, five and seven (in various
combinations), making 16. The relatively flexible rhythmic change of 1,3,5,7 is also
apparent in the “Hetou (Common Head)” of “Dasi’duan”.
Example 5-35. “Hetou (Common Head)” of “Dasi’duan”
The first half of melodic section follows the sequential development of one, three,
five (rhythmic patterns played by percussion instead of melodic instruments) and
seven; the second half reproduces the characteristics of rhythmic patterns of one,
three, five and seven by percussion instruments, mirroring those of the first half.
The characteristics of a melodic passage in Xiaxi’feng can be summarized as
follows: first, it can exist independently as an integral part of the piece, such as
the five passages of melodic music in the second and fourth parts; second, it may
echo percussion music, or a melody may be connected with percussion section to
generate an independent part, such as the “Hetou (Common Head)” of the “Dasi’duan
(Great Four Variations)” of the third part; third, a Di flute melody appears somewhat
unexpectedly while Luogu Paizi (or Luogu Duan, percussion section) is played.
Playing a secondary role, the Di flute changes the mood of the piece, and helps create
a climax. Such a technique is referred to by folk musicians as “Mudan Chuanfeng
(Phoenix Flying Among Roses)”.
2. Shifan’gu (Ten Variations Ensemble with Drum Solos)
(1) About Shifan’gu
The term Shifan’gu (Ten Variations Ensemble with Drum Solos) was first seen in
Banqiao Zaji (Miscellanies of Banqiao) written by Yu Huai in the Ming Dynasty. It
was also referred to as “Shifan Xiaogu (Ten Variations of Xiao Flute and Drum)” in
another masterpiece of the same author Jichangyuan Wenge Ji (Records on Listening
to Music at Jichang Garden). Other titles such as “Shifan (Ten Variations)” or “Shifan
Di (Ten Variations of Di Flute)” were also found in later sources. Shifan’gu is popular
in Suzhou, Wuxi and Changshou of Jiangsu province, and it was brought to the court
of Beijing and Tianjin with Shifan Luogu.
Shifan’gu music can be divided into two categories according to its structural
characteristics. The first refers to small-scale wind-and-percussion music that does not
include a “drum solo section”. The other category is wind-and-percussion suites that
include drum solos. The Shifan’gu suite including a solo section for drums has three
performing styles, including those with one, two or three drum sections played by
Tong drum (Barrel shaped drum) or Ban drum (Single-framed drum). Most suites with
one drum section perform “Kuigu’duan (Rapid Drum Section)”; most suites for two
drum sections perform “Mangu’duan (Slow Drum Solo Section)” and “Kuaigu’duan”,
or “Zhonggu’duan (Medium Speed Drum Section)” and “Kuaigu’duan”; most suites

with three drum sections incorporate Mangu’duan, Zhonggu’duan and Kuaigu’duan
in the performance. Mangu’duan and Zhonggu’duan are performed by Tong drum
(barrel-shaped).
Guduan (Drum solo) and melodic section are played alternatively according to a
strictly defined structure. When a melody is played, drum phrases can be inserted, and
the device is called “Chai (to separate)”. There are different ways of Chai, such as
Banchai (Half Separation), which means inserting two beats of drum solo, Danchai
(Single Separation) for inserting four beats of drum solo, Shuangchai (Doubled
Separation) for inserting eight beats, and Meihuachai (Plum Blossom Separation) for
inserting over eight beats.
Shifan’gu and Shifan Luogu are popular in the same areas. The similarities of these
music genres can also be found in the composition of the ensemble, music style as
well as social functions. Their principal differences include, first, instruments used
are differently, even though the Di flute and drum are the leading instruments in both
genres, brass percussion instruments such as gongs and cymbals are not present in
Shifan’gu. Second, the origins of the music are different, their music structures are
different. While Shifan Luogu incorporates “Dasi’duan (Great Four Variations)” to the
main body (hence is a kind of “Variation Form” based on a single theme), Shifan’gu
includes one to three drum solo passages (including slow, moderate, fast patterns), so
it can be regarded as “Drum Solo Juxtaposition Structure”. Third, Shifan’gu focuses
on drum performance, whereas Shifan Luogu on a percussion ensemble.
Important repertoire of Shifan’gu includes Yifeng’shu (A Letter), Gun’xiuqiu
(Rolling Embroidered Ball) and Baihua’yuan (Hundred Flowers Garden) for suites
with one drum section; Manting’fang (Room Full of Fragrance), Yan’er Luo (Geese
are Landing) and Qingluan’wu (Pure and Beautiful Dance) for suites with two drum
sections; Ganzhou’ge (Song of Ganzhou), Xi’yudeng (Happy Fishing Lamp) and
Qi’yanhui (Crying for Yanhui) for suites with three drum sections.
Tonal names, fingerings, notation tablatures and the key relationships of the Di
flute used in both Shifan’gu and Shifan Luogu are the same.
(2) Music Analysis: Manting’fang (Room Full of Fragrance)
Manting’fang (Room Full of Fragrance) is a suite with two solo drum sections,
and is an extended suite of Shifan’gu. The title is derived from a labelled tune for
poems of the Song Dynasty, preserving both Northern and Southern music styles. The
characters “Manting’fang” are part of a poetic verse by Liu Zongyuan, famous poet
of the Tang Dynasty, which reads, “Manting’fang Caoji”, meaning “The room full of
fragrant piled with grass.”
The work is a concatenation of nine sections and an ending as listed below:
First, Meishao’yue (The Moon Above on the Plum Blossom), metre in moderate
speed, using “Gefan”129 (the fourth degree of a pentatonic scale instead of the third for
modulation).
129 Gefan, 隔凡。

Second, Ningrui’cao (Fresh Grass), using rapid “Chaitou” and “Gefan” to develop
the melody.
Third, Manting’fang (Room Full of Fragrance), lento.
Fourth, Hou Manting’fang (Continuation of Manting’fang, first part), slow metre.
Fifth, Mangu’duan (Slow Drum Solo Section).
Sixth, Manting’fang (Room Full of Fragrance), lento.
Seventh, Hou Manting’fang-Zhongduan (Continuation of Manting’fang, middle
part), switching from lento to moderate tempo, and to rapid “Chaitou” at the end.
Eighth,“Kuaigu’duan (Rapid Drum Section).
Ninth, Hou Manting’fang-Xiaduan (Continuation of Manting’fang, last part),
allegro.
Tenth, Ending, played with moderate tempo leading to allegro.
The prelude includes the melodies “Meishao’yue” and “Ningrui’cao” which
are presented in moderate tempo, complying with the convention of Shifan’gu of
transposing the tonic up a fourth (or to subdominant), adding some vitality and variety
to the atmosphere.
The melodies of main body of the suite are organized in two large parallel sections
centred on the labelled piece Manting’fang, as well as two drum solo sections
Mangu’duan (Slow Drum Solo Section) and Kuaigu’duan (Rapid Drum Section).
Hence the first section stretches from the third to the fifth labelled tunes in a lento
speed, while the second section from the sixth to the ninth labelled tunes, progressing
from lento to moderato, then to allegro. The main body also reflects the structural and
metrical characteristics of two drum sections, which are two juxtaposed elements of
the suite.
The speed of Lento fulfills the purpose of presenting the theme “Manting’fang” of
the whole piece, which is soft and lyrical, as well as elegant and graceful. “First part
of Hou Manting’fang” is a repetition and extension of “Manting’fang”; “Jie (Extension
and Development)” technique is applied at the end to treat the melodies. Tong drum
is also added, a device known locally as “Ying Gu (Answering Drum)”, suggesting a
reinforcement of “Slow Drum Solo Section”.
Example 5-36. Ending of first part of Hou Manting’fang
(to be
continued)
Example 5-36 (continued). Ending of First Part of Hou Manting’fang
Mangu’duan (Slow Drum Solo Section) is made up of Zuozi (Base), Maozi (Head),
Zhongduan (Middle Section) and Ruqu (Entering). Although the same scores are used
in different suites of Shifan’gu, and controlled by the principal rhythm, the performing
techniques are subject to changes in timbre, rhythm and dynamics, leading to a stark
contrast between different sections, and a change in mood.
The second section of the body highlights speed change as well as the technique
of “Chaitou (Inserted Drum Phrases)”. The Kuaigu’duan (Fast drum solo section) of
Shifan’gu is made up of several Luogu Paizi (Percussion Labelled Tunes), and these
are handled differently in other works. Manting’fang includes twelve Luogu Paizi
(Percussion Labelled Tunes) and Luogu Duan (Percussion Sections)130, such as Jiji
Dapai (Fast Lining Up), Xipai (Refined Ordering), Lingban (Leading Beat), Tiao
Jinmen’kan (Jumping over the Golden Gate), He’chishi (Crane Searching for Food),
Zhong’baota (Heavy Blessed Pagoda), Liyu Pushui (Carps Playing with Water),
Hudie Shuangfei (Butterflies Flying in Pairs), Paiyun (Ordering Rhymes), Jiaodai
(Clarification) and Shoutou (Ending). The loud and rapid Ban drum accompaniment
leads to the last part of “Hou Manting’fang”, which includes the somewhat primitive
core melody of “Manting’fang”, in a passionate mood, as the climax of the whole
piece is reached, with the final passage in free metre.
One notices that Manting’fang centres on two drum sections to present music
130 The difference between Luogu Paizi (Percussion Labelled Tunes) and Luogu Duan (Percussion Sections) is
that for the former, they always bear special titles, while for the latter, without titles.
materials and their variations. Apart from “Meishao’yue” and “Ningrui’cao” of the
prelude, much focus is on the melody “Manting’fang”. Developmental techniques
include changes in metre and rhythm, “Chaitou” and “Jie”. It is a rarity in Shifan’gu
to find a piece displaying such a full dimension of originality in structure and
performing skills. The fact that there is an intricate relationship between structure and
metre change reveals the wisdom of generations of folk musicians.
3. Zhedong Luogu (Wind-and-Percussion Music of Eastern Zhejiang Province)
(1) About Zhedong Luogu
Zhejiang folk Wind-and-Percussion music is popular in Zhejiang, but the genre is
more developed in the Eastern part of the Province. Hence, it is also called Zhedong
Luogu (Eastern Zhejiang Wind-and-Percussion Music). Zhedong Luogu is most
popular in Fenghua and Shengxian Counties, where the range of music performed is
diverse. Percussion music there is very developed, as testified by the large number of
instrumental labelled tunes performed in Southern Wenzhou, Leqing, Ruian, Pingyang
and Dongtou areas.
The history of Zhedong Luogu is somehow related to the Ming warrior Qi
Jiguang, who gained great respect from the public after defeating his enemies, and
on his return, he and the soldiers were greeted by musicians of East Zhejiang, who
performed to them wind-and-percussion music. Further written sources on the genre
can be found in “Shaoxin’deng (Lanterns of Shaoxing)” and “Yuesu Saomu (Yue
People’s Customs of Visiting Grave)” in Taoan Mengyi (A Dream Record at Taoan
Temple) by Zhang Dai in the Ming Dynasty.131 Therefore, Zhedong Luogu has been
popular at least since the Ming Dynasty.
Zhedong Luogu is mostly performed by folk musicians and Taoists monks, and
there are diverse ways of choosing the names of performing groups, and these include
“Xike’ban (Group of Local Opera)”, “Taoist Group”, “Changban (Singing Group)”,
“Shifan’ban (Ten Variations Group)”, “Luogu’ban (Percussion Group)” and “Guting
(Drum Pavillion)”. The genre can be performed on different occasions, including
weddings, funerals, celebrations, dragon boat races, praying for rain and greeting
gods, as well as other folk festivals, and even for the reconciliation after disputes
among people (however, Taoist monks only use it in rites as well as folk funerals and
for the celebrations of the birthday of the deceased) .
In addition to traditional instrumental pieces, Zhedong Luogu is based on operatic
music and folk tunes. Operatic genres which have a direct effect on Zhedong Luogu
include Kunqu opera, Shaoxing opera (Luantan), Wuju opera and Beijing opera.
As a result of such influence, the repertoire of Zhedong Luogu includes titles such
as Wutou’chang (Five Head Stages), Guochang (Stage Interlude), Qima’diao
(The Tune of Riding a Horse), Duihua (Flower Duet), Naohua’tai (Celebrating
the Colourful Stage), Shijing (Ten Sceneries), Wannian’huan (Myriad Years of
Happiness), Chao’tianzi (Paying Respect to the Emperor) and Shuilong’yin (Recital
131 For more information, please see Zhang Dai (Ming Dynasty): Chapter “Shaoxing’deng” (Lanterns of
Shaoxing) in Taoan Mengyi (A Dream Record at Taoan Temple).
of the Water Dragon). Folk tunes which have a direct influence on Zhedong Luogu
include Moli’hua (Jasmine Flower), Mafeng’diao (The Tune of Stirrup) and Wuxi’jing
(Scenery of Wuxi). Important repertoire of Zhedong Luogu includes Dayuan’men (The
Brilliant Gate of the Official Palace), Duihua (Flower Duet), Xiuqiu (Embroidered
Ball) and Shifan (Ten Variations) in Chengxian County; Jiangjun Desheng’ling (Song
of the Victorious General), Huachuan Luogu (Percussion Accompaniment for Boat
Rowing) and Wanhua’deng (Myriad Lanterns) in Fenghua County; Xilang’yin (Sound
of Happy Waves), Liuqing’niang (A Slender Lady), Wanhua’deng (Myriad Lanterns),
Guochang (Stage Interlude) and Shijing Luogu (Ten Sceneries of Percussion Music)
in Wenzhou City; Longtou Longwei (Dragon Head and Tiger Tail) in Dongtou County;
Zuo’tongluo (Making a Metal Gong) and Jiu’lianhuan (Nine Connected Rings) in
Huangyan; and Chaoyin (Sound of Sea Waves) in Dinghai Region.
The performing styles of Zhedong Luogu include soft wind and percussion
(performed with Di flute), loud wind and percussion (performed with Suona),
“Qing’luogu” (pure percussion, without string instruments) and composite percussion
music (all instruments used). Percussion music is an integral part of all performances
of the genre.
The making of an ensemble for Zhedong Luogu varies according to location; the
most frequently used wind instruments include Xianfeng (or Zhaojun, a kind of horn),
large and small Suona, Di flute and Xiao flute; Sheng mouth organ and Guanzi pipe
are rarely used. String instruments include Pinghu (Erhu) fiddle, Wanhu fiddle, Huihu
fiddle, Pipa lute, Sanxian lute, Shuangqing lute and Yangqin dulcimer. Bowed string
instruments used for the wind-and-percussion music in Wenzhou area include Jinghu
fiddle, Banhu fiddle, Erhu fiddle and Piaohu fiddle. Drums include Ban drum (or Gao
drum and Dou drum), and Peng drum (similar to Korean tambourine). The latter is
used in some regions. Cymbals include small Jing cymbals, regular Jing cymbals,
Ci cymbals and large cymbals. There are many varieties of gongs, including Yunluo
(set of gongs), and the ensemble in Shengxian County includes Ma gong, large gong,
Dong gong and Tai gong. The ten gongs used by ensembles in Fenghua area include
large gong, Chai gong (4), Ling gong (2), Nao gong, Zhangban gong, Goujiao gong;
other percussion instruments of the ensemble include Muyu wooden block, Ban
clapper, Yuban clapper, Shuangxing bell, Jiuzhong (wine cup) and Diezi (plates).
Goujiao gong
Naoluo gong Zhangban gong
Ling gong Ling gong
Chai gong Chai gong
Chai gong Chai gong

Big gong
Illustration 5-16. Arrangement of Ten Sets Gongs in Zhedong Luogu

There is a diverse range of percussion instruments involved in the performance

of Zhedong Luogu, the reason for its display of a rich array of tone-colours.
The composition of an ensemble is based on many factors, including the many
possibilities of combinations according to geographic areas and the needs for a
particular occasion.
The piece Shangxia Xiaolou (Up-and-Down the Stairs) popular in Wenzhou
involves percussion instruments such as Guangdong Ban (Clapper of Guangdong),
Tang drum, Goujiao gong (Dog Barking Gong), small gong, Jing cymbals and large
gong. It is performed by four musicians.
The piece Guting (Drum Pavillion) popular in Haining uses percussion instruments
such as Ban drum, Tang drum, small gong, Ci cymbals and Ma gong. It is performed
by four musicians.
The piece Chaoyin (The Sound of Sea Waves) popular in Dinghai uses percussion
instruments such as Tang drum, Goujiao gong, Jiuzhong (wine cup), plate, Jing
cymbals, large cymbals and Dong gong. It is performed by seven musicians.
The piece Zuo’tongluo (Making a Metal Gong) popular in Huangyan uses
percussion instruments such as large drum, small gong, small Jing cymbals, large and
small brass gongs, Ban clapper, Muyu wooden block (2) and double bells (2). It is
performed by eight musicians.
The piece Huachuan Luogu (Percussion Accompaniment for Boat Rowing)
popular in Fenghua uses percussion instruments such as Ban drum, Bian drum, Tang
drum, large drum, small gong, Jing cymbals, Goujiao gong, Zhangban gong, Nao
gong (2), Chai gong (4) and large gong. It is performed by four musicians.
The piece Dayuan’men (The Brilliant Gate of the Official Palace) popular in
Shengxian County uses percussion instruments such as Ban drum, Tang drum, large
drum, Ma gong, Zheng gong, Jin gong, Dou gong, small gong, Jing cymbals, Ci
cymbals, large cymbals, Tai gong, Dong gong and large gong, totaling as many as 14
instruments. It is performed by five musicians.
Key names Suona shwam Fingerings Tablature pitches and Key relationships
Menshang132 pipe pitch is do He (fifth degree) = Gong (tonic) = G

Menyi first hole is do Si (sixth degree) = Gong (tonic) = A
Mensi second hole is do Yi (seventh degree) = Gong (tonic) = bB
Menhe third hole is do Shang (first degree) = Gong (tonic) = C
Menfan fourth hole is do Che (second degree) = Gong (tonic) = D
Mengong fifth hole is do Gong (third degree) = Gong (tonic) = bE
Illustration 5-17. Key names, fingerings, tablature pitches and key relations of the Suona
shawm in Zhedong Luogu
(2) Music Analysis of Jiangjun Desheng’ling (Song of the Victorious General)

Jiangjun Desheng’ling (Song of the Victorious General) is a piece of wind-and-
132 Menshang, 闷上 . Men,close, Shang, first pitch. Menshan, closing the first pitch, playing the seventh pitch.
percussion music popular in Fenghua Region. It is based on the story of Qi Jiguang

fighting the invading enemies, and it serves to glorify the hero. The atmosphere of
the music is grand and passionate, portraying the scene of enthusiastic countrymen
welcoming the victorious return of the army.
Jiangjun Desheng’ling comprises “Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General)”,
“Desheng’ling (Song of the Victory)” and percussion sections “Raoteng (Vine) and
“Simen” (Four Gates)”. Its structural layout is as follows:
Prelude: Percussion music and first line of Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General),
free metre.
Part 1: Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General), first time, performed with Suona,
4/4. (Menshang), do =G.
Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General), second time, performed with Di
flute, 2/4.
Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General), third time, performed with Banhu
fiddle, 2/4 to Liushui’ban (Flowing Water, 1/4).
Part 2: Desheng’ling (Song of the Victory), first time. (Menhe), do = G.
Percussion music “Raoteng (Vine)”.
Desheng’ling (Song of the Victory), second time.
Percussion music “Simen” (Four Gates).
Desheng’ling (Song of the Victory), third time. (Menfan), do = D.
Ending: Percussion music Jiji’feng (Desperate Wind)
Percussion music Kuaijie Ding (Fast Shrinking to the End)
The piece begins with Santong’gu (Drumming Three Times) and the playing of ten
gongs, coupled with melodies of Suona in free metre, nurturing intense emotions in a
solemn atmosphere.
The opening phrases of Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General) are remarkably
charming; the lively and heroic mood is maintained by the use of constant leaps of
fourths and fifths.
Some technical devices are applied to the two variations of Jiangjun’ling (Song
of the General), so as to introduce changes and create the necessary contrasts. There
is a swapping of principal instruments, at the same time with changes to metre and
modality, and various kinds of percussion instruments are used to create contrast in
the opening scene.
The melody of the second part of Desheng’ling (Song of the Victory) is derived
from Choutan (withdrawing weak beats) in Jiangjun’ling (Song of the General). This
device is used three times.
The first appearance is thematic presentation. Even though the melody originates
from “Jiangjun’ling”, it has become lively but flowing, owing to the characteristics of
flowing-water metre (1/4).
The second appearance of the theme is in compressed form.
The third appearance of the theme features different ways of development,
involving changes in emotion, atmosphere, performing techniques, as well as modal

and melodic structure (from Menhe to Menfan). The pairing of Banhu and Erhu
fiddles can provide a sense of humour in performance, while the frequent application
of portamentos highlights strong regional characteristics.
As a result of the transposition of up a second, the melody adopts the decreasing
Luosi Jieding (Screw Stuck at the Top) technique to build up emotions, thus resulting
in marked changes of tone-colours in the second part.
Example 5-37. Excerpt from Jiangjun Desheng’ling
During each repetition of “Desheng’ling”, the theme is interspersed with

percussion phrases, providing the necessary reinforcement. Raoteng (Vine) and
“Simen” are based on the rhythmic structure of “one, three, five, and seven”: the
former is structurally rigorous, while the latter is flexibly conceived.
The ending of the whole piece features the brief and hectic Luogu Paizi “Jiji’feng
(Desperate Wind)” and Kuai Jieding (Fast Shrinking to the End).
4. Xi’an Guyue (Xi’an Wind-and-Percussion Music)
(1) About Xi’an Guyue
Xi’an Guyue (Xi’an Wind-and-Percussion Music) is predominantly popular
in Xi’an of Shaanxi Province, and also in neighboring Nanshanli towns, such as
Hejiaying of Chang’an County, Nanjixian and Lantian of Zhouzhi County. It used
to be referred to as “refined music” or “musical instruments” by folk musicians.
Xi’an Guyue is mostly performed in villages and temple fairs in annual celebration
of harvest from the end of May to July. The performers are mostly members of drum
music societies organized at village and town levels, as well as drum music ensembles
in large temples and monasteries.
It is possible to trace the history of “Xi’an Guyue” through analyzing its scores,
structure, song titles and instruments involved in performance: it will be seen that it
has a close relationship with Yanyue Daqu (Composite Court Entertaining Music) in
the Tang Dynasty. From written sources, Xi’an Guyue may well have originated in
the Tang Dynasty, and rose to its peak in the Qing Dynasty, when it was extremely
popular. There are 111 copies of Xi’an Guyue scores based on the research conducted
in the 1950s, and in addition to the copy found in Hejiaying, of which the date of 717
remains to be researched, the earliest copy was “Duduan, Zhuan, Xiaoquben Juquan”
(A Complete Collection of Drum Music, Zhuan Music and Small Tunes)133, dated
1689, and held by Xilun Music Society.
The repertoire of Xi’an Guyue includes various genres and forms. There are over
four hundred sets of extended suites available, including Taoci (Set Lyrics), Beici
(Northern Lyrics; or Northern Labelled Tunes), Nanci (Southern Lyrics; or Southern
Labelled Tunes), Wai’nanci (Outer Southern Lyrics), Jingtao (Beijing Suite),
Huagu’duan (Colourful Drum Section), Biezi and Zhuan, and over 500 short pieces
that can be streamlined into the five categories of Guduan (Percussion Section),
Shuaqu (Independent Tunes; or Xiaoqu, Small Tunes), Xiaoqu (Small Tunes),
Gezhang (Song Chapters) and Leigu (Percussion section); and over a hundred pieces
can be performed independently, including Langtou’zi (Peak of Waves), Sangu’bian
(Three Intertwined Whip), Fadian (Religious Beats), Wentui’gu (Refined Receding
Drum) and Huatui Gu (Colourful Receding Drum). Many pieces of Xi’an Guyue are
influenced by poems in the Song Dynasty, music in the Yuan Dynasty, as well as opera
in the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Xi’an Guyue can be performed with musicians either sitting or marching in a
procession.
a. Zuoyue (Sitting Music)
Sitting music performed indoors is a kind of extensive instrumental music
characterized by a rigorous and fixed musical structure, divided into two parts. The
instruments used in music for sitting include Di flute as the principal instrument, while
Sheng Sheng Sheng
Zhangu Middle mouth mouth mouth
drum Drum cymbals organ organ organ
Sheng
Cymbals mouth Zuogu Yuegu drum
organ drum double Yunluo
Dugu drum
(set of gongs)
Big cymbal table
Big gong Gong Big cymbal Di flute Sheng mouth Sheng mouth
organ organ
Illustration 6-18. The plan of sitting music
133 Guduan, Zhuan, Xiaoquben Juquan《鼓段、赚、小曲本具全》。

it is also possible to feature the Sheng mouth organ and Guan pipe; sometimes, double
Yunluo (set of gongs) is added. There are four types of drums, including “Zuogu (Sitting
Drum)”, “Zhangu (Warring Drum)”, “Yuegu (Musical Drum)” and “Dugu (Solitary
Drum)”. Other percussion instruments include large Nao cymbals, small Nao cymbals,
large Cha cymbals, small Cha cymbals, Ma gong, Yin gong (Kaikouzi), Jiaozi (small
gong), Da Bangzi (big clapper) and Shou’bangzi (hand clapper).
Sitting music is divided into “Bapai Zuoyue Quantao (Full Suite of Eight-Beat
Sitting Music)” and “Supai Zuoyue (Sitting Music in Folk Style)”. Full Suite of Eight-
beat Sitting Music is performed by both Buddhist monks and folk musicians. The
title implies that all the percussion sections of “Touxia (First Box)”, “Erxia (Second
Box)” and “Sanxia (Third Box)” in the first part of the suite are invariably “Bapai
Guduan (Eight Beat Percussion Section)”. The Full Suite of Eight-beat Sitting Music
performed by Chenghuang Temple Music Ensemble involves Yunluo gongs, and is in
Che (second degree) mode. The famous repertoire is titled as Chediao Shuangyunluo
Bapai Zuoyue Quantao (Full Suite of Eight-Beat Sitting Music in Che Mode with
Doubled-Yunluo Gongs).
“Sitting Music in Folk Style” does not include Colourful Drum Section and “Biezi”
music, while its opening percussion part exclusively uses large pieces of percussion
instruments, such as warring drum, large Nao and Gou gong. The atmosphere of the
music is profound and passionate. The Dazhazi (or Qianzhazi, percussion) part is
unique to this style of performance, which concatenates pieces in different modes,
with percussion ramifying the melodies, generating a mood of liveliness, robustness
and intense passion.
b. Xingyue (Procession Music)
Procession Music is less sophisticated than Sitting Music, and the former
pays more attention to melodies, with percussion instruments only taking the role
of an accompaniment or reinforcing strong beats. The genre is largely used for
performances in the streets and in festivities at temples. Procession music is divided
into Tongle’gu (Happy Drum, also known as Gao’bazi) and Luan’baxian (Mixture of
Eight Immortals, also called Danmian’gu or “Single-sided Drum”).
Apart from Di flute, Sheng mouth organ and Guanzi pipe, “Tongle’gu” also
involves percussion instruments such as high-handle drum, Jiaozi gong, Xiao’jiaoluo
gong (also called Geda Gong), Gongluo gong and Shou’bangzi (Hand Clapper) as
accompaniment, to produce characteristic timbres. The music is slow and in steady
rhythm, while the melodies are elegant; the repertoire is frequently performed by
Buddhist and Taoist monks, and seldom by folk ensembles.
“Luan’baxian” uses eight instruments, including Di flute, Sheng mouth organ,
Guan pipe, Fangxia’zi (Set of six gongs), Danmian’gu (single-sided drum), Yinluo
gong (Kaikou’jiao), Jiaozi small gong and Shoubangzi (hand clapper). “Luan’baxian”
performs a wide repertoire, including some lento emotional pieces in Sitting Music,
such as drum passages, Shuaqu music, Taoci (Set Lyrics) and Beici (Northern Lyrics).
The most popular pieces are Shuaqu Sitting Music, including Yaomen’shuan (Rolling
the Door Latch), Peng’jinbei (Holding a Golden Cup), Desheng’ling (The Song
of Victory), Shiliu’hua (Guava Blossoms), Xiangshan Shegu (Shooting Drum at

Xiangshan Mountain), Shipai (Ten Beats), Shiliu’pai (Sixteen Beats), Wushi’yan (Fifty
Eyes) and Gesha (The Song of Sand, same as “Tonggu”, Tong Drum). They are short
pieces with beautiful melodies, and can build up a joyous atmosphere, the reason for
the genre gaining tremendous popularity.
Heptatonic modes are used in Xi’an Guyue; their transpositions are based on the
long established Chinese method of “generation of pitches by progressing to the
eighth pitch” (similar to circle of fifths in the West). The four modes most frequently
used include:Liudiao: Liu (fifth degree) = Gong (tonic) = C, Chediao: Che (second
degree) = Gong (tonic) = G, Shangdiao: Shang (first degree) = Gong (tonic) =F and
Wudiao: Si (sixth degree in low register) = Gong (tonic) =D. The different Di flutes
used as principal instruments include those in Gongdiao (Gong Mode), Pingdiao
(Level Mode) and Meiguandiao (Plum Blossom Mode). Either the third hole or the
pipe pitch of Di is taken as “do”.
Gongdiao flute (also called “Sanyan Di”, or “three-eyed flute”) frequently plays
pieces in Liudiao (fifth degree, third hole as “do”); pieces in Chediao (pipe pitch as
“do”) are performed less frequently; pieces in Shangdiao and Wudiao are rare.
Pingdiao flute (also called “Manyan Di”, or full-eye flute) often performs music
in Liudiao (pipe pitch as “do”); music in Shangdiao (third hole as “do”) is performed
less frequently; music in Chediao and Wudiao is rarely found.
Meiguandiao flute (also called “Chediao” or “Kundiao Di”, or flute used for Kunqu
opera) frequently performs music in Chediao (third hole as “do”); music in Wudiao
(pipe pitch as “do”) is less frequently played; no music is performed in Liudiao or
Shangdiao.
Xi’an Guyue includes the greatest number of Liudiao pieces, while there is a fair
number in Chediao and Shangdiao; music in Wudiao is much less common.
(2) Music Analysis of Selectued Works
a. Chediao Shuangyunluo Bapai Zuoyue Quantao (Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting
Music in Chediao Mode with Double-Yunluo Gongs, or “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting
Music” for abbreviation.
As a form of sitting music suite for Taoist monks, the genre is performed by An
Laixu and others in Chenghuang Temple of Xi’an. The long title indicates the mode
(Chediao), structure (Eight-beat Sitting Music), and principal instruments involved
(double Yunluo set of gongs).
The Yunluo used in Xi’an Guyue has different specifications: there is an instrument
of ten gongs with ten pitches; another type includes seven gongs with seven pitches
(better known as “Fangxiazi”); there is yet another set of three gongs with three
pitches. The performer of double Yunluo set of gongs needs to use double beaters
to play the twenty-gong instrument with ten pitches, which is exclusively used to
perform Chediao music. When the double Yunluo is played in an ensemble, especially
with wind instruments, the performer has to juggle the two beaters with complicated
techniques, which characterizes the music. Pitches (in Gongche notation) of the
double Yunluo are as follows:
yi
wu liu
chi gong fan
shang yi si he
Illustratiion 5-19. Pitches (in Gongche notation) of the double Yunluo
Sitting music of Xi’an Guyue consists of two major parts.

The structural layout and artistic characteristics of “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting
Music in Chediao Mode and Using Double-Yunluo Set of Gongs” are as follows:
First Part: or “Front Part”:
The Front Part of “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting Music” consists of two opening
percussion section: Sangu’bian and Qi (Starting) in free metre, three Xia (Boxes,
indicating the main body part), Diegu (Overlapping Drums), and Tuigu (Retreating
Drum).
Sangu’bian (Three Intertwined Whip): percussion labelled piece specifically
intended for the opening of the suite “Eight-beat Sitting Music”.
Qi (Starting) in free metre: including “starting” for double Yunluo Set of Gongs
and for drum passages.
Xia: consisting of first, second and third Xia, interspersed with Shuaqu (Independent
Tunes).
First Xia: it is a drum passage with equal emphasis on melody and percussion,
based on the structure of eight-beats. The “eight-beat” drum passage refers to four
measures in “Zengban” (8/4) metre, that is, an eight-bar drum passage in 8/4 metre.
The characteristic of this Xia is that parts for melody and for drum are independent.
On the whole, the melody should follow the drum, and there is little room for melodic
embellishments.
Example 5-38. First Xia of Xi’an Guyue “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting Music in Chediao Mode and
Using Double Yunluo Set of Gongs”: Chi-Gong-Chi
(to be
continued)
Example 5-38 (continued). First Xia of Xi’an Guyue “Full Set of Eight-Beat Sitting Music in
Chediao Mode and Using Double Yunluo Set of Gongs”: Chi-Gong-Chi
Shuaqu music: it comprises short and lively folk music to be performed

independently. Here the piece is “Peng’jinbei (Holding a Golden Cup)”.
Second Xia: it repeats the melodies of the first Xia, but with the addition of two-
measure opening, called “Huantou”; besides, “Guzha’zi (Percussion music)” is
transformed to accommodate the melody.
Shuaqu music: Yaomen’shuan (Rolling the Door Latch).
Third Xia: similar to second Xia.
Qingchui (Pure Wind Section): expanding the melodies of the first Xia using 8/2
metre, and connecting this to the ending percussion part of the third Xia.
The Xia part of Xi’an Guyue “Full Set of Eight-Beat Sitting Music in Chediao
Mode and Using Double Yunluo Set of Gongs” is conceived in rigorous cyclic
structure.
A. First Xia.
B. Shuaqu music Peng’jinbei (Holding a Golden Cup).
A1. Second Xia.
C. Shuaqu music Yaomen’shuan (Rolling the Door Latch).
A2. Third “Xia”.
D. Qingchui (Pure Wind Section).
A3. Ending part of the third Xia.
Leigu (Accumulating Drum): a type of percussion labelled piece, which can be a
transition to Tuigu (Retreating Drum).
Tuigu (Retreating Drum): the ending of the Front Part is restricted to percussion
music. Its structure is “Tuigu’tou (Head of Retreating Drum)”, “Tuigu Zhengshen (Body
of Retreating Drum)” and “Tuigu’wei (Tail of Retreating Drum)” played with Yunluo
set of gongs. These percussion sections invariably lead to a climax at the end of the
Front Part.
Second Part: or “Later Part”
The second part of “Eight-beat Sitting Music” comprises Maozi’tou (Head of Cap),
Yinling (Song of Introduction), Taoci (Set Lyrics), Gandong’shan (Hurrying to Eastern

Mountain) and Tuigu (Retreating Drum), totally five sections.
Maozi’tou (Head of Cap): also called Leng-Deng-Za (onomatopoeia for
percussion). As the opening percussion for the second part, it invariably uses small
percussion instruments.
Yinling (Song of Introduction): lento music, performed independently by wind
instruments. Wooden clapper is used to accompany the melody, with two measures of
Zengban (8/4). The extended slow melody marks the beginning of the central part of
this piece of Sitting Music.
Taoci (Set Lyrics): the central part of Sitting Music. Lento melodies are expressive
with the metre of 4/2 and the ending incorporates Xingpai (Procession Beats).
Gandong’shan (Hurrying to Eastern Mountain): linked to the previous section
“Taoci” suite lyrics, Gandong’shan is in moderate tempo, highlighting percussion.
Apart from the occasional ensemble with the melodies, the percussion often performs
music independently, with small gongs and drums, after the melodies, building up a
lively atmosphere as well as providing an impetus for music.
Tuigu (Retreating Drum): the music echoes the mood Tuigu in the first part, but it
is extended substantially, consisting of Huadian Tuigu (Colourful Retreating Drum)
and Tuigu’wei (Tail of Retreating Drum). The alternate beating of Zuo and Zhan
drums has contributed to the accentuation to an intense atmosphere, concluding the
whole piece amidst a climax of supreme speed and intensity.
b. Huaguduan Zuoyue Quantao (Full Set of Coloured Percussion Sitting Music)
A sitting music suite by Buddhist monks, “Full Set of Coloured Percussion
Sitting Music” shares a similar structure with “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting Music”.
However, the former is structurally more complex and conceived in a greater
dimension, evolving from the simple framework of “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting
Music”. When “Full Set of Coloured Percussion Sitting music” becomes more
established as part of the repertoire of Xi’an Guyue, “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting
Music” is seldom performed, even though the suite is an early example of Sitting
Music.
Structurally, “Full Set of Coloured Sitting Music” is developed from “Full Set of
Eight-beat Sitting Music”. The differences in structural frameworks between “Full Set
of Coloured Percussion Sitting Music” and “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting Music” are
more conspicuous in the opening percussion, Xia, Leigu, coloured percussion, Biezi
and Zhuan.
First, Xia in the “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting Music” is rigidly fixed to eight-
beat percussion phrases (4/4 metre 16 measures or 4/2 metre 8 measures percussion
phrases); “Full Set of Coloured Percussion Sitting Music” can use eight-beat, nine-
beat, ten-beat or sixteen-beat percussion phrases with little restriction. Second,
the front part of “Full Set of Coloured Percussion Sitting Music” has a section of
Huagu percussion, and its later part is augmented by Biezi and Zhuan, bestowing the
music with vitality and energy. Third, the opening percussion of “Full Set of Eight-
beat Sitting Music” must include specific percussion labelled pieces Sangu’bian or
Langtou’zi; the respective percussion section in “Full Set of Coloured Percussion

Sitting Music” allows much more freedom in the choice of percussion labelled
pieces, and possible titles include Fadian (Religious Rhythm), Xiaojia (Adding a
Little), Taitou (Looking Up), Guihua’jia (Stand of Osmanthus Flower) and Yazi
Banzui (Quarrels between Two Ducks). The Leigu (Accumulating Drum) and Tuigu
(Retreating Drum) sections of “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting Music” are invariably
percussion phrases without melody; these sections in “Full Set of Coloured Percussion
Sitting Music” include percussion in ensemble with melodic instruments, as well as
these groups playing in alternation.
c. Chediao Zuoyue Quantao (Full Set of Chediao Sitting Music)
This is a sitting music suite played by folk musicians, which shares the same origin
with “Full Set of Eight-beat Sitting Music” and “Full Set of Coloured Percussion
Sitting Music” performed by Buddhist and Taoist musicians. However, secular and
religious pieces are different in contents, styles and structures, owing to varying paths
of development. Sitting Music for Buddhists and Taoists tends to absorb the music
traditions of upper echelons of society, and their performing techniques are more
sophisticated. Secular Sitting Music is influenced by the performing tradition of folk
music, and the style tends to be coarse and unsophisticated.
The structural layout of “Full Set of Chediao Sitting Music” (performed by He
Jiaying Village Ensemble) reveals the characteristics of the full set of Secular Sitting
Music.
i. Opening percussion: uses large-sized percussion instruments, such as warring
drum, big Nao and Gou gong; its coarse and robust style is drastically different from
repertoire of Buddhist and Taoist suites.
ii. Dazhazi (also called “Qian’zhazi”, or first percussion section): this part is a
component unique to Secular Sitting Music, which has four sets of “Dazhazi”, namely
first, second, third and fourth sets. They are used to introduce Sitting Music in the four
modes of Liudiao (fifth degree as tonic), Chediao (second degree as tonic), Shangdiao
(first degree as tonic) and Wudiao (sixth degree as tonic). “Dazhazi” comprises
over ten folk tunes and miscellaneous songs of different modalities, interspersed
with percussion passages. Some titles of the pieces are derived from opera, and the
atmosphere is usually lively and robust, akin to the style of Qinqiang Paizi (Labelled
tunes of Shaanxi local opera).
First, Dengkou’qu (Arriving Gate Tune), 2/4, Chediao (second degree as tonic),
expressive.
Second, Dan Baozitou Kuaigu (Single Leopard Head in Fast Rhythm), percussion
section.
Third, Zuilong’he (Drunken Dragon), 2/4, Liudiao (fifth degree as tonic), light.
Fourth, Sishuai (Four Military Heads), free metre, Liudiao (fifth degree as tonic).
Fifth, Shuang Baozitou Mangu (Doubled Leopard Heads in Slow Rhythm),
percussion section.
Sixth, Zuozhang (Sitting in Camp), 4/4, Chediao (second degree as tonic).
Seventh, Weisheng’zi (Concluding Passage), 3/4, 2/4, Chediao (second degree as
tonic).
Eighth, Paochang’gu (Drumming for Running Scene), percussion section.
Ninth, Baoma (Reporting Horses), free metre, Chediao (second degree as tonic).
Tenth, Hechang’gu (Drumming for Cheering Scene), percussion section.
Eleventh, Qi’yahuan (Beginning of a Maid), 3/4, 2/4, Liudiao (fifth degree as
tonic), slow and expressive.
Twelfth, Guopai’gu (Drumming for Interlude), percussion section.
Thirteenth, Lun’mabian (Juggling a Horsewhip), free metre, Liudiao (fifth degree
as tonic), light and active.
Fourteenth, Dagun’qu (Music for Beating Sticks), 2/4, Liudiao (fifth degree as
tonic), active and vibrant.
Fifteenth, Wuchui’gu (Beating Drum Five Times), percussion.
Sixteenth, Bei’zhangpo (Carrying Old Lady Zhang), 4/4, Liudiao (fifth degree as
tonic), leisurely.
Seventeenth, Hechang’gu (Drumming for Cheering Scene), percussion section.
Eighteenth, Weisheng’zi (Concluding Passage), free metre, Chediao (second degree
as tonic).
Nineteenth, Hechang’gu (Drumming for Cheering Scene), percussion section.
Twentieth, Guduan Yinzi (Prelude for Drum Section), 4/4, Liudiao (fifth degree as
tonic), lento.
iii. Guduan (Drum passages, equivalent to “Xia”)
First, Prelude for drum section, 4/4, Liudiao (fifth degree as tonic).
Second, First drum passage (equivalent to first “Xia”) begins with “cap” of drum
section, to be followed by eight-beat drum music “Raoxian’tang (Walking around
Immortal Hall)”, 4/4, Chediao (second degree as tonic).
Third, Pure wind music Dianhua’kai (Blossoming Flowers), 4/4, Liudiao (fifth
degree as tonic).
Fourth, Second drum section: same as that of the first, except there is now Huantou
(Changing Head) technique applied to the beginning.
Fifth, Pure wind music Yuanlin’hao (Beautiful Garden), 4/4, Liudiao (fifth degree
as tonic).
Sixth, Third drum section: same as second drum section.
iv. Zhegu’qu (Drum Music): Chediao (second degree as tonic), vibrant atmosphere,
serving a transition.
v. Leigu (Accumulating Drum): melodic sections Guo’tongguan (Passing Tongguan
Gate) or Guo’qinling (Passing Qinling Mountain) or Dazao’er (Getting Jujubes), in
Chediao (second degree as tonic).
vi. Gangu (Pure Drum): equivalent to Tuigu (Retreating Drum) of the Front Part in
religious Sitting Music, serving as a transition.
vii. Pure wind music: Zhenggong’qu (Music in Zhenggong Mode), 4/4, Chediao
(second degree as tonic), slow and lyrical; followed by Yubao’tou (Rain Beating
Head), 2/4, Liudiao (fifth degree as tonic), light and active (even though it is
performing independently, it still uses percussion musical instruments such as warring
drum, Yunluo set of gongs, Jiaozi small gong and Gong gong for accompaniment).
viii. Fanzan (Chanting Variations): 4/4, Chediao (second degree as tonic), followed
by Gandong’shan (Hurrying to Eastern Mountain) to conclude the entire suite.
From the “Full Set of Chediao Sitting Music”, it is evident that the folk (secular)
performing tradition involves large instruments for the opening percussion section,
and percussion instruments can be used to accompany “pure” wind melodies. Modes
may change freely, as in “Qian’zhazi” and percussion sections, as well as other
sections of the work. The Buddhists and Taoists have rigorous procedures for Sitting
Music, such as Front “Tuigu”, Later “Tuigu”, as well as the concluding slow section.
In the context of folk Sitting Music, these features are simplified or shortened, so
as to achieve more flexibility in accommodating folk music materials. The Sidiao
(fifth degree in low register as tonic) Leigu percussion music of the Buddhists and
Taoists shares the same melodies, which change their modes according to the full sets
of Sitting Music chosen. However, similar Leigu percussion music in secular style
comprises four pieces in different modes, namely Fenhong’lian (Pink Lotus Blossom)
in Liudiao (fifth degree as tonic), Guo’tongguan (Passing Tongguan Gate in Chediao,
second degree as tonic), Guo Huashan (Passing Huashan Mountain) in Shangdiao (first
degree as tonic) and Guo’xiandian (Passing Immortal Hall) in Wudiao (sixth degree
as tonic). Since the melodies of the work are mostly sourced from folk tunes and short
Qupai (instrumental labelled tunes), there is greater flexibility in changing modes. In
addition, the influence of regional operas, such as “Qinqiang” opera and “Daoqing”
(narrative/opera) since the last century, the percussion in “Dazhazi” has experienced
dramatic changes, with the Suona added sometimes. The number of performers is
unlimited, and sometimes the ensemble exceeds forty players. The grandeur has added
much vitality into the music, while its characteristic performing style has provided a
solid foundation for the continuous development of this delightful folk genre, which is
enthusiastically received.
In addition to Shifan Luogu, Shifan’gu, Zhedong Luogu and Xi’an Luogu, wind and
percussion music also includes other genres such as Chaozhou Luogu and Guangdong
Luogu.
Chaozhou Luogu (Wind-and-Percussion Music in Chaozhou) refers to the
branch of wind-and-percussion music popular in Chaozhou and Shantou Regions in
Guangdong Province.Instruments for Chaozhou Luogu include large gong and drum,
small gong and drum, Suzhou gong and drum, as well as a leading Di flute; among
these instruments, large gong and drum are most characteristic. The performance of
drum inherits the various gestures of Chinese boxing and Chinese swordsmanship.
The coordination of different rhythms of the drum (also called Shijie, actual indication,
or Mingjie, visible indication) and various gestures (also called Xujie, Implication,
or Anjie, implied indication) endows the music a unique style. The performing
practice of Chaozhou Da’luogu (Large Gong and Drum Music of Chaozhou) is often
associated with the character of native operas there. Famous repertoire includes 18
large suites, such as Guangong Guo’wuguan (Guangong Overcoming Five Defended
Gates), Paowang Buyu (Casting a Net to Fish) and Baxian Qingshou (Eight Immortals
at Birth Celebration). Chaozhou Xiao’luogu (Small Wind-and-Percussion Music in

Chaozhou) and Su’luogu (Percussion of Jiangsu) are different from Da Luogu in
instrumentation. Important repertoire includes Huamei Tiaojia (Mockingbird Jumping
on Frame) (for soft percussion) and Wanli Jiangshan Chunyi’se (All Spring Sceneries
over the Land) (for Su’luogu).
E. Genres of Luogu’yue (Percussion Music)
Luogu’yue (literally “Gong and Drum Music”, indicates “Percussion Music”) is a
folk instrumental performing style involving only percussion instruments; such kind
of performance is referred to by folk musicians as “Qing’luogu (Pure Percussion)”
or “Su Luogu (Pure Gong and Drum)”. On the one hand, Luogu’yue is regarded as an
independent genre, as testified by the existence of regional varieties such as Tongqi’she
(Bronze Instrumental Groups) in Xi’an, Weifeng Luogu and Jiangzhou Luogu in
Shanxi, Daliu’zi of Tujia People, Boshan Luogu (Gong and Drum Music of Boshan),
Linqing Luogu (Gong and Drum Music of Lingqing) and Qingzhou Luogu (Gong
and Drum Music of Qingzhou) in Shandong Province, as well as Naonian Luogu
(Percussion Music for New Year Celebration) in Hubei Province; on the other hand,
percussion music can exist within a particular genre, such as Shifan Luogu, Hebei
Yinyue’hui (Musical Association of Villages in Hebei), Qing’luogu (Pure Percussion
Music) in Wind-and-Drum music in North China. While Luogu’yue is principally
a performing style based on a combination of percussion instruments, while a wind
instrument or two may be added to enrich the performance. For example, Daliu’zi of
Tujia People sometimes has a Suona added to their percussion ensembles. However,
the artistic characteristics of Luogu’yue are based on percussion instruments.
1. Xi’an Tongqi’she (Xi’an Bronze Instrumental Groups)
“Tongqi’she (Bronze Instrumental Group)” in Xi’an is also known as “Dagua’she
(Beating and Sounding Group)”, “Jiahuo’she (Tools Group)” and “Tongle’she
(Enjoyment Group)”. Some of these can just be named after the places: the most
famous group in Wahutong (Valley of Tiles) of Xi’an is called “Wahutong’she”.
Instruments involved in performing music of Tongqi’she include single-sided drum
(1), Yunluo set of gongs (16-20), Ma gong (4), large gong (Gou gong) (2), large Ca
(8-10 sets), small gong (hand gong) (2), small cymbals (or Jiaozi) (2), bumping bells
(Shuaizi) (2) and Bangzi clapper (2).
The vital social function of “Tongqi’she” includes performing at temple fairs, such
as the one organized on 13th of first lunar month in Guandi Temple of Shequ Sipo
in Chang’an County134, ancient fairs at Dayan Pagoda in Xi’an three days later, Dala
Fair at Zhangyi Temple135 another three days after, Yaowang (Medicinal God) Fair in
Baqiao Laodong and Jiangpo of Chang’an County136 on 2nd of second lunar month,
Grand Temple Fairs137 six days after in cities such as Xi’an and Chang’an. In addition,
“Tongqi’she” performs percussion music in folk activities such as “burning fire”
134 社曲四坡关帝庙。
135 张义庙大腊会。
136 灞桥老洞；长安江波县。
137 长安地区盛大庙会。
gatherings in spring, weddings, funerals, birthdays, as well as other festive occasions.

Wahutong Tongqi’she is a renowned ensemble of percussion music, and its
repertoire includes Dagua She (Beating and Sounding Group), Yaozi Fanshen (Harrier
Turning Its Body), Laogua Qinchai (Crow Picking a Wooden Stick), Longhu’dou
(Battle between Dragon and Tiger), Laohu Dianchui (Tiger Juggling with a Hammer),
Yazi Banzui (Quarrels between Two Ducks) and Baxian Guohai (Eight Immortals
Crossing the Sea).
2. Daliu’zi (Beating Percussion) of Tujia People
Daliu’zi (Beating Percussion) is also known as “Dalu Paizi” (Beating a Road
Labelled Piece) or “Dajia’huo” (Beating Utensils), and the music is popular in
Longshan, Yongshun and Baojing in West Hunan Province, as well as Laifeng and
other areas inhabited by Tujia People in West Hubei Province.
Daliu’zi ensemble consists of four percussion instruments including Liuzi gong,
lead cymbals, second cymbals and Ma gong. The Suona shawm is rarely involved.
Ma gong is also called small gong or Gouluo gong, and owing to its capabilities
of producing loud and clear sounds in the high register, it is the principal instrument
of the group. Apart from playing solo passages and leading the ensemble, Ma gong
players have a special technique to stop the instrument from resonating, hence
rendering a more spirited and flexible performance style. Ma gong often plays in
ensemble with the lead cymbals, thus accentuating the effect of strong beats.
Lead cymbals and second cymbals in the ensemble have a larger diameter than
similar instruments in other folk ensembles, and the vibrating rims are also thinner,
producing a clear but soft timbre, ideal for playing “alto” parts. The lead cymbalist
often emphasises strong beats in order to control the rhythms, while second cymbalist
takes up patterns in weak beats, frequently adding syncopations and sophisticated
ornaments. It is therefore ironical that the second cymbalist is accorded parts of
greater virtuosity, something not easily accomplished by a rank-and-file musician. In
fact, the unique artistic effects of the second cymbals are considered the characteristics
of Daliuzi. Basic performing techniques of cymbals include muffled, flamboyant and
rim beatings. However, as the rhythmic patterns tend to change in a complex fashion
during performance, the demands on cymbalists are high.
Liuzi gong is also called large gong; its surface is thick and without a central boss,
producing a loud and solid sound. The beater of the gong is thick, and not padded; it
is a wooden stick six inches long. Liuzi gong is the core and bass instrument of the
percussion ensemble and its performing techniques include striking the centre and the
edge, as well as striking softly or heavily at slowly or rapidly.
The onomatopoeia characters for the notation of the ensemble include “Dai” for
Ma gong, “Dang” for Liuzi gong, “De” (muffled) and “Qi” (rim playing) for the lead
cymbals, “Bu” or “Man” (muffled) , “Pu” or “Pi” (flamboyant), “Ke”(rim playing) for
the second cymbals, as well as “Lun” for performing in unison.
During a performance, four players stand in a circle or semicircle, with the first
cymbals facing the second cymbals, and Ma gong facing Liuzi gong, so as to ensure
good visual communication.
There are over two hundred pieces of music for Daliuzi, but the current repertoire
consists of only about a hundred pieces. The programmatic contents of the titles are
rich, and many of these relate to recollections of matters of daily lives: music relates
to work includes Tiejiang Datie (Blacksmith at Work), Dafang’che (A Big Spinning
Wheel), Xiao’fangche (A Small Spinning Wheel) and Tan’mianhua (Plucking Fluffy
Cotton); pieces depicting animal lives include Bage Xizao (Myna Taking a Bath),
Yelu Xianhua (Wild Deer Biting Flowers), Jinji Paichi (Golden Cockeral Shaking
Its Wings), Niuca’yang (Cow Rubbing Its Itchy Skin), Jipo Shengdan (Hen Laying
Eggs), Yazi Pushui (Duck Playing with Water), Shuanglong Chudong (Double
Dragons Leaving Cave) and Xique Luomei (Magpie Landing on a Plum Blossom);
those describing sceneries include Fengchui Mudan (Wind Blowing at Peony), Liyu
Shaigua (Carp Spraying Water), Maniangzi Shanshu (Lady Ma Climbing Tree) and
Gushu Pangen (Old Tree Rolling Its Roots).
Labelled pieces for Daliu’zi can be organized in different formats: a piece can
be performed independently; it can also be repeated a number of times in form of
variations; different pieces can be concatenated as well as appearing later as extended
variations. The whole idea of “Liuzi” is that there is a fully developed labelled piece,
which should be introduced by a short introduction as well as an opening passage
(“head”).
Daliu’zi is an indispensable performing style associated with all important
events of the Tujia people, and these include weddings, moving houses, celebrations
of harvest and festival occasions such as the third day of the third lunar month,
competitions among villages, as well as for self-entertainment.
The most popular pieces of Daliu’zi include Bage Xizao (Myna Taking a Bath),
Jipo Shengdan (Hen Laying Eggs), Baxian Guohai (Eight Immortals Crossing the
Sea), Maobu Laoshu (Cat Catching a Mouse), Queqiao’hui (Meeting at the Bridge of
Magpies) and Jinji Tuowei (Beautiful Cockeral Towing its Tail).
3. Weifeng Luogu (Percussion Ensemble Music of Weifeng) in Shanxi Province
Weifeng Luogu (Weifeng Percussion Ensemble) music is popular in Hongtong
Region of Shanxi Province. According to Shigang Pingyao (Historical Outlines with
Annotations),
“Emperor Rao took his crown, asking who could be the next Emperor. Ministers
from different tribes suggested Shun. Rao summoned Shun to see him, and offered the
second daughter to marry him. When Rao died, Shun inherited the crown, taking a
courtesy name Youyushi, meaning taking over the world by high morality... Shun used
music to educate his people, and Zhongli recommended Kui to be the music officer.”
“Emperor Yu took over the crown. . .composing the piece Daxia (Music Glorifying
Great Xia Dynasty), meaning greatness. It glorifies the high moral standard of Rao
and Xun. Instruments such as Xuanzhong (Hanged Bells), Drum, Qing (Sonorous
Stones), Duo (ancient bells) were made, pacifying the land.”
From this historical legend, Hongtong culture began during the era of ancient
Emperors Rao and Shun. Inhabitants of Shanxi believe that Weifeng Luogu has a long
history, and the percussion music is related to many interesting myths.
The origin of Weifeng Luogu is related to Yangxie Village ten kilometres south
of Hongtong where Emperor Rao was born. After the two daughters (Erhuang and
Nyuying) of the previous Emperor Rao had married Shun, they travelled from Shenli
village of Wanan to Rao’s home annually to show respect on the third day of the
third month and stayed for 35 days, until the eighth day of the fourth month. During
this period, people from the two villages will play percussion music to greet the two
queens, and such performances became a percussion competition for amusement.
On the third day of the third month, people from Yangxie went to Wanan to welcome
Erhuang and Nyuying, Wanan people called them uncles or brothers in law; when
villagers of Wanan went to Yangxie on the eighth of the fourth month, they were
treated likewise. After Erhuang and Nyuying died, the third day of the third month
and eighth day of the fourth month are rememberance days, when the statues of the
two queens were honoured. Inhabitants of nearby villages soon followed this practice.
According to the Annals of Hongtong, these were two days when big temple fairs
were held during the Tang Dynasty. Since then, these were opportunities for sharing
percussion music, worshiping spirits, praying for rain, honouring the Goddess to bring
good fortunes.
There are many extant pieces. According to the research conducted by Tian Chuan
and Shi Dengkui of Hongtong Cultural Centre in 1980, there were over one hundred
pieces of percussion music preserved in in the area. Pieces of Weifeng Luogu related
to history include Sima Toutang (Four Horses Going to Tang Court), Wuma Pocao
(Five Horses Defeating Cao Troops), Zhangfei Leigu (Zhang Fei Playing Drum),
Zhangfei Chuang’yuanmen (Zhang Fei Fighting at the Military Gate), Xiaotang’er
Luandian’bing (Xiaotanger Committed a Wrong Military Strategy), Hanxiangzi
Tihualan (Hanxiangzi Holding a Flower Basket), Caoguojiu Ganlyu (Caoguojiu
Riding a Donkey), Zhaokuangyin Diaobing (Zhaokuangyin Deploying Forces), Erxian
Chuandao (Two Immortals Preaching Taoist Doctrines), Sanxi Lyubu (Tricking Lvbu
Three Times), Wuhu Xiaxi’chuan (Five Tigers Coming to Xichuan) and Erlong Xizhu
(Two Dragons Playing with A Ball). Pieces named after places and folklores include:
Xige’tan (The Bank of West River), Donghesha Jie Wulutan (Eastern River Sand
Linked to Five Even Roads), Chi’liangfen (Eating Cold Noodles), Shizi Gunxiu’qiu
(Lion Playing with a Decorated Ball), Zhenzhu Daojuan’lian (Pearls Curtain Upside-
Down), Xiapoli Gunhetao (Walnuts Rolling Down the Hill), Gou’siyao (Dog
Biting), Fengjiao’xue (Snowing with Wind), Yinniu’si (Threading the Silver String),
Shiyang’jing (Ten Sceneries), Luansima (Interweaved Strings), Yinyang Bagua (Yin
and Yang Hexagrams), Sihong Sixi (Four Reds and Four Happiness) and “Liuliu
Dashun”(Fortunes with Six-Six Numbers).
Some pieces are named after plants, including Xiao’huixiang (Fennels), Cidai’hua
(The Flower with Thorns) and Luancha’hua (Flowers Wrongly Arranged). Some
are named after the number of strokes in performing the drum, gong and cymbals,
including Qichui (Beginning of Hammering, also termed Leichuizi, Beating
Hammers), Wudian’zi (Five Beatings), Qidianzi (Seven Beatings), Jiu’dianzi (Nine
Beatings), Shisan’chui (Thirteen Hammers), Liunao (Six Cymbals), Babo (Eight
Cymbals), Jiu’lianhuan (Nine Connected Rings), Luodian’zi (Ending Beatings)

and Shijin’pai (Mixed Labelled Piece). The structure of the labelled pieces can be
complex, for example, a piece can switch between simple and compound time, or with
passages mixing these rhythms. Rhythmic changes and transition between passages
are unique, rendering a characteristic indigenous style of folk music.
Weifeng Luogu in Hongtong used to be performed for receiving deities, praying for
rain and festive occasions, hence its tradition of organizing musicians in a procession,
which may need to be assembled in a square. The procession usually comprises eight
musicians, who play large drum (1), Nao cymbals (1), Cha cymbals (1), brass gong
(4) and small Dou gong (1). The largest procession may consist of thirty musicians,
who play large drum (4), Nao cymbals (3), Cha cymbals (4), gong (18) and small Dou
gong (1). Notwithstanding the size of the processions, there should be an even number
of musicians. Weifeng Luogu has been chosen as a target for demonstration of power
and riches among some villages, as some were able to organize several processions
of thirty musicians, much to the envy of those short of resources. Each ensemble can
have a different style of performance, especially in the opening and ending of a suite,
except the musicians of Yangxie and Wanan, who prove to be consistent and adhere
to certain conventions when playing the small Dou gong. Hence, there is a popular
saying in Hongdong “any ensemble of Weifeng Luogu should not compete with
Yangxie and Wanan”. At Lantern Festival in 1950, there were over 140 Weifeng Luogu
ensembles gathered for performance, with the total number of musicians approaching
five thousand, thus creating a huge impact by the sheer number of participants. In
1958, the suite Yuejin Weifeng Luogu (Leap Forward Weifeng Luogu) arranged by
Feng Shouting in Yang Xie was performed in Yangxie Village. Gestures were added,
as well as changes to the procession, and the genre was transferred to the stage. It
was performed in the First Shanxi Folk Music Performance and was awarded the first
prize.
Further ventures on the genre were made by Tian Chuan and Shi Dengkui, whose
Tengfei Luogu (Flying Gong and Drum) was performed in 1981. The suite is a kind
of “combined art”, borrowing ideas from drama, dance and martial arts, in order
to enrich the body movements of musicians in the procession including the pieces
Changshe Baiwei (Long Snake Waging Its Tail), Erlong Xizhu (Two Dragons Playing
with A Ball), Taoyuan Jieyi (Making a Brother Alliance at Taoyuan), Sixi Facai (Four
Fortunes and Getting Rich) and Wuxing Shanguang (Five Stars Shinning Together).
Such bold innovations have led to some success, at least in making the performance
more spectacular. While Weifeng Luogu has remained popular in Hongdong Region,
the genre has spread to neighboring regions such as Huoxian County, Fenxi, Linfen,
Fushan and Xiangfen. Each team has a special name, such as Huajia Weifeng
Luogu’dui (Aged People Weifeng Luogu Team), Zhongqingnian Weifeng Luogu’dui
(Young and Middle Aged Weifeng Luogu Team), Qingnian Nanzi Weifeng Luogu’dui
(Young Boys’ Weifeng Luogu Team), Jinguo Nvzi Weifeng Luogu’dui (Young Girls’
Weifeng Luogu Team), Caifeng Nvzi Weifeng Luogu’dui (Colourful Women’s Weifeng
Luogu Team) and Sishi Tongtang Jiating Weifeng Luogu’dui (Four Generations
Family Weifeng Luogu Team).

4. Jiangzhou Luogu (Percussion Ensemble in Jiangzhou)
Jiangzhou Luogu (Percussion Ensemble in Jiangzhou) music is popular in
Jiangzhou (now Xinjiang) of Shanxi Province, located between the two cities believed
to be capitals of legendary Emperors Yao and Shun, with over ten Yangshao cultural
heritage sites, and is considered a breeding place for Yellow River culture. Zhili
Jiangzhou’zhi (Ethnography of Jiangzhou) records, “Country rites are conducted
annually during the summer and winter, when many temples in villages and towns
are offered incenses, and with performances of percussion music and opera.” The
Xinjiang Xianzhi (Ethnography of Xinjiang County) also records, “When village
rituals are organized, there will be performances of opera for several days. The stories
vary, and percussion music is played .....” All forms of folk arts are therefore closely
related to social activities: it is how functions such as religious rituals, weddings and
funerals have helped drum music in Jiangzhou to survive.
Jiangzhou Percussion Music can be divided into Saishe Luogu (Ritual Percussion,
also called “Naonian Luogu”, Percussion for New Year Celebrations, as well as
Shehuo Luogu (Percussion for Village Celebrations) and Percussion-and-Wind
ensemble. The first can be further divided into “Qingyin Luogu (Pure Sounding
Percussion)”, “Biaoyan Luogu (Percussion as Performance)”, “Banzhou Luogu
(Percussion as Accompaniment)” and “Guche Luogu (Percussion played on a
vehicle)”; the “Guche Luogu” is distinguished according to the nature of the vehicles,
such as man-driven, animal-driven or motor-driven. The Percussion-and-Wind
ensemble is largely intended for folk weddings and funerals, and they feature small
drum or big drum percussion music, as well as pieces for wind with percussion; the
other type is performed by Taoist monks.
Repertoire of Jiangzhou Luogu comprises suites, but individual labelled pieces
within a suite can be performed independently. In Sanquan village, the percussion
ensemble is called “Chuanxiang Luogu (Percussion for Crossing Street)”, and their
repertoire comprises 24 pieces, amongst them Xiapoli Gunhetao (Walnuts Rolling
Down the Hill) is impressive. Such kind of percussion music is often performed with
dancers, and while the repertoire does not change from village to village, the musical
effects vary drastically, as performing techniques will affect the aesthetic outcome.
Saishe Luogu is usually led by a performer called Xuanzi (also known as “Daidai”),
and the principal instrument is drum, which is accompanied by gong and cymbals.
Characteristics of “Huaqiao (Colourful Beatings)” drum include the exclusive use
of “wood and skin” instruments, which are called “Gan (dry)” drums. The number of
drums is restricted to 24, which represents the same number of seasonal demarcations
of the lunar year. During performance, four dancers will be involved, holding Paiban
(wooden clapper, also called Jiaban) and Bangzi (wooden box), and positioned in the
middle, symbolizing cow, tiger, lion and Qilin (legendary animal of fortune). There is
a belief that masks were worn by the dancers in olden days.
Jiangzhou Luogu is unique in performing techniques, particularly in the
improvisatory passages resembling a cadenza in a concerto, where drums as well
as drum sticks are fully exploited as instruments, and the best kinds of timbres are
produced, a true demonstration of indigenous music culture. In “Qinwang Dianbing
(Arranging Troops by Qin Emperor)”, a wide range of techniques of drumming are
displayed, including beating rim, wooden frame and centre, or juggling with drum
sticks, rubbing metal side-fixtures, bombarding the circumference, beating the centre,
as well as playing as solo, duet, and in small and full ensembles. The musical and
visual effects are most spectacular.
Jiangzhou Luogu music is coarse, passionate and unconstrained, which is in line
with the character of natives of Xinjiang. The genre also has a close relationship with
gong and drum opera and Puju Opera. Its current performing style has retained the
essence of the tradition, which has been preserved for generations.
REFERENCES
CONTINUING READING MATERIALS

Introduction:
Music Research Institute. 1964. Overview of Chinese Traditional Music (Minzu
Yinyue Gailun). Beijing: Music Publishing House.
Chapter I:
Du Yaxiong (ed). 1993. Introduction to Folk Music of Chinese Ethnic Groups
(Zhongguo ge Shaoshu Minzu Minjian Yinyue Gailun). Beijing: People’s Music
Publishing House.
Jiang Mingdun. 1982. Introduction to Han Ethnic People Folk Songs (Hanzu
Minge Gailun). Shanghai: Shanghai Literature and Art Press.
Sha Hankun. 1988. Structure and Melodic Progression of Chinese Folk Songs
(Zhongguo Minge de Jiegou yu Xuanfa). Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publishing
House.
Zhou Qingqing. 1993. Chinese Folk Songs (Zhongguo Minge). Beijing: People’s
Music Publishing House.
Chapter II:
Huang Yunzhen. 1991. Collection of Chinese National Music: Volume of Dancing
Music (Zhongguo Minzu Yinyue Daxi: Gewu Yinyue Juan). Shanghai: Shanghai Music
Publishing House.
Yang Minkang. 1996. Chinese Folk Singing and Dancing Music (Zhongguo
Minjian Gewu Yinyue). Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House.
Chapter III:
Chen Ruheng. 1987. History of Storytelling (Shoushu Shihua). Beijing: People’s
Literature Publishing House.
Fu Xihua. 1953. Collected Essays on Folk Performing Arts, Shanghai Magazine
Publishing House.
Lian Po. 1989. Collection of Chinese National Music: Volume of Narrative
Singing Music (Zhongguo Minzu Yinyue Daxi: Quyi Juan). Shanghai: Shanghai Music
Publishing House.
Zhao Jingshen. 1982. Discussions on Quyi (Quyi Congtan). Beijing: China Quyi
Publishing House.
Zheng Zhenduo. 1954. History of Chinese Popular Literature (Zhongguo
Suwenxue Shi). Beijing: Writer’s Publishing Press.
Chpater IV:
Jiang Jing. 1995. Chinese Xiqu Music (Zhonggo Xiqu Yinyue). Beijing: People’s
Music Publishing House.
528 CONTINUING READING MATERIALS
Wang Jixiao. 1993. Introduction to Yuju Vocal Music (Yuju Changqiang Yinyue
Gailun). Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House.
Wu Junda. 1993. Research on Kunqu Singing Tunes (Kunqu Changqiang Yanjiu).
Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House.
Yu Cong, Zhou Youde and Jin Shui. 1993. A Brief History of Chinese Xiqu
(Zhongguo Xiqu Shilue). Beijing: People’s Music Publishing House.
Zhou Dafeng. 1995. Introduction to Yueju Music (Yueju Yinyue Gailun). Beijing:
People’s Music Publishing House.
Chapter V:
Gao Houyong. 1981. Overview of Folk Instrumental Music (Minzu Qiyue Gailun).
Nanjing: People’s Publishing House of Jiangsu.
Li Minxiong. 1989. Series of Chinese Traditional Music: Instrumental Volume
(Zhongguo Minzu Yinyue Daxi: Minzu Qiyue Juan). Shanghai: Music Publishing
House.
Ye Dong. 1983. Genres and Forms and Folk Instrumental Ensembles (Minzu Qiyue
de Ticai yu Xingshi). Shanghai: Arts and Literature Publishing House.
Yuan Jingfang. 1987. National Instrumental Music (Minzu Qiyue). Beijing.
People’s Music Publishing House first edition.
SOUND RECORDINGS FOR LISTENING AND ANALYSES
RELATED TO EACH CHAPTER
(Note: The Sound recordings are available at the Central Conservatory of Music
Press.)
Chapter I (Folk Songs):

1. Lady Mengjiang (Mengjiang’nu, Jiangsu)
2. Embroidering Pouch (Xiuhe Bao, Northern Shaanxi)
3. Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua, Heilongjiang)
4. Tamping Song (Dawo’ge, Hunan)
5. Guerrillas Descending from Heng Mountain (Hengshanli Xialaige Youjidui,
Northern Shaanxi)
6. When Mentioning of My Love Going West (Tiqi Gege Zouxikou, Shanxi)
7. Ascending a Mountain to Watch the Plain (Shangqu Gaoshan Wang’pingchuan,
Qinghai, Gansu)
8. Red Caltrop Leading to the Root of Lotus (Hongling Qiandao Ousigen, Jiangsu)
9. All the Way Following the Sun (Genzhe Taiyang Yilulai, Sichuan)
10. Horse Riding Song (Ganma’diao,Yunnan)
11. Longing for a Sunny Day (Pan Qingtian, Jilin)
12. Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao, Sichuan)
13. Embroidering a Lantern (Xiu Denglong, Hebei)
14. Flying a Kite (Fang’fengzheng, Hebei)
15. Jasmine Flower (Moli’hua, Jiangsu)
16. Brother Pu Rulai (Purulai Didi, Mongolian)
17. Nao-men Da-lai (Naomen Dalai, Mongolian)
18. The Black Lark (Hei Yunque, Kazakh)
19. Arirang (Korean)
20. Gesangla (Tibetan)
Chapter II (Folk Dancing Music):

1. Dongchuan Caicha (Dongchuan Tea-picking, Yunnan Flower Lantern)
2. Cai Huadeng (Fujian Tea-picking)
3. Flower Drum of Fengyang (Anhui Huagu Tune)
4. Wutou Ganche (Wutou Driving the Cart, Qitai Yangge)
5. Dajin’qian (Beating Gold Coins, Erren’tai)
6. Shi Duihua (Ten Dialogues on Flowers, Erren’tai)
7. Hama Tiaojing (Frog Jumping into Well, Anhui Flower-Drum Lantern)
8. Desheng’ling (The Song of Victory, Suona music for Yangge Dance)
9. Amalehuo (Tibetan Nangma)
10. Gengu Diao (Elephant-Foot Drum Dance)
11. Sänäm (Muqam)
530 SOUND RECORDINGS FOR LISTENING AND ANALYSES RELATED TO EACH CHAPTER
Chapter III (Narrative Singings):

1. Loutai Hui (Meeting at Ying Tai’s Homem. Fujian Jin’ge, Beautiful Song of
Fujian)
2. Liangzhu Xiashan (Liang and Zhu Departing the Mountain. Shandong Qinshu,
Dulcimer Songs of Shandong)
3. Zhaojun Chusai (Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier. Sichuan Qingyin, Pure
Sounds from Sichuan)
4. Fengyu Guizhou (A Boat Returns in Wind and Rain. Danxian Paiziqu, Labelled
Pieces Accompanied by Three-Stringed Lute Alone)
5. Xiucai Guogou (A Scholar Crossing the Ditch. Sichuan Jinqianban, Golden
Coin Patter of Sichuan)
6. Jian’ge Wenling (Wind Chimes Ringing at Jian’ge. Jingyun Dagu, Big Drum
Song in Beijing Dialect)
7. Xin Mulan Ci (The New Mulan Ballad. Suzhou Tanci, Plucking Singing of
Suzhou)
Chapter IV (Operatic Music):

1. The Peony Pavilion - In the Garden (Mudanting ·Youyuan, a Southern labelled
tune, Kunqu)
2. The Sword - Fleeing by Night (Baojian Ji ·Yepen, a Northern labelled tune,
Kunqu)
3. Qingna’ao (Black Padded Coat. Chuanju Gaoqiang, Sichuan Opera)
4. Lanhuamei (Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows. Chuanju Gaoqiang, Sichuan
Opera)
5. Qin Xianglian (Qinqiang Clapper Opera)
6. The Complaining Ghost (Guiyuan, Qinqiang Clapper Opera)
7. Hua Mulan-Brother Liu’s Words Are Unfair (Liudage Jianghua Litaipian. Yuju
Clapper Opera)
8. Yuju, Lady General Mu Takes Command, Who expects that I would take
command again at 53 years old
9. The Orphan of the Zhao Family (Shougu Jiugu, Erhuang Melo in Original Meter
Type for old male role, Beijing Opera)
10. Li Ling Tombstone (Li Ling Bei. Reversed Erhuang Melo in Slow Meter Type
for old male role, Beijing Opera)
11. Zhaozhou Bridge (Zhaozhou Qiao. Erhuang Melo in Orginal Meter Type for
old female role, Beijing Opera)
12. Loss of Jieting Fort (Shijie Ting. Xipi Melo in Origianl Meter Type for old male
role, Beijing Opera)
13. Empty Fort Strategy (Kongcheng Ji. Xipi Melo in Two-Six Meter Type for old
male role, Beijing Opera)
14. General Yang Liulang Executes His Own Son-I suddenly heard my mother
come to the tent (Yuanmen Zhanzi-Hutingde Laoniangqin Laidao Zhangwai. Beijing
Opera)
SOUND RECORDINGS FOR LISTENING AND ANALYSES RELATED TO EACH CHAPTER 531
15. Burning of Shu’s Camps-Crying before the Bier (Lianying Zhai-Kuling,

Beijing Opera)
16. A Fisherman’s Struggle (Dayu Shajia. Xipi Melo in Original Meter Type for
female role, Beijing Opera )
17. Farewell My Concubine (Bawang Bieji. Duet between Jing make up and Dan
female role, Beijing Opera)
18. Drunken Beauty (Guifei Zuijiu. Siping Diao Melo in Original Meter Type for
19. Farewell My Concubine (Bawang Bieji. Nanbangzi Southern Clapper Melo for
20. Xu Ce Runs Around the City Wall (Xu Ce Paocheng. Gaobozi Melo for male
role, Beijing Opera)
21. Horse Trader (Fanma Ji. Chuiqiang, Blowing Melo, Beijing Opera)
22. Qin Xianglian-Husband goes binge drinking and wife sings for a living (Qin
Xianglian-Fujun Haoyin Qi Maichang. Pingju Opera)
Chapter V (Instrumental Music):

1. Wu’bangzi (Five Clappers, for Di flute)
2. Zhegu Fei (Flying Partridges, for Di flute)
3. Xiao’erfan (Small Two Variations, for Guan pipe)
4. Jianghe Shui (Water in River, for Guan pipe)
5. Yizhi Hua (A Flower, for Suona shawm)
6. Erquan Yingyue (Reflection of the Moon on the Second Lake, for Erhu fiddle)
7. Bingzhong’yin (Reciting While Being Ill, for Erhu fiddle)
8. Liushui (Flowing Water, for Qin zither)
9. Meihua Sannong (Plum Blossom in Three Variations, for Qin zither)
10. Hanya Xishui (Winter Ravens Flying Over Water, for Zheng zither)
11. Yuzhou Changwan (Fishing Man Sings at Night, for Zheng zither)
12. Shimian Maifu (Ambush on All Sides, for Pipa lute)
13. Xiyang Xiaogu (Sounds of Vertical Flute and Drum at Moonlit Night, for Pipa
lute)
14. Hehuan’ling (Happiness of the Unification, from Xiansuo Shisantao ,Thirteen
Suites for String Ensemble)
15. Sanliu (Three-six, from Jiangnan Sizhu, Silk-and-Bamboo Ensemble in
Southern Jiangsu Province)
16. Xingjie (Walking on Street, from Jiangnan Sizhu, Silk-and-Bamboo Ensemble
in Southern Jiangsu Province)
17. Shizi Xiqiu (Lion Playing with a Ball, from Chaozhou Xianshi, Poetic Strings
of Chaozhou)
18. Bajun’ma (Eight Fine Horses, from Fujian Nanyin, Southern Sound of Fujian
Province)
19. Fanglyu (Herding Donkeys, from Hebei Yinyuehui, Musical Association of
Villages in Hebei)
532 SOUND RECORDINGS FOR LISTENING AND ANALYSES RELATED TO EACH CHAPTER
20. Caicha (Tea Picking, from Jinbei Shengguanyue, Sheng mouth organ and Guan
pipe music in Northern Shanxi Province)
21. Xia Xifeng (Wind Blowing from West, from Shifan Luogu, Ten Variations of
Wind-and-Percussion Music)
22. Manting’fang (Room Full of Fragrance, from Shifan Gu, Ten Variations
Ensemble with Drum Solos)
Appendix
GLOSSARY OF CHINESE TERMS

A
A Buddhist Nun Longing for the Secular World (Nigu Sifan 尼姑思凡 )
A Dream of Red Mansions (Honglou 红楼梦 )
A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors (Langzai Waijian Dashange 郎在外间
打山歌 )
A Model Couple Getting Married and Starting a Family and Career (Zhengyidui
Mofanfuqi Liyechengjia 争一对模范夫妻立业成家 )
A Pond of Clear Water (Yitang Qingshui Yitan’lian 一塘清水一塘莲 )
A Widow Attending to the Tomb (Guafu Jifen 寡妇祭坟 )
A Woman Visiting the Parental Home (Hui’niangjia 回娘家 )
A’lan Maizhu ( 阿兰卖猪 A’lan Selling Pigs)
Abing ( 阿炳）
Adeerjiang ( 阿德尔江 )
Ah Hei ( 阿黑 )
Ai! Mosuo ( 唉 ! 莫索 )
Aiguo’jiao ( 爱国娇 A Female Patriot)
Ainai ( 欸乃 Sound of Oar)
Airef and Synime ( 艾里甫与赛乃姆 )
Akens ( 阿肯 balladists or poets)
Alibieke ( 阿力别克 )
All the Way Following the Sun (Genzhe Taiyang Yilulai 跟着太阳一路来 )
Always Revolutionary under Leadership of Communist Party (Genzhedang Yongyuan
Naogeming 跟着党永远闹革命 )
Amanissa Khan ( 阿曼尼莎汗 )
Amateur Qingyin Performers’ Clubs (Qingyin Wanyou’hui 清音玩友会 )
Amiyou ( 阿咪哟 )
An’an Songmi ( 安安送米 An’an Delivering Rice)
Anbang’zhi ( 安邦志 Tranquilizing the Nation)
And Jigui（张计贵）
Andai ( 安代 )
Andai’ge ( 安代歌 Calming Song)
Angong Laosheng ( 安工老生 Aged Male Role emphasizing singing)
Anguo ( 安国 An old state located in Uzebekstan)
Anguo’yue ( 安国乐 Music from Anguo State )
Anhui Bangzi in Ganju ( 赣剧中的安徽梆子 Clapper Tune from Anhui used in Opera
534 GLOSSARY OF CHINESE TERMS
of Jiangxi)
Anjie ( 暗介 Implied Indication）
Anlefang Mutong（安乐坊牧童）
Annals of Jiangxi Customs (Jiangxi Fengwu’zhi 江西风物志 )
Annals of Later Han ( 后汉书 )
Annals of Sui: Biography of Liu Huo ( 隋书 • 柳或传 )
Annals of Sui: Records of the Emperor Yang of Sui ( 隋书 • 扬帝纪 )
Annals of Sui: Section on Music ( 隋书 • 音乐志 )
Annals of Wei: Biography of Gaoche ( 魏书 • 高车传 )
Anshi ( 安适 )
Anthology of Historical Guqin Pieces (Qinqu Jicheng 琴曲集成 )
Antong’nao ( 安童闹 A boy Called Antong)
Anzhi’jian ( 俺只见 Only Thing I Can See)
Arirang ( 阿里郎 )
Ascending a Mountain to Watch the Plain （Shangqu Gaoshan Wang’pingchuan 上去
高山望平川）
Ashima ( 阿诗玛 )
Ashima Xushi’shi ( 阿诗玛叙事）
Asier ( 阿斯尔 )
Asier shier’diao ( 阿斯尔十二调 Asier Twelve Tunes)
Asubadi ( 阿苏巴底 )
Attached beat (Daiban 带板 , 代板）
Attacking Mizhi Town (Da Mizhi’cheng 打米脂城 )
Autumn Laments of Prostitutes (Jinv Beiqiu 妓女悲秋 )
Avalokitesvara Subdues the Turtle Spirit ( 观世音收鼋妖 )
Aximu ( 阿西姆 )
B
Ba Zouma ( 八走马 Eight Running Horses)
Ba’longchuan ( 扒龙船 Rolling a Dragon Boat)
Baban, or Baban’ti ( 八板 Eight Beat; 八板体 Eight Beats Form)
Baban’er ( 八板儿 Eight Beats)
Babo ( 八钹 Eight Cymbals)
Babu ( 巴布 )
Back to Calm Water (Pingban 平板 )
Bada’chui ( 八大锤 Eight Hammers)
Badou Kaihua ( 芭豆开花 Croton is Blossoming)
Bage Xizao ( 八哥洗澡 Myna Taking a Bath)
Bai Fengming ( 白凤鸣 )
Bai Fengyan ( 白凤岩 )
Bai Jie ( 白洁 )
Bai Juyi ( 白居易 )
Bai Suzhen ( 白素贞 )
GLOSSARY OF CHINESE TERMS 535
Bai Yunpeng ( 白云鹏 )

Bai Yushuang ( 白玉霜 )
Bai’huatang ( 拜花堂 Bowing at Marriage Hall)
Baiben Zhangchao’ben ( 百本张钞本 Hand-Copied Book of Zhang)
Baidi’cheng ( 白帝城 Baidi City)
Baidu’ji ( 白兔记 Story of Rabbit)
Baihao ( 白鹄 Swan)
Baihua Zengjian ( 百花赠剑 Prince Baihua Offering his Sword for his Lover)
Baihua’yuan ( 百花园 Hundred Flowers Garden)
Baiju ( 白驹 )
Bailiangguan ( 白良关 Bailiang Pass)
Baimian ( 白面 White Face)
Baimudan’ling ( 白牡丹令 White Peony Song)
Bainiao Chaofeng ( 百鸟朝凤 Hundred Birds Facing the Phoenix)
Bainiao Guichao ( 百鸟归巢 Hundreds of Birds Returning to Nests)
Baipao’ji ( 白袍记 Story of the White Robe)
Baishe’zhuan ( 白蛇传 Legend of the White Snake)
Baishi ( 摆时 Swaying)
Baishi Daoren Gequ（白石道人歌曲 A Song Collection by Baishi Daoren)
Baishou’ge ( 摆手歌 Hand Waving Song)
Baitou’yin ( 白头吟 White Hair Song)
Baitu’ji ( 白兔记 Story of White Rabbit)
Baiwang’de Gushi ( 白王的故事 The Story of Bai King)
Baixi ( 百戏 Variety Shows)
Baixue ( 白雪 White Snow)
Baixue Yiyin ( 白雪遗音 White Snow Heritage Sound)
Baiyi’zhuan ( 百夷传 Biographies of a Hundred Barbarians)
Baiyu’dian ( 白玉钿 The White Jade Hairpin)
Baiyue Cihuan ( 拜月赐环 Praying the Moon and Offering a Ring, or story on Lubu
and Diaochan)
Baiyue’’ting ( 拜月亭 The Moonlight Pavillion)
Baiyue’ji ( 拜月记 A Fixed Marriage)
Baiyun ( 白云 White Clouds)
Bajiao’gu ( 八角鼓 Octagonal Drum)
Balaman ( 巴拉满 )
Ballad of a Hired Labour（Changgong’yao 长工谣）
Balloon Flower (Jugen’yao 桔梗谣 )
Ban’bandeng ( 搬板凳 Moving Wooden Bench)
Banchai ( 半拆 Half Separation)
Bangdi flute ( 梆笛 )
Bangqiang ( 帮腔 Vocal Accompaniment or Vocal Support)
Bangu drum ( 板鼓 )
Bangwan’de Shengyin ( 傍晚的声音 The Sound at Dusk)
Bangzi ( 梆子 Clapper)
Bangzi Tune in Fanshi Yangge ( 繁峙秧歌中的梆子腔 Clapper Tune in Field Dance
of Fanshi)
Bangzi Tune in Guangling Yangge ( 广灵秧歌中的梆子腔 Clapper Tune in Field
Dance of Guangling)
Bangzi Tune in Shuoxian Yangge ( 朔县秧歌中的梆子腔 Clapper Tune in Field
Dance of Shuo County)
Bangzi Tune in Yuxian Yangge ( 蔚县秧歌中的梆子腔 Clapper Tune in Field Dance
of Yu County)
Bangzi Wawa ( 梆子娃娃 Clapper Melody and Wawa Melody)
Bangzi’hu ( 梆子胡 Clapper Fiddle)
Bangzi’qiang ( 梆子腔 Clapper Melodic Type)
Banhu ( 板胡 Two-String Fiddle with wooden soundboard)
Banlun ( 半轮 half continuos plucking)
Banmeiman ( 板楣蛮 Wooden shield)
Banpi ( 班匹 )
Banqiang ( 板腔 Music Based on Metrical Change)
Banqiang form, or Banqiang Structure (Banqiang’ti 板腔体 , Metric Change Form)
Banqiao Zaji ( 板桥杂记 Miscellanies of Banqiao)
Banquet Songs (Yanxi’qu 宴席曲 )
Banshe’diao ( 般涉调 )
Banshi ( 板式 )
Bansong ( 板诵 Clapper Chanting)
Bantou’qu ( 板头曲 Instrumental Introduction)
Banzhou Luogu ( 伴奏锣鼓 Percussion as Accompaniment)
Banzhuang’tai ( 扮妆台 By the Dressing Table)
Bao Xiaocha ( 宝小槎 )
Baoan’ling ( 保安令 Baoan Ethnic Song)
Baochai Pudie ( 宝钗扑蝶 Baochai Catching Butterflies)
Baodi ( 宝坻 , now part of Tianjin)
Baogong’an ( 包公案 Cases of Judge Bao)
Baojian’ji ( 宝剑记 - 夜奔 The Tale of the Sword - Night Escape)
Baojuan ( 宝卷 Treasure Scroll)
Baoma ( 报马 Reporting Horses)
Baotou ( 包头 Covered Head)
Baoyu Yetan ( 宝玉夜探 Night Visit of Baoyu)
Bapai Guduan ( 八拍鼓段 Eight Beat Percussion Section)
Bapai Zuoyue Quantao ( 八拍坐乐全套 Full Suite of Eight-Beat Sitting Music)
Bapai’zi ( 八拍子 Eight Beats)
Bapai’zi ( 八拍子 Eight Beats)
Bapai’zi Qiba ( 八拍子其八 The Eighth of Eight Beats)
Bapai’zi Qiyi ( 八拍子其一 The First of Eight Beats)
Batiao’long ( 八条龙 Eight Dragons)
Bawang Bieji ( 霸王别姬 Farewell to My Concubine)

Bawang Xiejia ( 霸王卸甲 The Warlord Disrobing His Armour)
Bawang’bian ( 霸王鞭 Rattle Stick Dance)
Baxi ( 跋膝 a kind of flute)
Baxian Guohai ( 八仙过海 Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea)
Baxian Lingshou ( 八仙伶寿 Eight Immortals Celebrating the Birthday)
Baxian Qingshou ( 八仙庆寿 Eight Immortals at Birth Celebration)
Baxigu Liuliu ( 巴西古溜溜 )
Bayang ( 八阳 Buddhist Script)
Bayin ( 八音 Eight Sources of Sound)
Bayin Hanggai ( 巴音杭盖 )
Bayin’hui ( 八音会 Society of Eight Sources of Sound)
Bayu Dance (Bayu’wu 巴渝舞 Dance of Ba People)
Beaten by the Stepmother (Jimu Da’haizi 继母打孩子 )
Beating Haozi (Da Haozi 打号子 )
Beginning on an upbeat and falls on a downbeat (Yanqi Banluo 眼起板落 )
Bei ( 贝 Trumpet Shell)
Bei Xinshui’ling ( 北新水令 North Fresh Water Song)
Bei’zhangpo ( 背张婆 Carrying Old Lady Zhang)
Beici ( 北词 Northern Lyrics, or Northern Labelled Tunes)
Beidi ( 北狄 Northern Barbarians)
Beidiao ( 北调 Northern Tune)
Beifang Dagu ( 北方大鼓 Big Drum Song of Northern China)
Beigong ( 背宫 Plagal Mode)
Beigong’diao ( 背工调 Reversed Gong Mode)
Beigong’tou ( 背工头 Head of , or beginning of Reversed Gong Mode)
Beigong’wei ( 背工尾 Ending of Reversed Gong Mode)
Beijing Kuaishu ( 北京快书 Beijing Quick Patter)
Beijing Opera ( 京剧 )
Beijing Qinshu ( 北京琴书 Beijing dulcimer Patter)
Beijing Quju ( 北京曲剧 Tunes Opera of Beijing)
Beijing Zhihua Temple Music ( 北京智化寺京音乐 Wind-and-Drum Music at Zhihua
Temple in Beijing)
Beilu ( 北路 Northern Branch)
Beima ( 贝马 Senior Singer)
Beiqiang’diao ( 北腔调 Northern Melodies)
Beiqu ( 北曲 Northern tunes)
Beisi’guan ( 倍思管 )
Beizai ( 背仔 Carrying a Baby)
Bell-and-Drum Music (Zhonggu’yue 钟鼓乐 )
Bell-chimes (Bianzhong 编钟 )
Benbu’lai ( 笨布莱 )
Bend Your Back to Hook the Timber (Hayao’gua 哈腰挂 )
Bendi’bang ( 本地梆 Local Bangzi)

Bendiao ( 本调 Basic Mode)
Bengbeng ( 蹦蹦 Jumping)
Bengbeng’xi ( 蹦蹦戏 Jumping Opera)
Benshi’shi ( 本事诗 Storytelling Poem)
Bi ( 比 , a kind of flute. Appeared in Chapter 1)
Bi ( 比 Metaphor. Appeared in Chapter 2)
Bi ( 筚 Double-reed instrument)
Bi Yuanyang ( 比鸳鸯 Yingtai Comparing Shanbo and Herself to Mandarin Ducks)
Bian’luokuang ( 编箩筐 Making a Basket)
Bianchang drumbeats ( 变场锣鼓点 percussion music as interlude)
Biangong ( 变宫 Principal degree Gong down a minor second; or si, seventh degree)
Bianguan ( 边关 Frontier Gate)
Bianguan’diao ( 边关调 Frontier Tune)
Bianmang ( 编鋩 Set of Mang Gongs)
Biansheng ( 边生 )
Bianwen ( 变文 Changed Scriptures)
Bianxiang ( 变相 Paintings of Buddhist stories)
Bianyin ( 边音 Side Sound)
Bianyin ( 变音 Changed Pitch)
Bianzi’gu ( 鞭子鼓 Strap Drum)
Biaobai ( 表白 Narrating Speech)
Biaoyan Luogu ( 表演锣鼓 Percussion as Performance)
Bibi’kan ( 比比看 Let’s Compete)
Bieji ( 别姬 Farewell to Concubine)
Biezi ( 别子 A type of music used in Xian Guyue)
Big Eight Heroes (Daba’yi 大八义 )
Big horizontal flute music section (Da Hengchui’bu 大横吹部 )
Big Slow Tempo (Da Manban 大慢板 )
Big Starting Beat (Da Qiban 大起板 )
Big Stories of Martyrs (Da Yinglie 大英烈 )
Big Swinging Tune (Da Shuaiqiang 大甩腔 )
Big Tune (Daqiang 大腔 )
Big-Tail Phrases (Da Weiba’ju 大尾巴句 )
Bili pipe ( 荜篥，悲篥，必栗 )
Bimo ( 毕摩 )
Bimo’diao ( 毕摩调 Bimo Song)
Bingyu’yuan ( 冰玉缘 The Love Story of Ice and Jade)
Bingzhong’yin ( 病中吟 Reciting While Being Ill)
Biographies of Exemplary Women (Lienv’zhuan 列女传 )
Biography of Nanzhao, New Annals of Tang ( 新唐书 • 南诏传 )
Biography of Southern Barbarians ( 南蛮列传 )
Biography of Yingying (Yingying’zhuan 莺莺传 )
Biqiang ( 悲腔 Sad Tune)

Bisheng’hua ( 笔生花 Flower from Pen)
Bixiu ( 逼休 )
Biyu’zan ( 碧玉簪 The Emerald Hairpin)
Black Beat (Heiban 黑板 )
Black Beat Ending on Red Beat ( 起黑落红 )
Black Eyed Girl (Heiyanjing’de Guniang 黑眼睛的姑娘 )
Black Satin Waistcoat (Heiduan’zi Kanjian 黑缎子坎肩 )
Boatman Playing the Flute ( 舟人吹笛 )
Book of Heaven (Tianjie Zhibu 天界之部 )
Book of Hell (Renjian Zhibu 地狱之部 )
Book of Human World (Renjian Zhibu 人间之部 )
Book of Songs (Shijing 诗经 )
Boshan Luogu ( 博山锣鼓 Gong and Drum Music of Boshan)
Boshi’xili ( 勃什细喱 )
Botou ( 拨头 )
Bowl-Drum Dance (Pangu’wu 盘鼓舞 )
Boya ( 伯牙 )
Bozhong’lian ( 钵中莲 Lotus in the Bowl)
Bozi ( 拨子 Plectrum)
Bozi Huqin ( 拨子胡琴 Fiddle played by a plectrum)
Bracket Harp Narrative Singing (Niutui’qin Shuochang 牛腿琴说唱 )
Brass Drum ( 铜鼓）
Bridal Lamentations (Kujia’ge 哭嫁歌 )
Brother and Sister Continuing Propagation of Mankind (Xiongmei Chuanren’zhong
兄妹传人种 )
Brother Melodies (Xiongdi Qupai 弟兄曲牌 )
Bubo ( 布伯 , a hero)
Bubu’gao ( 步步高 Stepping High)
Bubu’jiao ( 步步娇 Walking Gracefully)
Bubu’jin ( 步步紧 Step by Step)
Buda’benr ( 不打笨儿 Fluent)
Bugu Niaoer Gugu’jiao ( 布谷鸟儿咕咕叫 Cuckooing Cuckoos)
Butterfly Song (Hudie’ge 蝴蝶歌 )
Buxu’sheng ( 步虚声 Hidden Sound of Steps)
Buyi Plucked Singing (Buyizu Tanchang 布依族弹唱 )
Buzhan’nier ( 不沾泥儿 Not stained)
Buzhi’ming ( 不知名 Unnamed)
C
Cai Bojie ( 蔡伯喈 )
Cai Lusheng ( 踩芦笙 Trampling or Dancing Lusheng) 2
Cai Yong ( 蔡邕 )
Cai Yuanding ( 蔡元定）

Cai Zhengren ( 蔡正仁 )
Caicha ( 采茶 Tea Picking)
Caicha Chuangu ( 采茶串古 Tea-picking Story)
Caicha’ge ( 采茶歌 Tea Picking Song)
Caicha’xi ( 采茶戏 Tea-Picking Opera)
Caicha’yao ( 采茶谣 Tea-picking Ballad)
Caidie Caihua ( 彩蝶采花 Butterflies Picking Flowers)
Caifeng Nvzi Weifeng Luogu’dui ( 彩凤女子威风锣鼓队 Colourful Women’s Weifeng
Luogu Team)
Cailiang’wu ( 采莲舞 Lotus-picking Dance)
Cailou’ji ( 彩楼记 The Tale of a Decorated Archway)
Calling Haozi (Jiao Haozi 叫号子 )
Cang-lang-lang Ling（仓啷啷令）
Cangzhou ( 藏舟 Hiding the Boat)
Canjun’se ( 参军色 Military Drama)
Canjun’xi ( 参军戏 Military Drama)
Cao Anhe ( 曹安和 )
Cao Dongfu ( 曹东扶 )
Cao Gang ( 曹刚 )
Cao Rou ( 曹柔 )
Cao Zheng ( 曹正 )
Caoguojiu Ganlyu ( 曹国舅赶驴 Caoguojiu Riding a Donkey)
Caopi’diao ( 草皮调 Turf Tune)
Caoqiao’guan ( 草桥关 The Caoqiao Pass)
Caotou Niang ( 草头娘 )
Caoxie Hualian ( 草鞋花脸 Poor Man Painted Face)
Caoyuan Chuntian ( 草原春天 Spring on Grassland)
Caoyuan Xiaojiemei ( 草原小姐妹 Little Sisters of the Grassland)
Caoyuan Xinmumin ( 草原新牧民 New Herdsmen of the Grassland)
Cases of Judge Bao (Baogong’an 包公案 )
Cases of Judge Liu (Liugong’an 刘公案 )
Ce ( 侧 side)
Cechu ( 侧楚 Side Plant)
Celestial Roaming (Xianyou 仙游 )
Cenong ( 侧弄 Supplementary Modes)
Chacha ( 茶插 Inserted melodies)
Chachuan ( 岔串 Clutter)
Chai ( 拆 to separate)
Chaichang ( 拆唱 Split Singing)
Chaishi’jie ( 柴市节 The Death of Wen Tianxiang at Chaishikou)
Chaitou ( 拆头 Inserted Drum Phrases)
Cham ( 羌姆 )
Chanda ( 缠达 Intertwined extension)

Chang Caicha ( 唱采茶 Singing Tea-Picking)
Chang Mentou ( 唱门头 Singing at the Front Door)
Chang Pipa ( 唱琵琶 Singing to Pipa)
Chang Xiangyu ( 常香玉 )
Chang Xiaoqu ( 唱小曲 Ditty Singing)
Chang Yueqin ( 唱月琴 Singing to Yueqin)
Chang Zhuma ( 唱竹马 Singing Bamboo Horse)
Chang’an Kanhuaji ( 长安看花记 Watching Flowers in Chang’an)
Chang’an Chunxue’qu ( 长安春雪曲 Chang’an Spring Snow Song)
Changban ( 唱班 Singing Group)
Changban’po ( 长坂坡 A Battle at Changbanpo)
Changben ( 唱本 scripts or scores)
Changce ( 长侧 )
Changcheng Shuixiang ( 长城随想 Rhapsody of the Great Wall)
Changcheng’diao ( 长城调 Tune of the Great Wall)
Changdi ( 长笛 Long Flute)
Changdiao ( 唱调 Vocal Tune)
Changduan’ju ( 长短句 Short and Long Verses)
Changge ( 长歌 Long Songs)
Changgong’ku ( 长工苦 Miserable Life of a Farm Worker)
Changgun ( 长滚 Long Piling Phrases)
Changhen’ge ( 长恨歌 Song of Eternal Sorrow)
Changlu ( 昌鲁 )
Changlun ( 唱论 Theory of Singing)
Changmian’luo ( 场面锣 Scene Gongs)
Changming ( 长鸣 Long Horn)
Changqiang ( 唱腔 Vocal Melodies, appeared in Chapter 2)
Changqiang ( 长腔 Long Tune, appeared in Chapter 3)
Changqing ( 长清 )
Changshe Baiwei ( 长蛇摆尾 Long Snake Waging Its Tail)
Changsheng’dian ( 长生殿 Long Life Hall)
Changshi ( 唱师 Master Singer)
Changshu ( 唱书 Book Singing)
Changting Jianbie ( 长亭饯别 Farewell at the Pavillion)
Changyou ( 倡优 Song and Dance Entertainer)
Changzhuan ( 唱赚 narrative Singing popular in Song Dynasty)
Chanling ( 缠令 Intertwined piece)
Chanling of Zhuanci ( 缠令、赚词 a type of narrative singing)
Chanxian ( 缠弦 Lowest String)
Chanyang’ge ( 纏秧歌 Weeding Field Songs)
Chanyin ( 颤音 Trills)
Chao Lu ( 曹鲁 )
Chao Prefecture (Chaozhou Cishi 潮州刺史 )

Chao’tianzi ( 朝天子 Paying Respect to the Emperor)
Chaocha ( 炒茶 Frying Teas)
Chaoyang’gou ( 朝阳沟 Chaoyanggou Village)
Chaoye Qianzai ( 朝野佥载 , literary sketches by Zhang Ying in the Tang Dynasty)
Chaoyin ( 潮音 Sound of Sea Waves)
Chaoyuan’ge ( 朝元歌 Chaoyuan Song)
Chaozhou Da’luogu ( 潮州大锣鼓 Large Gong and Drum Music of Chaozhou)
Chaozhou Ditao Luogu ( 潮阳笛套大锣鼓 Flute Suite with Large Gongs and Drums
of Chaoyang)
Chaozhou Luogu ( 潮州锣鼓 Wind-and-Percussion Music of Chaozhou )
Chaozhou Opera ( 潮剧 )
Chaozhou Sixian ( 潮州弦诗 Poetic String Music of Chaozhou）
Chaozhou Xianshi Ruantao ( 潮州弦诗软套 Soft Suite of Poetic String Ensemble of
Chaozhou)
Chaozhou Xiao’luogu ( 潮州小锣鼓 Small Wind-and-Percussion Music in Chaozhou)
Chaozhou Xiyue ( 潮州细乐 Refined Music of Chaozhou)
Chaozhou Zheng ( 潮州筝 Chaozhou Zither)
Chaozi ( 吵子 Noisy Percussion)
Chaqiang ( 茶腔 Tea-Picking Melody)
Chaqu ( 岔曲 Crossed between Lyrics and Tunes)
Chasan ( 岔伞 Signal Umbrella)
Chawei ( 撤围 Removing the Hunting Tools)
Chazu ( 茶祖 Tea Ancestor, or authentic melodies)
Cheban ( 掣板 Pulling Beat)
Chebu’duan ( 撤不断 Links of a Bracelet)
Chediao ( 尺调 )
Chediao Shuangyunluo Bapai Zuoyue Quantao ( 尺调双云锣八拍坐乐全套 Full
Suite of Eight-Beat Sitting Music in Che Mode with Double-Yunluo Gongs)
Chediao’qiang ( 尺调腔 Chediao Tune)
Chegu ( 车鼓 Rickshaw Drum)
Chegu Dance Tunes (Chegu Wuqu 车鼓舞曲 )
Cheli ( 车里 name of a place)
Chen Deju ( 陈德钜 )
Chen Dengyuan ( 陈登原 )
Chen Guangfa ( 陈广发 )
Chen Jiaqi ( 陈家齐 )
Chen Jing ( 陈静 )
Chen Kangshi ( 陈康士 , a Qin artist in the late Tang Dynasty)
Chen Lianqing ( 陈连卿 )
Chen Mufu ( 陈牧夫 )
Chen Ruheng ( 陈汝衡 )
Chen San and Wu Niang ( 陈三五娘 love story between Chen San and Wu Niang)
Chen Shimei ( 陈世美 )

Chen Suzhen ( 陈素真 )
Chen Xiong ( 程雄 )
Chen Yang ( 陈旸 )
Chen Yuanli ( 陈元礼 )
Chen Yuanliang ( 陈元靓 )
Chen Yuqian ( 陈遇乾 )
Chen Zhuo ( 陈拙 )
Chen Zijing ( 陈子敬 )
Cheng Changgeng ( 程长庚 )
Cheng School ( 程派 )
Cheng Wujia ( 程午嘉 )
Cheng Xiang ( 成相篇 Chengxiang Chapter)
Cheng Yanqiu ( 程砚秋 )
Cheng Yulan ( 程玉兰 )
Cheng Zhaocai ( 成兆才 )
Chenge ( 晨歌 morning Songs)
Chengjiantang Qinpu ( 澄鉴堂琴谱 Musical Scores for the Qin from Chengjiantang)
Chengshu Zaji ( 成书杂记 Notes for Writing the Book)
Chengtian ( 承天 Inheriting Heaven)
Chenhe’xi ( 辰河戏 Chenhe Opera in Hunan)
Chenhong Baobai ( 衬红褒白 )
Chenqiang ( 衬腔 Padding Melodies)
Chenshang ( 趁赏 Appreciation)
Cheshui’ge ( 车水歌 Water Pumping Song)
Chewangfu Ben ( 车王府本 Drama Collections in Chewangfu)
Chi’liangfen ( 吃凉粉 Eating Cold Noodles)
Chivalrous Roaming (Xiayou 侠游 )
Chiyin ( 齿音 teeth sound)
Chiyue ( 侈乐 )
Chongqiang ( 重腔 Repeating Phrase)
Chou ( 丑行 Clown)
Chou’pozi ( 丑婆子 Old Female Clown)
Choudan ( 丑旦 Female Clown)
Chougu ( 丑鼓 Clown Drum)
Choutan ( 抽眼 withdrawing weak beats)
Chouzheng ( 搊筝 plucked zither)
Chronicles of Barbarians (Manshu 蛮书 )
Chuan’ge ( 船歌 Boat Song)
Chuang’shiji ( 创世纪 Genesis)
Chuangling ( 串铃 chain of bells)
Chuanju ( 川剧 Sichuan Opera)
Chuanju and Sixian ( 丝弦 Silk String, local opera in Yunnan)
Chuanju Tanxi ( 川剧中的弹戏 Plucking Tune in Sichuan Opera)

Chuanxiang Luogu ( 穿相锣鼓 Percussion for Crossing Street)
Chuci ( 楚辞 Songs of Chu State)
Chudui’zi ( 出队子 Expeditions)
Chugu ( 出鼓 Drumming)
Chugu Sanduan ( 出鼓三段 Three Sections of Drumming)
Chuhui ( 出会 )
Chuibo ( 吹拨 Wind and Plucking)
Chuida ( 吹打 Wind-and-Percussion Ensemble)
Chuida’yue ( 吹打乐 Wind-and-Percussion Music)
Chuige ( 吹歌 Wind Songs)
Chuigong ( 吹工 Technician for Wind Instruments)
Chuigu’shou ( 吹鼓手 Wind Musician)
Chuiqiang ( 吹腔 Blowing Melody, appeared in Chapter 3 and 4)
Chuiqiang ( 吹腔 Wind Music, appeared in Chapter 5)
Chuishou ( 吹手 Wind Player)
Chuisi’diao ( 垂丝钓 Fishing Wire)
Chuiyang Sanfu ( 垂阳三复 Willows Played Three Times)
Chun Gong ( 春锣 Spring Gong)
Chuncan ( 春蚕 Spring Silkworm)
Chundao Lasa ( 春到拉萨 Spring Coming to Lhasa)
Chundao Miaoling ( 春到苗岭 Spring Coming to Miaoling)
Chundao Tianli ( 春到田间 Spring Coming to the Fields)
Chunguang’hao ( 春光好 Good Scenery in Spring)
Chunjiang Huayue’ye ( 春江花月夜 A Flowery Moonlit Night on the Spring River)
Chunjiao Shima ( 春郊试马 Taming a Horse in Countryside in Spring)
Chunling’tai ( 春陵台 Chunling Terrace)
Chunqiu’pei ( 春秋配 Li Chunhua and Jiang Qiulian)
Chuntai ( 春台 Spring Stage)
Chunxiang’zhuan ( 春香传 The Story of Chunxiang)
Chunyu ( 春雨 Spring Rain)
Chunyun Tune (Chunyun’ban 春云板 )
Chunzhi Hekai ( 春至河开 The River Opens to Welcome Spring)
Chushui’lian ( 出水莲 Floating Lotus)
Ci poem music（Ciyue 词乐）
Cidai’hua ( 刺带花 Flower with Thorns)
Cihu ( 刺虎 Assassinating Tiger)
Cihua ( 词话 Words and Stories)3
Cihua of King Qin of the Great Tang (Datang Qinwang Cihua 大唐秦王词话 )
Cihua of Ten Stories of Successive Dynasties (Lidai Shilue Shiduanjin Cihua 历代史
略十段锦词话 )
Cipai ( 词牌 poetic labels set musically)
Cisha’dan ( 刺杀旦 Acrobatic Female)
Civil and Military Sections (or Changmian 场面 Scene)

Civil Scene (Wenchang 文场 )
Civilized Dagu (Wenming Dagu 文明大鼓 Songs with Contemporary Lyrics)
Ciyuan ( 词源 Origin of Ci )
Ciyun ( 词云 Word Meaning)
Clear Beat (Qingban 清板 )
Clumsy Ten-character Phrases (Zhuo’shizi 拙十字 )
Collapsing Beat (Taban 塌板 )
Collected Essays on Folk Performing Arts (Quyi Luncong 曲艺论丛 )
Collection of Poems from Yuefu-Music Bureau ( 乐府诗集 )
Colourful Lantern (Huadeng 花灯 )
Colourful Tune (Caiqiang 彩腔 )
Column (Lizhu 立柱 )
Comment (Ping 评 )
Compendium of Chinese Folk Performing Arts, Sichuan Volume (Zhongguo Quyi
Jicheng, Sichuan Juan 中国曲艺集成·四川卷 )
Complete Poetry of the Tang (Quantang’shi 全唐诗 )
Cong Ethnic Group ( 賨族 )
Cong money ( 賨钱 )
Congren Li’en ( 从忍利恩 )
Connected Erbaban (Erba Lianban 二八连板 Connected Two-Eight Beat)
Cotton Picking (Zhai’mianhua 摘棉花 )
Counting Crabs (Shu’pangxie 数螃蟹 )
Counting Down Ten Months (Dao’shiyue 倒十月 )
Counting Frogs (Shu’hama 数蛤蟆 )
Court of Ministers ( 内大臣 )
Cover Three Days’ Journey in Two Days (Santiande Lucheng Liangtian Dao 三天的
路程两天到 )
Creation (Chuangshi’ji 创世纪 )
Creation of Materials (Zaowu’bu 造物部 )
Creation of the World (Chuangshi’bu 创世部 )
Crime Cases (Shuo Gongan 说公案 , Tieqier 铁骑儿 )
Crossing River with the Lead of a Silk Thread (Yigen Sixian Qianguo’he 一根丝线牵
过河 )
Crying Beat (Kuban 哭板 )
Crying Head One, Two, Three (Kutou 1, 2, 3, 哭头幺、二、三 )
Crying Out Haozi (Yao Haozi 吆号子）
Crying Phrase (Kutou 哭头 )
Cu Hulu ( 醋葫芦 Vinegar Calabash)
Cui ( 催 or 催板 Rushing Beats)
Cui Jinding ( 崔金定 )
Cui Lantian ( 崔兰田 )
Cui Wenzuo ( 崔问作 )
Cuibai ( 脆白 Clear Recital)

Cuntian’le ( 村田乐 Rural Entertainment)
Cunzi Beigong ( 串字背工 Addition of Character to Beigong)
Cuo ( 撮 Plucking by left hand)
Cupai ( 促拍 Hurrying Beat)
Cursing In-Laws’ Family (Ma’qingjia 骂亲家 )
Cymbals and Wind Music Section (Naochui Bu 铙吹部 )
D
Da ( 打 Fourth finger of right hand playing inwards)
Da Angu ( 大按鼓 Great Angu Drum)
Da Bili ( 大荜篥 large double-reed instrument)
Da Chaqu ( 大岔曲 Long Chaqu Songs, or Long Crossed Phrases between Lyrics and
Tunes)
Da Hujia ( 大胡笳 Big Double-reed Flute)
Da Hujia’ming ( 大胡笳鸣 The Sounding of Big Hujia Flute)
Da Paizi’qu ( 大牌子曲 Large Labelled Tunes)
Da Yangge ( 大秧歌 Great Work Song)
Da’baban ( 大八板 Large Eight Beats)
Da’beidiao ( 大悲调 Big Sad Tune)
Da’kaimen ( 大开门 Openign a Big Gate)
Da’ou Tiange ( 大欧天歌 Singing the Sky Song Loudly)
Da’shawei ( 大煞尾 The Big Ending)
Da’xixiang ( 大西厢 The Great West Chamber)
Da’zhaoyang ( 大朝阳 A Great Sunny Morning)
Daauniang’ai ( 大姑娘爱 Love of a Young Girl)
Daban ( 大板 Big Beats)
Dabei ( 大倍 Big Double)
Daben’qu ( 大本曲 Great Basic Suite)
Daben’shang ( 大本嗓 Big Basic Voice)
Dachang ( 大场 Big Dancing Scene)
Dade’sheng ( 大得胜 A Great Victory)
Dade’sheng ( 大得胜 Great Victory)
Dadi ( 大笛 Large Flute, refering Suona used in Shandong Guchui)
Dadi Erban ( 大笛二板 Large Flute in Two Beats)
Dadi’jiao ( 大笛搅 Big Cornet Expressions)
Dadiao ( 大调 Great Tune)
Dadiao Quzi ( 大调曲子 Big Tunes)
Dadiao Quzi Bantou’qu ( 大调曲子板头曲 Instrumental Introduction of Narrative
Singing of Henan)
Dafang’che ( 大纺车 A Big Spinning Wheel)
Dage ( 打歌 Dancing Song, folk dance and music of Wa People, appeared in Chapter 2)
Dage ( 大歌 Galao, appeared in Chapter 1)
Dage’diao ( 打歌调 Dancing Tunes)

Dagu ( 大鼓 Big Drum Song)
Dagu ( 大鼓 Big Drum, or narrative art using drum as accompaniment, popular in
northern China)
Dagu Zidi’shu ( 大鼓子弟书 Big Drum Singing Scripts Among Brothers)
Dagua’she ( 打呱社 Beating and Sounding Group)
Dagujia’zi ( 大鼓架子 Big Drum Rack)
Dagun’qu ( 打棍曲 Music for Beating Sticks)
Daguniang’mei ( 大姑娘美 A Fair Lady)
Dahan’yun ( 大含韵 Big Rhymed Tune)
Dahao ( 大号 Large Trumpet)
Dahe’tao ( 大合套 A Great United Suite)
Daheng’chui ( 大横吹 Large Horizontal Flute）
Dahong’huaer ( 大红花儿 Big Red Flower)
Dahong’lian ( 大红脸 Big Red Face)
Dahong’pao ( 大红袍 Red Official Gown)
Dahua’gun ( 打花棍 Beating Colourful Sticks) 2
Dahua’lian ( 大花脸 Big Colourful Painted Face)
Dahuange Qinpu ( 大还阁琴谱 Musical Scores for the Qin from Dahuange)
Dahuo ( 大濩 )
Dai ( 带腔 )
Dai Elephant-foot Drum Dance (Daizu Xiangjiaogu’wu 傣族象脚鼓舞 )
Dai Ya ( 戴亚 )
Daiban (Tuoban) Beat ( 带 / 托板 )
Daibian’xi ( 带鞭戏 Opera with Rattle Stick)
Daimian ( 代面 )
Daiwu ( 代舞 )
Daiyu Fen’gao ( 黛玉焚稿 Daiyu Burning Manuscripts)
Daiyu Guitian ( 黛玉归天 The Death of Daiyu)
Daiyu Zanghua ( 黛玉葬花 Daiyu Burying Flowers)
Daji’zhuang ( 大祭桩 Big Sacrificial Pile)
Dajia’huo ( 打家伙 Beating Utensils)
Dajin’qian ( 打金钱 Beating Gold Coins)
Dajin’zhi ( 打金枝 Taming of the Princess)
Dakai’tai ( 大开台 A Great Opening)
Dake ( 达克 )
Dakou Laozi ( 大口落子 Big Gate Lotus Tune)
Dala drum ( 答腊鼓 Dala Drum）
Dalai Lama Sangye Gyatso ( 仁增仓吉嘉措 )
Dalang Taosha ( 大浪淘沙 Big Waves Washing the Sand)
Dalei ( 大擂 Long Fiddle)
Dali’xian ( 大理弦 String of Dali)
Dalian’xiang ( 打莲厢 Beating Lotus Bulbs)
Daliu’zi ( 打溜子 Beating Percussion)

Dalu ( 大吕 )
Dalu Paizi ( 打路牌子 Beating Road Labelled Piece)
Daluojiang’yuan ( 大罗江怨 Sorrows of Daluojiang River)
Dama Yulang ( 大骂玉郎 Scolding the Jade Boy)
Damian ( 大面 Full Face Make-up)
Daming’fu ( 大名府 Daming Prefecture)
Dan ( 旦 Female Role)
Dan Baozitou Kuaigu ( 单豹子头快板 Single Leopard Head in Fast Rhythm)
Dan drum ( 担鼓 )
Dan’dadi ( 单大笛 Single Large Flute)
Dan’ge Songs ( 但歌 )
Danao ( 打闹 Beating and Sounding in Hubei, Sichuan and Guizhou)
Danbuler ( 丹布尔 lute popular among Chinese minorities)
Danchai ( 单拆 Single Separation)
Dancing to the Strings (Tiaoxian 跳弦 )
Dandao’hui ( 单刀会 Joining Enemy’s Banquet Alone)
Dandian ( 单点 Single Pattern)
Dang Jiuru ( 邓九如 )
Dangdiao ( 荡调 Dang Tune)
Dange（但歌）
Dangpi’xiang ( 当皮箱 Pawning the Leather Trunk)
Danjie ( 单借 changing one pitch)
Danju ( 丹剧 Opera Popular in Danyang, Jiangsu)
Danmian’gu ( 单面鼓 Single-Sided Drum)
Danqu ( 但曲 Solo Piece）
Dantan ( 单弹 Solo Plucking)
Danxian ( 单弦 Single String, a type of narrative singing popular in north-east,
appeared in Chapter 1)
Danxian ( 单弦 Solo Three-Stringed Lute, appeared in Chapter 3)
Danxian Paiziqu ( 单弦牌子曲 Labelled Pieces Accompanied by Solo Three-Stringed
Lute) Danyu Fengao ( 黛玉焚稿 Daiyu Burning Manuscripts)
Danyuan Baihua Duoduo Kaifang ( 但愿百花朵朵开放 Hoping a Hundred Kinds of
Flowers Will Blossom)
Dao’baban ( 倒八板 Reversed Eight Beats)
Dao’chunlai ( 到春来 Spring Coming)
Dao’donglai ( 到冬来 Winter Coming)
Dao’qiulai ( 到秋来 Autumn Coming)
Dao’xialai ( 到夏来 Summer Coming)
Daoban ( 导板 Leading Phrase)
Daoban’jiang ( 倒搬浆 Oak Upside Down)
Daoban’tou ( 导板头 Head of Leading Phrase)
Daochui’lian ( 倒垂帘 Curtain Upside Down)
Daohui ( 刀会 Meeting the Enemies Alone)

Daoma’dan ( 刀马旦 Actress in Military Costume)
Daoqing ( 道情 Taoist Expression)
Daoqing Paizi’qu ( 道情牌子曲 , Labelled Tunes for Sentiments)
Daosong’fan ( 倒送饭 Bringing Meals Back)
Daotuo’xue ( 倒脱靴 Putting Boots Upside Down)
Daoyu’ma ( 盗御马 Stealing Imperial Horse)
Dapu ( 打谱 Interpreting Score)
Daqi Banqiang ( 大齐板腔 Clapper Tune of Great Neatness)
Daqi’ban ( 大起板 A Great Opening Beat)
Daqian ( 大钱 Big Coin, big cymbals)
Daqu ( 大曲 Composite Music, concept of ancient music)
Daqu ( 大曲 Long Pieces, concept of Pipa music, appeared in Chapter 5)
Darhan Hoshuu ( 哲里木盟达尔汗旗）
Daruan ( 大阮 Big Round Lute)
Dasan’diao ( 大三调 Three Primary Modes)
Dashao ( 大韶 )
Dashi’diao ( 大石调 Big Stone Melody)
Dashu ( 大书 Long Storytelling)
Dasi’duan ( 大四段 Great Four Variations)
Dasi’jing ( 大四景 Four Scenic Views)
Dasitan ( 达斯坦 )
Dasuan’zao ( 打酸枣 Picking Wild Jujube)
Datong ( 大筒 big fiddle)
Datong Yuehui ( 大同乐会 Musical Society of Great Unity)
Dawan Yier ( 打玩意儿 Playing for Entertainment)
Dawu ( 大武 )
Dawulieti ( 达乌列提）
Daxi’xiang ( 大西厢 Great West Chamber)
Daxia ( 大夏 Music Glorifying Great Xia Dynasty)
Daxian ( 大弦 Large String Instrument)
Daxian ( 大咸 )
Daxiao’sheng ( 大小生 Principal Young Male Role)
Daxin’chun ( 打新春 New Year Begins)
Dayan ( 打雁 Hunting Wild Geese)
Dayang’chun ( 大阳春 Large Early Spring)
Dayanjing’ling ( 大眼睛令 Big Eye Song)
Dayin ( 打音 finger-beating sound)
Daying’tao ( 打樱桃 Picking Cherries)
Dayu ( 打鱼 Fishing)
Dayu Shajia ( 打渔杀家 A Fisherman’s Struggle)
Dayuan’men ( 大辕门 The Brilliant Gate of the Official Palace)
Dayuan’men ( 大辕门 The Brilliant Gate of the Official Palace)
Dazao’er ( 打枣儿 Getting Jujubes)

Dazao’gan ( 打枣杆 Beating Stem of Dates)
Dazao’gan ( 打枣杆 Picking Jujubes)
Dazhan ( 大战 Large-scale Battle)
Dazhazi ( 打札子 or Qianzhazi 前札子 percussion)
Dazhi’yao ( 大指摇 Thumb Trill)
Dazuo’qiang ( 打坐腔 Seated Singing)
De’ersai ( 得儿赛 )
Dead Souls ( 死魂灵 )
Deducted Beat (Kouban 扣板 or Dunban 蹲板 Squatting Beat)
Delu Gongshan ( 德鲁贡山 )
Dengjie ( 灯节 Lantern Festival)
Dengkou’qu ( 登口曲 Arriving Gate Tune)
Dengtou ( 灯头 or Dengzhu 灯主 Chief Lantern)
Dengxi ( 灯戏 Local Folk Dance Melodic Pattern)
Dengyue Jiaohui ( 灯月交辉 The Flashing and Sparkling of Lights and the Moon)
Desheng Huiying ( 得胜回营 Triumphal Return to Camp)
Desheng’ling ( 得胜令 The Song of Victory)
Di Huagu ( 地花鼓 Field Flower Drum)
Di Pangu ( 地盘鼓 Ground Drum)
Di Yangge ( 地秧歌 Field Dance)
Di Yi and Er Kuangxiang’qu ( 第一二狂想曲 No.1 and No. 2 Rhapsodies)
Diancha ( 点茶 Tea Selection )
Dianhua’kai ( 点开花 Blossoming Flowers)
Dianhua’kai ( 靛花开 Blue Flowers Blossom)
Dianjiang ( 点将 Calling for the Generals)
Dianjiang’chun ( 点绛唇 Putting on Red Lipstick)
Dianju Sixian ( 滇剧中的丝弦 Silk String Tune in Yunnan Opera)
Dianyin ( 垫音 Padded Pitch)
Diaobang’chui ( 吊棒棰 Hanging a Stick)
Diaozi ( 调子 Tunes)
Didu’ban ( 的笃班 Didu Troupe)
Die ( 叠腔 Doubled Pitches)
Dieduan’qiao ( 跌断桥 Tripping at Broken Bridge, or 叠断桥 Overlapping Broken
Bridge)
Dieduan’qiao Diao ( 叠断桥调 Melody of Overlapping at Broken Bridge)
Diegu ( 叠鼓 Overlapping Drums)
Dieju ( 叠句 Reiterative Phrases)
Dieluo Jinqian ( 叠落金钱 Dropping Money)
Diepai ( 叠拍 double beat, 2/4)
Dieshi ( 垤施 )
Dieyin ( 叠音 double pitches)
Dilide Erzi ( 底里的儿子 The Son of Dili)
Ding Xianchun ( 丁现春 )

Ding Yaoyuan ( 丁耀元 )
Ding Youjun ( 丁佑君 )
Dingban ( 顶板 On the Beat)
Dingding’er ( 定鼎儿 Making a Tripot)
Dingguo’zhi ( 定国志 Story of Founding a Nation)
Dingjun’shan ( 定军山 Dingjun Mountain)
Dingzhen’ge or Dingzhong’ge ( 顶针 [ 踵 ] 格 Connecting Pattern)
Diqiang ( 低腔 Low Melodies)
Discourse of the States (Guoyu 国语 )
Discourse of the States: On Zhou (Guoyu-Zhouyu Shang 国语 • 周语上 )
Dise ( 笛色 Colour of Bamboo Flute)
Ditong ( 地筒 Land Bamboo Pipes)
Diuqiang ( 丢腔 Quitting Voice)
Dixia Cangsong ( 地下苍松 Underground Green Pine)
Dizuo ( 底坐 Foundation)
Dombra Plucked Singing ( 冬不拉弹唱 )
Don Quixote ( 唐吉诃德 )
Dong Dangan ( 东丹干 )
Dong Guilin ( 董桂林 )
Dong Jieyuan ( 董解元 )
Dong Tinglan ( 董庭兰 active during the Tang Periods of Kaiyuan and Tianbao)
Dong Yong Maishen ( 董永卖身 Dong Yong Selling Himself as Slave)
Dongba’diao ( 东巴调 Dongba Song)
Dongbei Dagu ( 东北大鼓 Big Drum Song of Northeastern China)
Dongbei Guchui’yue ( 东北鼓吹乐 Northeast Wind-and-Percussion Music)
Dongbei Yangge ( 东北秧歌 Field Dance in the Northeast)
Dongchuang Shifan ( 东窗事犯 To be Punished after Death)
Dongdiao’xuan ( 东调选 Selection of Eastern Tunes)
Dongdong’gui ( 冬冬癸 )
Dongguan ( 洞管 Dong Flute)
Donghai Yuge ( 东海渔歌 East Sea Fishing Song)
Donghesha Jie Wulutan ( 东河沙接五路坦 Eastern River Sand Linked to Five Flat
Roads)
Dongjing Menghua’lu ( 东京梦华录 Records on Entertainment in the Eastern Capital)
Donglu ( 东路 Eastern Branch)
Donglu’diao ( 东路调 Tune of Eastern Region Melodic Style)
Dongmen ( 东门 Eastern Gate)
Dongmeng Minge Liantao ( 东蒙民歌脸套 Face Song Cycle of Eastern Mongolian
Folksongs)
Dongqu Chunlai ( 冬去春来 Winter Giving Way to Spring)
Dongxiang Tune ( 东乡调 Melody of Eastern Village)
Dongxiangde Yewan ( 侗乡的夜 Evening in Dong Village)
Dongxuan’jing ( 洞玄经 Dongxuan Scripture)3

Dongzu Zuxian Cong Nalilai( 侗族祖先哪里来 Origin of Dong People )
Donkey Plays (Luxi 驴戏 )
Dou Anchun ( 斗鹌鹑 Playing with Quails)
Dou’e Yuan ( 窦娥冤 The Injustice to Dou E)
Double Hammer Daiban Metre (Shuangzhui Daiban 双锤带板 )
Douhua ( 都花 Flower Duet)
Douye’huang ( 豆叶黄 Bean Leaves Turning Yellow)
Dragging Tune (Laqiang 拉控 , or Tuoqiang 托腔 )
Dragon Tickets (Longpiao 龙票 )
Dramas of Sui and Tang Dynasties (Suitang’xi 隋唐戏 )
Dressing Table (Shuzhuang’tai 梳妆台 )
Dropping Watermelon (Shuai’xigua 摔西瓜 )
Drum Songs (Guqu, 鼓曲 )
Drum with beater on each side ( 带环扁鼓 )
Drum-and-Di flute music (Gudi’qi 鼓笛曲 )
Drunken Concubine (Guifei Zuijiu 贵妃醉酒 )
Dry Starting Beat (Ganqi’ban 干起板 )
Du Shiniang ( 杜十娘 Lady Du Shiniang)
Du Shiniang-Toujiang ( 杜十娘 - 投江 “Drowning in the River” in Lady Du
Shiniang)
Du Yaxiong ( 杜亚雄 )
Duan ( 短 staccato)
Duan Anjie ( 段安节 )
Duan Shanben ( 段善本 )
Duan’ershu ( 段儿书 Excerpts)
Duanbi Shuoshu ( 断臂说书 The Broken Arm of Wang Zuo)
Duance ( 短侧 Short Rules)
Duanda Wusheng ( 短打武生 Young Actor Performing Acrobatics)
Duangun ( 短滚 Short Piling Phrases)
Duanqiao ( 断桥 Broken Bridge)
Duanqing ( 短清 )
Duanxiao Naoge ( 短箫铙歌 Songs of Xiao flute and Nao Cymbals)
Duanzheng’hao ( 端正好 Proper Etiquette)
Dugu ( 笃鼓 Du Drum)
Dui Dadi ( 对大笛 Paired Large Flute)
Duihua Diao ( 对花调 Quiz on Flowers Melody)
Duihua’qiang ( 对花枪 Pairing Silver Spears)
Duipu ( 堆谱 )
Duiwu ( 队舞 Group Dance)
Duixie ( 堆谐 a kind of Tibetan folk dance)
Duiyin ( 对音 Paired Pitches)
Dunhuang Pipa’pu ( 敦煌琵琶谱 Dunhuang Pipa Score, 933 A.D.)
Duo ( 掇腔 or Zuo Melody)

Duo ( 铎 ancient bell)
Duo ( 加垛 Piled Phrase)
Duoban ( 垛板 Very Lively Beat)
Duoju ( 垛句 Piled Phrases, or Staccato Phrases) 3
Duoyin ( 垛音 Sharp Sliding, or Sharp Staccatos)
Duozi’ban ( 垛子板 Piled Beat) 4
Duqu Chuyan ( 度曲刍言 Discussion on Composing Music)
Duqu Xuzhi ( 度曲须知 Essence of Composing Music)
Dutan drum ( 都昙鼓 )
Duzhan Huakui ( 独占花魁 The Oil Vendor and the Courtesan)
E
E’xishui ( 鹅戏水 Geese Playing in Water)
Eastern Gansu Daoqing (Longdong Daoqing 陇东道情 )
Eastern Hebei Yangge ( 冀东秧歌 Field Dance inEastern Hebei Province)
Ebing and Sangluo ( 娥并与桑洛 )
Eight Outer Roles (Waiba’jiao 外八角 )
Eight Plays and Two Arias (Baben Erzhe 八本二折 )
Elang Daling ( 呃郎打令 )
Elang’er Touduan ( 鹅郎儿头段 First Section of Goose Music)
Elang’tao ( 鹅郎套 Goose Suite)
Elephant-Foot Drum Dance (Xiangjiao Guwu 象脚鼓舞 )
Ema Yaoling ( 饿马摇铃 Hungry Horses Shaking their Bells)
Embroidering a Lantern (Xiu denglong 绣灯笼 )
Embroidering a Palace Lantern (Xiu Gongdeng 绣宫灯 )
Embroidering a Small Pouch (Xiu’hebao 绣荷包 )
Embroidering all Night (Xiu’wugeng 绣五更 )
Emperor Taizu of Song Visits Zhao Pu on a Snowy Night ( 宋太祖雪夜访赵普 )
Emperor Xuanzong ( 唐明皇 )
Emperor Zhuangzong ( 庄宗 )
Entering Tone (Rusheng’zi 入声字 )
Epic of Jangar (Jiangar, 江格尔 , a hero)
Epilogue ( 煞尾 or Weisheng 尾声 in Southern Suite)
Er ( 二 Two)
Erba’ban ( 二八板 Two-Eight Beat)
Erban ( 二板 Double Beat, or 2/4 metre)
Erban Luantan ( 二八乱弹 Miscellaneous Tune with Two-Eight Beat)
Erben voice ( 二本嗓 )
Erbu Honglian ( 二补红脸 Second Supporting Red Face)
Erduan ( 二段 Second Section)
Erduo’dan ( 耳朵旦 Ear Female Role)
Ererentai Paizi’qu ( 二人台牌子曲 Labelled Piece for Two-narrator dance-drama
Errentai)
Erfan ( 二凡 )
Ergan ( 二杆 Second Stick)
Ergu’xian ( 二股弦 High-pitched Two-String Fiddle, with tuning of la-mi)
Erhong’lian ( 二红脸 Second Red Face)
Erhu ( 二胡 Two-string fiddle)
Erhua’lian ( 二花脸 Second Colourful Make-up)
Erhuang ( 二黄 Literal translation is “Two Yellows”, melodic type of Chinese opera)
Erhuang Huiju ( 二黄徽戏 Anhui Opera with Erhuang Melodic Pattern)
Erhuang Liantan Yangge ( 二簧联弹秧歌 Linked Field Dance Melodies of Erhuang)
Erhuang Original Beat (Erhuang Yuanban 二黄原板 )
Erjin’gong ( 二进宫 Second Visit to the Empress)
Erliu ( 二流 one strong beat and one weak beat, or 2/4, appeared in Chapter 4)
Erliu ( 二流 Two Flow, 1/4 metre, appeared in Chapter 3)
Erliu of Advance Beat (Rangban Erliu 让板二流 )
Erliu of Concurrent Beat (Pengban Erliu 碰板二流 )
Erliu’ban ( 二六板 Two-Six Beat, only used in modern Xiqu plays)
Erlong Xizhu ( 二龙戏珠 Two Dragons Playing with a Ball)
Ermian ( 二面 Secondary Painted Face, or Fu 付 )
Erqin Xiangma ( 二亲相骂 Two In-laws Quarrelling)
Erquan Yingyue ( 二泉映月 Reflections of the Moon on the Second Lake)
Erren’tai ( 二人台 Two-narrator Dance-drama)
Erren’tai Paizi’qu ( 二人台牌子曲 Labelled Piece for Dance-Drama Erren’tai)
Erren’zhuan ( 二人转 Swirls for Two Actors)
Ersi’pu ( 二四谱 Two-four notation)
Erxia ( 二匣 Second Box)
Erxian ( 二弦 Two-string Fiddle)
Erxian Chuandao ( 二仙传道 Two Immortals Preaching Taoist Doctrines)
Erxiao’sheng ( 二小生 Supporting Young Male Role)
Eryan ( 二眼 Two Weak Beats)
Erya-Shiyue ( 尔雅·释乐 “Music Section” in Erya, a classic)
Eryin ( 二音 Harmonics)
Everyone is at Home but You (Renjia Douzai Ni Buzai 人家都在你不在 )
Explanation of Religious Scriptures (Shuojing 说经 )
Ezuo Mizuo ( 俄作密作 )
F
Fachan ( 伐檀 )
Fadian ( 法点 Religious Beats)
Falling Beat (Jieban or Luoban 截板，落板 )
Falling Tune (Luoqiang 落腔 )
Fan Boyan ( 樊伯炎 )
Fan Canglang ( 泛沧浪 Waves Coming Over)
Fan Chuo ( 樊绰 )
Fan Dacheng ( 范大成 )
Fan Erhuang ( 反二黄 Retro-Erhuang, or Erhuang with a modulated final tonic)
Fan Ruijuan ( 范瑞娟 )
Fan Shang’e ( 范上娥 )
Fan Xipi’diao ( 反西皮调 Reversed Xipi Tune)
Fan Xiyu ( 樊西雨 )
Fan Zidong ( 范紫东 )
Fan’ge Songs ( 番歌 )
Fan’yuediao Tune Pattern ( 反越调腔 Reversed Yuediao Tune Pattern)
Fanben’gong ( 犯本宫 Disturbing Fundamental Pitch)
Fancang’lang ( 泛仓浪 Waves Coming Over)
Fanchuan ( 泛川 )
Fandiao ( 反调 Modulated Tune)
Fandiao ( 犯调 Transient Modulation)
Fandiao Tune Pattern (Fandiao’qiang, 反调腔 , Modulated Tune Pattern)
Fang’fengzheng ( 放风筝 Flying a Kate)
Fangjin’chou ( 方巾丑 Educated Clown)
Fanglyu ( 放驴 Herding Donkeys)
Fangmao’zi ( 放帽子 Releasing the Hat)
Fangpu ( 访普 )
Fangqiang ( 放腔 Releasing Voice)
Fangqiang’qi ( 放腔起 Releasing the voice to start)
Fangqing Xie’jiaxin ( 方卿写家信 Fang Qing Writing a Family Letter)
Fangtou’zi ( 放头子 Releasing the Head)
Fangxia’zi ( 方匣子 Set of six gongs)
Fanjia’chong ( 番假崇 Pipa accompaniment score, 774 A.D.)
Fanjian’guan ( 樊江关 Fanjiang Pass)
Fanlong’zhou ( 泛龙舟 Rolling Dragon Boat)
Fanqiang ( 犯腔 Intrusive Phrase)
Fantian’yao ( 翻天鹞 Sky Accipitridae)
Fanyin ( 泛音 Harmonics)
Fanzan ( 翻赞 Chanting Variations)
Fanzi’diao ( 凡字调 Pitch Fan as tonic, or Fanzi Tune Pattern)
Faqu ( 法曲 Buddhist Music)
Farewell My Love(Song’qinglang 送情郎 )
Fast Daiban Beat ( 快代板 )
Fast Erba’ban ( 快二八板 Fast Two-Eight Beat)
Fast Erliu ( 快二流 )
Fast Flowing Water (Kuai’liushui 快流水 )
Fast Instrumental Music and Slow Singing (Jinda Manchang 紧打慢唱 Downbeats
Only)
Fast Piled Metre (Kuai’duoban 快垛板 )
Fast Three-upbeat (Kuai’sanyan 快三眼 )

Fast Tied Tune (Kuai’zaban 快扎板 )
Fast Two-eight (Jin’erba 紧二八 )
Fast Zhongban ( 快中板 Fast Middle Beat)
Fei Shixun ( 费师逊 )
Feicui Dengtan ( 翡翠登潭 Jade Emerges from Water)
Feihua Diancui ( 飞花点翠 Snow Flurry Adding Colour)
Feijia’diao ( 费家调 Fei’s Tune)
Feiju ( 飞句 Flying Phrase)
Feiqiang ( 飞腔 Flying Phrase)
Feiqin Zoushou ( 飞禽走兽 Birds and Beasts)
Feizhi ( 飞指 Flying fingers, or finger moving fast on sound holes)
Fendie’er ( 粉蝶儿 A Pink Butterfly)
Feng Tongyun ( 冯彤云 )
Feng Zicun ( 冯子存 )
Feng’diantou ( 凤点头 Phoenix Nodding Head, three-verse structure)
Fengbo’ting ( 风波亭 Death of Yue Fei)
Fengchui Heyesha ( 风吹荷叶煞 Wind Blowing Lotus Leaves)3
Fengchui Mudan ( 风吹牡丹 Wind Blowing at Peony)
Fengdiao Dagu ( 奉调大鼓 Big Drum Song in Feng Melodies)
Fenggu ( 峰鼓 Feng Drum, appeared in Chapter 3)
Fenggu ( 蜂鼓 Bee Drum, appeared in Chapter 2)
Fenghuang Zhanchi ( 凤凰展翅 Phoenix Spreading Its Feathers)
Fenghuang’shan ( 凤凰山 Phoenix Mountain)
Fengjiao’xue ( 风搅雪 Wind Blowing with Snow)
Fengqiu’huang ( 凤求凰 Phoenixes Courting)
Fengsheng’yue ( 奉圣乐 The Music for the Emperor)
Fengshou Konghou ( 凤首箜篌 Phoenix Head Harp)
Fengsu Tongyi ( 风俗通义 A Comprehensive Account on Customs)
Fengtian Luozi ( 奉天落子 Fengtian Lotus Tune; Fengtian is current Shenyang)
Fengtonggu Wu ( 蜂桶鼓舞 Bee Drum Dance)
Fengxiang’diao ( 枫香调 Modes of Maple Fragrance)
Fengxiang’ge ( 凤翔歌 Phoenix Song)
Fengyang ( 凤阳 )
Fengyang Huagu ( 凤阳花鼓 Flower Drum of Fengyang)
Fengyang’ge ( 凤阳歌 Fengyang Song)
Fengyi’ting ( 凤仪亭 Fengyi Pavilion)
Fengyu Guizhou ( 风雨归舟 A Boat Returns in Wind and Rain)
Fengyun’hui ( 风云会 Heroes Gathering)
Fengzheng’wu ( 风筝误 Mistake of Kite Flying)
Fenhe’wan ( 汾河湾 Fenhe River Bay)
Fenhong’lian ( 粉红莲 Pink Lotus Blossoms)
Fenhong’lian ( 粉红莲 Purple Lotus Flower)
Fenxiang’ji ( 焚香记 Wang Kui Betraying Guiying’s Love)

Field Dance (Yangge 秧歌 )
Fighting Fierce Battles (Aozhan 鏖战 )
Filial Piety of Shun Bianwen (Shunzi Zhixiao Bianwen 舜子至孝变文 )
Finger-beating Pitches ( 打音 )
Fish Drum (Yugu 渔鼓 )
Fisherman Song (Yuge 渔歌 )
Fishermen Song (Yumin Haozi 渔民号子 )
Five Gong and Seven Diao (Wugong Qidiao 五宫七调 Gong is the first degree in a
heptatonic scale; a melody can take any degree as final)
Five Pao ( 五袍 Five Robes)
Five Watches of the Night(Xiaowu’geng 小五更 )
Five-character Inserted Phrases (Wuzi’qian 五字嵌 )
Five-character Tail (Qian Wuzi’wei 嵌五字尾 )
Flexible Metrical Patterns (Bantou Linghuo 板头灵活 )
Floor Over Floor (Loushang’lou 楼上楼 )
Flower Drum Dance (Huagu’deng 花鼓灯 )
Flower Drum Dance of Western Shanxi (Jinxi Huagu 晋西花鼓 )
Flower Lantern Tune (Huadeng’diao 花灯调 )
Flower Tune (Xianhua’diao 鲜花调 )
Flower-fragrance Drum Dance (Xianggu’wu 香鼓舞 )
Flowers in Diagrams (Shihua’tu 释花图 )
Flowers Picking Tune (Caihua’diao 采花调 )
Flowery Rhymes (Huazhe 花辙 )
Flowery Tune (Huaqiang 花腔 )
Flowing Water Andante (Liushui Xingban 流水行板 )
Flying Beat (Feiban 飞板 )
Foot Clappers (Jiaodeng’bang 脚蹬梆 , clappers used in Henan Zhuizi)
For Life or for Death (Shengsi’bei 生死牌 )
Formalities (Chengshi 程式 )
Formalization (Chengshi’hua 程式化）
Fotou ( 佛头 Head of Buddha)
Four Anhui Troupes (Sida Huiban 四大徽班 )
Four Greatest Gaoqiang Plays (Sida’ben 四大本 )
Four Major Singing Tunes (Sida Shengqiang 四大声腔 )
Four Seasons Song (Siji’ge 四季歌 )
Four-character Waist (Sizi’qian 四字嵌 )
Frolic Songs (Xiyou’ge 嬉游歌 )
Fu ( 拂 Plucking backward with thumb or four fingers)
Fu ( 赋 )
Fu Quanxiang ( 傅全香 )
Fu Ronghua ( 芙蓉花 )
Fu Xihua ( 傅惜华 )
Fugui’hua ( 富贵花 Flower of Fortune)

Fujian Beiluxi ( 福建北路戏 Northern Style Opera of Fujian)
Fujian Daxi ( 福建大戏 Great Opera of Fujian)
Fujian Jin’ge ( 福建锦歌 Beautiful Song of Fujian) 3
Fujian Nanyin ( 福建南音 Southern Sound of Fujian Province)
Fujian Zheng ( 福建筝 Fujian Zheng Music)
Fujing ( 副净 Make-up Male Devoted to Singing)
Fullness of Articulation (Zizheng Qiangyuan 字正腔圆 )
Fumo ( 副末 male role who gives a speech to begin performance)
Funeral Song (Sangzang’ge 丧葬歌 )
Funu’zhuan ( 芙奴传 The Story of Funu)
Furang ( 祓禳 )
Fuxi ( 伏羲 )
G
Gabaifu ( 嘎百福 )
Gada ( 嘎达 )
Gada Meilin ( 嘎达梅林 )
Gadayin ( 疙瘩音 )
Gadou ( 尕豆 )
Gaijin’cao ( 改进操 Song of Progress)
Gailiang’xi ( 改良戏 Reformed Opera)
Gajin ( 嘎锦 )
Gallop across the battlefield ( 跃马横枪 )
Gan’heye ( 乾荷叶 Dry Lotus Leaf)
Gan’wuju ( 赶五句 Five Phrases)
Gandong’shan ( 赶东山 Hurrying to Eastern Mountain)
Ganglaima ( 刚来玛 )
Gangu ( 干鼓 Pure Drum)
Ganju ( 赣剧 Jiangxi Opera)4
Ganluo’diao ( 甘洛调 Turn of Ganluo)
Ganlusi - Huijinzhou ( 甘露寺·回荆州 Ganlu Temple: Back to Jingzhou)
Ganma’diao ( 赶马调 Horse Riding Song)
Gantou’er ( 竿头儿 Head of Tree Branch)
Ganzhou’ge ( 甘州歌 Song of Ganzhou)
Ganzhou’qu ( 甘州曲 Music of Ganzhou)
Gao Houyong ( 高厚永 )
Gao Jianli ( 高渐离 )
Gao Jie ( 高洁 )
Gao Jinfeng ( 高金凤 )
Gao Laifu ( 高来福 )
Gao Lian ( 高濂 )
Gao Liancheng ( 高连成 )
Gao Ming ( 高明 )
Gao Peizhi ( 高培支 )
Gao Zicheng ( 高自成 )
Gao’banshe ( 高般涉调 High Banshe Mode)
Gaobozi ( 高拨子 High Plucked Tune Pattern)
Gaochang’yue ( 高昌乐 Music from Gaochang State)
Gaodiao ( 髙调 High Melodic Style)
Gaojia’xi ( 高甲戏 Gaojia Opera)
Gaoqiang ( 高腔 High Melodic Type, appeared in Chapter 4)
Gaoqiang ( 高腔 High Melodies, appeared in Chapter 1)
Gaoqiao ( 高跷 Stilts)
Gaoshan ( 高山 High Mountain)
Gaoshan Liushui ( 高山流水 High Mountains and Flowing Streams)
Gaosibi ( 高斯比 )
Gaximu ( 尕西木 )
Gayang’diao ( 戛秧调 Weeding Tune)
Ge ( 革 skin)
Ge Daoli ( 葛道礼 )
Ge Hong ( 葛洪 )
Geda’ju ( 疙瘩句 )
Generals of the Yang Family (Yangjiajiang or Yangjia’xi 杨家将 , 杨家戏 )
Generals of the Yue Family (Yuejia’xi 岳家戏 )
Genesis (Chuang’shiji 创世纪 )
Geng Shanmin ( 耿善民 )
Genghis Khan ( 成吉思汗 )
Gengniangzhuan ( 庚娘传 The Story of Gengniang)
Gengu Dance (Gengu’wu 跟鼓舞 )
Gengu’diao ( 跟鼓调 Tune of Genggu)
Gengyun’ji ( 耕云记 Story of Farming)
Genka fiddle ( 根卡 )
Gesangla ( 格桑拉 )
Gesar ( 格萨尔 )
Gesha ( 歌沙 The Song of Sand, same as “Tonggu”, Tong Drum)
Geshao ( 嘎哨 )
Getianshi ( 葛天氏 )
Gewu Daqu ( 歌舞大曲 Song-and-Dance Composite Music)
Gewu’yin ( 歌舞引 Song and Dance)
Gezai’xi ( 歌仔戏 Gezai opera)
Gezhang ( 歌章 Song Chapters)
Gezhi’qu ( 隔指曲 Etude for Fingers)
Gong ( 宫 First Degree)
Gong Yi ( 龚一 )
Gong Yunfu ( 龚云甫 )
Gongbai ( 公摆 Public Feast)

Gongche’pu, or Gongche Notation ( 工尺谱 Chinse fork music notation)
Gongdiao ( 宫调 Gong pitch or “modes and degrees”)
Gongge ( 工歌 Vocal music in ancient ceremonials)
Gonggong Hitting Buzhou Mountain with His Head ( 共工头触不周山 )
Gonghe ( 恭贺 Congratulations)
Gongtepay ( 宫特帕依 )
Gongxi’ge ( 恭喜歌 Congratulatory Song)
Gongyuan ( 宫怨 Complaints from the Palace)
Gossip Song (Chebai’ge 扯白歌 )
Gou ( 勾 middle finger of right hand plays inwards)
Gou’diao ( 勾调 Gou Tune)
Gou’siyao ( 狗嘶咬 Dog Biting; also 勾丝咬 Connected Hooks)
Goulan Wasi ( 勾栏瓦肆 Fence and House)
Gouluo ( 狗锣 Dog Gong)
Gouqiang ( 勾腔 )
Grand Outing (Da’taqing 大踏青 )
Great Wall Tune (Changcheng’diao 长城调 )
Green Onion Planting Tune (Zhongcong’diao 种葱调 )
Grief (Tong 痛 )
Group Courting (Chihuo Yancao 吃火烟草 , literally meaning is smoking together)
Gu ( 鼓 drums)
Gu Daru ( 谷达儒 )
Gu Jian ( 顾坚 )
Gu Jianlong ( 顾见龙 )
Gu Meigeng ( 顾梅羹 )
Gu’jiazi ( 鼓架子 Drum Rack)
Gua’difeng ( 刮地风 Wind Sweeping the Earth)
Gua’hongdeng ( 挂红灯 Hanging a Red Lantern)
Gua’zhener ( 挂针儿 Hanging Needle)
Guada’ju ( 呱嗒句 Biting Up and Down)
Guafu Suyuan ( 寡妇诉怨 Widow Complaining)
Guaitou’ding ( 拐头钉 Zigzag Nail)
Guan Hanqing ( 关汉卿 )
Guan Ming ( 关铭 )
Guan Pinghu ( 管平湖 )
Guan, or Guanzi ( 管子 )
Guanbai ( 官白 Official Declamation)
Guangdong Kejia Qingyue ( 广东客家清乐 Pure Instrumental Ensemble of Hakka in
Guangdong)
Guangdong Luogu ( 广东锣鼓 )
Guangdong Muyu’shu ( 广东木鱼书 Wooden-fish Books of Guangdong)
Guangdong Yinyue ( 广东音乐 Cantonese Instrumental Ensemble)
Guangling Branch, or Guangling School ( 广陵派 )

Guangling’san ( 广陵散 Story of Guangling)
Guangming’xing ( 光明行 Road to Brightness)
Guangong Guo’wuguan ( 关公过五关 Guangong Overcoming Five Defended Gates)
Guangxi Lingling’luo ( 广西零零落 Lingling Tunes from Guangxi)
Guangxi Moyu’ge ( 广西摸鱼歌 Fishing Songs of Guangxi)
Guangxi Wenchang ( 广西文场 Civil Scene from Guangxi)
Guangxi Yugu ( 广西渔鼓 Fish Drum of Guangxi)
Guangxu ( 光绪 )
Guangyu Society (Guangyu’she 光裕社 )
Guangzhou Qingnian ( 广州青年 Young Persons of Guangdong)
Guanhua ( 观花 Watching Flowers)
Guanhuang Duidao ( 关黄对刀 Guan Yu Fighting Huang Zhong)
Guanmen ( 管门 Pipe Gates, or Pipe Keys)
Guansheng ( 官生 Official Male Role)
Guanyi’chou ( 官衣丑 Clown of Official)
Guanzhong Daoqing ( 关中道情 Taoist Expressions from Guanzhong)
Guanzi ( 管子 Double Reed Wind Instrument)
Guazhi’er ( 挂枝儿 Osmanthus Fragrans Tree)
Gubai ( 咕白 Gu Recitation)
Guban ( 鼓班 Drum Ensemble)
Gubeng’ci ( 鼓崩词 Drum Expressions)
Guche Luogu ( 鼓车锣鼓 Percussion played on a vehicle)
Gucheng’hui ( 古城会 Sworn Brothers)
Guchui ( 鼓吹 Wind-and-Drum Ensemble)
Guchui’shu ( 鼓吹署 Wind-and-Drum Music Department)
Guchui’yue ( 鼓吹乐 Wind and Drum Music)
Guci ( 鼓词 Drum Expressions)
Guda’ling ( 鼓打铃 Beating Drum and Bells)
Gudiao Bacao ( 古调八操 Eight Variations on Old Tunes)
Guduan ( 鼓段 Drum solo in Shifan Gu or Percussion Section in Xian Guyue)
Guduan Yinzi ( 鼓段引子 Prelude for Drum Section)
Guer’ji ( 孤儿记 The Story of an Orphan)4
Guerrillas Descending from Heng Mountain (Hengshanli Xialai Youjidui 横山里下来
些游击队 )
Gufang ( 鼓房 Drum House)
Guge ( 古歌 Ancient Song)
Guifei Zuijiu ( 贵妃醉酒 Drunken Beauty)
Guihai Yuheng’zhi ( 桂海虞衡志 Ethnography of Guihai Yuheng)
Guihu’dan ( 鬼狐旦 Female Ghosts)
Guihua’jia ( 挂花架 Stand of Osmanthus Flower)
Guijia ( 龟家 a derogatory term for someone classified as tortoise)
Guiju ( 桂剧 Gui Opera in Guangxi)
Guilin Yugu ( 桂林渔鼓 Fish Drum of Guilin)

Guimen’dan ( 闺门旦 Unmarried Female Role)
Guixi County ( 贵溪 )
Guiyin ( 鬼音 Ghost Voice)
Guiyuan ( 闺怨 Sorrows of a Maiden)
Guizhi’er ( 挂枝儿 Hanging Tree Branches)
Guizhi’xiang ( 桂枝香 Fragrance of Osmanthus Fragrans)
Guizhong’yuan ( 闺中怨 Sorrows from a Girl’s Room)
Guizhong’yuan ( 柜中缘 The Tale of the Wardrobe)
Gujiang ( 鼓匠 Workman of Wind Instruments)
Gujiao Jiasheng ( 鼓角甲声 Sounds of Drum, Horn and Weapons)
Gujin Yuelu ( 古今乐录 Collection of Ancient and Modern Music)
Gulao Mange ( 古老蛮欢 Ancient Ethnic Celebration)
Gumei’jiu ( 沽美酒 Tasting Good Wine)4
Gun ( 滚 glissando)
Gun’xiuqiu ( 滚绣球 Rolling Embroidered Ball)
Gunbei Daling ( 棍杯打令 Chatters of Stick and Cup)
Gunchang ( 滚唱 Rolled Singing, or Reciting)
Gunfu ( 滚弗 Up-and-down glissandos)
Gunmen ( 滚门 )
Gunqiang ( 滚腔 Rolling Phrase)
Guntan ( 滚弹 Plucking back and forth rapidly)
Guo Binqing ( 郭彬卿 )
Guo Chuwang ( 郭楚望 1190–1260)
Guo Futuan ( 郭富团 )
Guo Huashan ( 过华山 Passing Huashan Mountain)
Guo Maoqian ( 郭茂倩 )
Guo Mian ( 郭沔 literary name Chuwang 楚望 )
Guo Ying ( 郭鹰 )
Guo Youting ( 郭攸亭 )
Guo’qinling ( 过秦岭 Passing Qinling Mountain)
Guo’tongguan ( 过潼关 Passing Tongguan Gate)
Guo’xiandian ( 过仙殿 Passing Immortal Hall)
Guochang ( 过场 Stage Interlude)
Guofeng ( 国风 Airs of the States, folk poems collected in Shijing-Book of Songs)
Guoha ( 果哈 )
Guojie ( 过街 Passing Street)
Guojie Paizi ( 过街牌子 Labelled Tunes for Passing Streets)
Guopai’gu ( 过拍鼓 Drumming for Interlude)
Guopo Shanhe’zai ( 国破山河在 Nation Shattered but Hills and Rivers Remained)
Guoqi ( 果气 Song of Fruit)
Guoqu ( 过曲 Several Labelled Pieces to form main body of a suite)
Guowang’shen ( 过往神 Past Spirituals)
Guoxie ( 果谐 a kind of Tibetan folk dance)

Guoyin Tanci ( 国音弹词 Narrative Words of National Tunes)
Guozhuo ( 果卓 a kind of Tibetan folk dance)
Gushang ( 沽上 Tianjin)
Gushu ( 鼓书 Drum Songs)
Gushu Pangen ( 古树盘根 Old Tree Rolling Its Roots)
Gusu’xing ( 姑苏行 )
Guting ( 鼓亭 Drum Pavillion)
Guxian ( 姑洗 )
Guyan Hangong’qiu ( 孤雁汉宫秋 Solitary Wild Goose at the Han Palace in Autumn)
Guyuan ( 古怨 Sadness from Antiquity)
Guyue ( 鼓乐 Drum Music)
Guyue’ban ( 鼓乐班 Drum Music Ensemble)
Guyue’fang ( 鼓乐房 Drum Music House)
Guzha’zi ( 鼓札子 percussion music used in Xian Guyue)
Guzi ( 鼓子 Narrative)
Guzi’ci ( 鼓子词 Words Accompanied by Drum)
Guzi’qu ( 鼓子曲 Music of Storytelling)
H
Haba ( 哈巴 )
Haha’qiang ( 哈哈腔 Haha Melodic Type)
Haicai’qiang ( 海菜腔 Seaweed Tune)
Haidi ( 海笛 Small Suona)
Haidi’fan ( 海底反 Rebellion under the Sea)
Haidi 海笛 (Sea Flute, high pitched suona)
Haigang ( 海港 At the Seaport)
Haihu’ban ( 海湖班 Sea and Lake Troupes)
Haimen Shange’ju ( 海门山歌剧 Opera of Haimen Mountain Songs, Jiangsu)
Haiqing Na’tianer ( 海青拿天鹅 Eagle Catching the Swan)
Haiqing’ge ( 海青歌 Song of Eagle)
Haixia ( 海霞 Heroine Hai Xia)
Haiyan’qiang ( 海盐腔 Melodic Type of Haiyan)
Haiyang Field Dance (Haiyang Yangge 海阳秧歌 )
Haiyu’xiu Wenhua ( 海宇脩文化 Elegance of the Land)
Hakka Zheng ( 客家筝 Hakka Zheng Music)
Half Reciting and Half Singing (Gunbai 滚白 Speech Song)
Hama Tiaojing ( 蛤蟆跳井 Frog Jumping into Well)
Han ( 罕腔 , also called Hanqiang)
Han Chunfeng’qu ( 寒春风曲 Song of Freezing Spring Breeze)
Han Diao ( 汉调 Han tunes)
Han Jiangjun Ling ( 汉将军令 Song of the General of the Han Dynasty)
Han Shaoyun ( 韩少云 )
Han Tinggui ( 韩庭贵 )

Han Xiangzi ( 韩湘子 )
Han Xiangzi Converting to Taoism (Han Xiangzi Chujia 韩湘子出家 )
Han Xiangzi Offering Birthday Greetings (Han Xiangzi Shangshou 韩湘子上寿 )
Han Xiangzi Returning Home (Han Xiangzi Huifu 韩湘子回府 )
Han Xiaochuang ( 韩小窗 )
Han Xiuying ( 韩秀英 )
Han Yangge ( 喊秧歌 Calling Work Song)
Han Yonglu ( 韩永禄 )
Han Yu ( 韩愈 )
Han’diao ( 汉调 a tune used in Sichuan Qingyin)
Han’huachuan ( 旱划船 Rolling Land Boat)
Hanban’guang ( 喊半光 Following the Drum to Sing)
Hancheng Yangge ( 韩城秧歌 Hancheng Field Dance)
Hanchuan ( 旱船 Land Boat)
Hanchui ( 汉吹 )
Handanji ( 邯郸记 A Vanished Dream in Handan)
Handiao Guangguang ( 汉调桄桄 Clapper Opera with the tune from Hubei)
Handled Drum ( 柄鼓 )
Hang Zihe ( 杭子和 )
Hangao 汉皋 (Ancient score)
Hangdong Shan ( 撼动山 Shaking Mountain)
Hangju ( 杭剧 Hangzhou Opera, Zhejiang)
Hangong Qiuyue ( 汉宫秋月 Autumn Moon over the Han Palace)
Hangong’qiu ( 汉宫秋 Autumn of Han Palace)
Hangtan ( 杭滩 )
Hangzhou Wulin’ban ( 杭州武林班 Story-Telling Group of Hangzhou)
Hanjiang（韩江）
Hanju ( 汉剧 Hubei Opera)
Hantian’lei ( 旱天雷 Thunder in a Rainless Sky)
Hanxiangzi Tihualan ( 韩湘子提花篮 Hanxiangzi Holding a Flower Basket)
Hanya Xishui ( 寒鸦溪水 Winter Ravens Flying Over Water)
Hanyun Tune ( 含韵 Rhymed Tune)
Hanzha Diao ( 喊扎调 The Tune for staged performance. Hanzha, a kind of staged
performance)
Hao Duizhang ( 好队长 Good Production Team Leader)
Haocao Luogu ( 薅草锣鼓 Percussions for Weeding)
Haocao’ge ( 薅草歌 Weeding Songs)
Haodi ( 号笛 )
Haozi ( 号子 Work Songs, or Shouts in Southern Shaanxi)
Harzake ( 哈尔扎克 musical instrument)
Hau Qiuping ( 华秋苹 )
He ( 和 or 龢 Small Mouth-organ)
He Bin ( 何彬 )
He drum ( 和鼓 )
He Fei ( 贺飞 )
He Guanxian ( 和贯贤 )
He Huaizhi ( 贺怀脂 )
He Jiayan ( 何家颜 )
He Laolie ( 何老烈 )
He Liutang ( 何柳堂 )
He Luting （贺绿汀）
He Ruobi ( 贺若弼 )
He Shaoxia ( 何少霞 )
He Yinghua ( 荷英花 )
He Yunian ( 何与年 )
He Yuzhai ( 何育斋 )
He Zemin ( 何泽民 also known as He Dasha 何大傻 )
He Zhanhao ( 何占豪 )
He’chishi ( 鹤吃食 Crane Finding Food）
He’xinlang ( 贺新郎 Congratulating the Bridegroom)
Head Vowel (Tou 头 )
heartbreaking sound (Duanchang’sheng 断肠声 )
Heba ( 和巴 )
Hebei Bangzi ( 河北梆子 Clapper Opera of Hebei)
Hebei Yinyue’hui ( 河北音乐会 Musical Association of Villages in Hebei, or Wind-
and-Drum Music in Hebei)
Hechang ( 何尝 Negation)
Hechang’gu ( 喝场鼓 Drumming for Cheering Scene)
Heche Tune ( 合尺调 )
Hechun ( 和春 Harmonious Spring)
Hediao ( 和调 Harmonious Tune)
Hehou Madian ( 贺后骂殿 Empress He Reviling at Court)
Hehuan’ling ( 合欢令 Happiness of the Unification)
Heitou ( 黑头 Black Head)
Hejian Zage ( 河间杂歌 Miscellaneous Songs by the River)
Henan Bangzi ( 河南梆子 Clapper Tune Pattern, or Clapper Opera of Henan)
Henan Dadiao Quzi ( 河南大调曲子 Great Narrative Song Genre from Henan)
Henan Gaodiao ( 河南高调 High Melodic Style of Henan)
Henan Guzi Qu ( 河南鼓子曲 Narrative Singing of Henan)
Henan Quju ( 河南曲剧 Quju Opera of Henan)
Henan Quzi ( 河南曲子 Labelled Tunes of Henan)
Henan Xiaoqu ( 河南小曲 Ditty from Henan)
Henan Yuguzhui ( 河南渔鼓坠 Fish Drum Daoqing accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle of
Henan)
Henan Zhuizi ( 河南坠子 Narrative Singing accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle in Henan)
Hengchui ( 横吹 Horizontal Blowing)

Hengdi ( 横笛 Horizontal Flute)
Heping Ge ( 和平鸽 Doves of Peace)
Herding Mountain Songs (Fangmu Shange 放牧山歌 )
Heroes in Sui & Tang Dynasties (Suitang Yanyi 隋唐演义 )
Heroes of Ming (Mingying Lie 明英烈 )
Hewei ( 合尾 Common Ending)
Hezhou’ling（河州令）
Historical Records (Shiji 史记 )
History of Musicians (Yueshi’shi 乐师史 , by Mullah Rsmuthulamjizi)
History of Rexide (Rexide’shi 热西德史 )
History of Storytelling (Shoushu Shihua 说书史话 )
Holboo ( 好力宝 )
Hong Sheng ( 红生 Male with Red Face)
Hong Taren ( 哄他人 Placating Others)
Hong Xuefei ( 洪雪飞 )
Hongdeng’ji ( 红灯记 The Red Lantern)
Honghu Chiweidui ( 洪湖赤卫队 Honghu Red Army)
Hongjing (Red Painted Face 红净 )
Hongjun Gege Huilaile ( 红军哥哥回来了 Red Army Brothers Returning)
Hongluan’ao ( 红鸾袄 Padded Jacket with Red Phoenix Patterns)
Hongmei Suixiang’qu ( 红梅随想曲 Hongmei Rhapsody)
Hongmei’ge ( 红梅阁 Red Plum Blossom Pavillion)
Hongmei’ji ( 红梅记 The Story of Red Plum Blossoms)
Hongmei’tou ( 红梅头 Head of Red Plum)
Hongmen’yan ( 鸿门宴 Banquet at Hongmen)
Hongna’ao ( 红衲袄 Red Padded Jacket)
Hongniang ( 红娘 )
Hongse Niangzijun ( 红色娘子军 The Red Detachment of Women)
Hongshan’hu ( 红珊瑚 The Story of Shanmei)
Hongsheng ( 红生 Red Face Male Role)
Hongsheng ( 洪昇 )
Hongshi Zhongsheng ( 红石钟声 The Bell Rings in Hongshi Village)
Hongwu Zhengyun ( 洪武正韵 Phonology Compiled during the Hongwu Peirod in the
Ming Dynasty)
Hongxiu’xie ( 红绣鞋 Red Embroided Shoes)
Hongyang’dong ( 洪羊洞 Hongyang Cave)
Horqin Left Middle Banner ( 科左中旗 )
Hou Lijun’s ( 侯莉君 )
Hou Manting’fang ( 后满庭芳 Continuation of Manting’fang)
Hou Shaokui ( 侯少奎 )
Hou Style ( 侯调 )
Houchang ( 后场 Backstage Singers, who accompany themselves with plucked
strings)
Houchang ( 后场 Final Show)
Houguan ( 喉管 Throut Pipe)
Houting’hua ( 后庭花 Flowers of Backyard)
Houyin ( 喉音 Throat Sound)
Hu Shi ( 胡十 )
Hu Tianquan ( 胡天泉 )
Hu Wenhuan ( 胡文焕 )
Hu Zhihou ( 胡志厚 )
Hu’nan Changde Sixian ( 湖南常德丝弦 Silk String from Changde Hunan)
Hua ( 滑 Slide)
Hua Heshang ( 花和尚 Coloured Monk)
Hua Lianfang ( 花莲舫 )
Hua Qidian ( 花七点 Colourful Seven-Beat Pattern)
Hua Qinghe ( 华清和 )
Hua Qiuping ( 华秋苹 )
Hua Qiuping Pipa’pu ( 华秋苹琵琶谱 Musical Score for Pipa by Hua Qiuiping,
1819)
Hua Wengui ( 华文桂 )
Hua Wenyi ( 华文漪 )
Hua Yanjun ( 华彦钧 , or 阿炳 A Bing)
Hua’bangzi ( 花梆子 Flowery Bangzi Clapper)
Hua’liuban ( 花六板 Ornamented Six Beats)
Huabu ( 花部 Colourful Section, indicating local operas)
Huabu Tune Systems (Huabu Zhuqiang 花部诸腔 )
Huachuan Luogu ( 划船锣鼓 Percussion Accompaniment for Boat Rowing)
Huadan ( 花旦 Colourful Female Role)
Huadian Tuigu ( 花点退鼓 Colourful Retreating Drum)
Huaer ( 花儿 Flower, a type of mountain song)
Huaer’hui ( 花儿会 Flower Gathering)
Huagu ( 花鼓 Flower-drum)
Huagu’deng ( 花鼓灯 Flower-drum Lantern)
Huagu’diao ( 花鼓调 Flower Drum Tune)
Huagu’duan ( 花鼓段 Colourful Drum Section)
Huaibang ( 怀梆 Huaibang Clapper Opera)
Huaide Bienu ( 怀德别女 Huade Bidding Farewell to His Daughter)
Huaidiao ( 怀调 Huandiao Tune)
Huaiju ( 淮剧 Huaian Opera, Jiangsu)
Huajia Weifeng Luogu Dui ( 花甲威风锣鼓队 Aged People Weifeng Luogu Term)
Huajian’die ( 花间蝶 Butterflies Among Flowers)
Hualian ( 花脸 Coloured Face)
Huamei Tiaojia ( 画眉跳架 Mockingbird Jumping on Frame)
Huamei’xu ( 画眉序 Song of Chinese Huamei)
Huamulan ( 花木兰 Lady General Hua Mulan)

Huamulan Congjun ( 花木兰从军 Hua Mulan Joining the Army)
Huan ( 欢 )
Huan Yi ( 桓伊 )
Huang Changfu ( 黄长福 )
Huang Gong of the East Sea (Donghai Huanggong 东海黄公 )
Huang Haihuai ( 黄海怀 )
Huang Huiyuan ( 黄辉远 )
Huang Jiguang ( 黄继光 )
Huang Junyao ( 黄俊耀 )
Huang Riqian ( 黄日迁）
Huang Shiren ( 黄世仁 a villain)
Huang Xian ( 黄献 )
Huang Xiangpeng ( 黄翔鹏 )
Huang Xiuting ( 黄秀亭 )
Huangchao Liqi Tushi ( 皇朝礼器图示 Illustrations of the Ritual Paraphernalia at
Court)
Huangdaichan ( 黄黛婵 )
Huanggang ( 黄冈 )
Huanghe Biande Gushi ( 黄河边的故事 Stories of Banks of Yellow River）
Huanghe’tao ( 黄河套 Yellow River Suite)
Huangjin’tai ( 黄金台 The Golden Platform)
Huanglaotan Feiyin ( 黄老弹飞引 Master Huang Plucking a Flying Tune)
Huangli’ci ( 黄鹂词 Oriole Poem)
Huanglong’xi ( 黄龙戏 Huanglong Opera)
Huangmei’xi ( 黄梅戏 Opera from Anhui)
Huangmen Guchui ( 黄门鼓吹 Wind-and-Drum Played at the Yellow Gate)
Huangpao’ji ( 黄袍记 Story of the Yellow Robe)
Huangpi ( 黄陂 )
Huangying Liangchi ( 黄莺亮翅 A Warbler Flapping Its Wings)
Huangying’yin ( 黄莺吟 Yellow Warbler Reciting)
Huangyuan’ling ( 湟源令 )
Huangzhong ( 黄钟 Yellow Bell or Fundamental Pitch)
Huangzhong’gong ( 黄钟宫 Huangzhong as First Degree of a Mode)
Huangzhong’yun Cenong ( 黄钟均侧弄 do = C)
Huanle’ge ( 欢乐歌 Happy Song)
Huanlede Bawu ( 欢乐的把乌 Happy Bawu)
Huanlede Caoyuan ( 欢乐的草原 Happy Prairie)
Huanqing ( 欢庆 Celebration)
Huansha’ji ( 浣纱记 , a story of conflicts between Wu and Yue States)
Huanxiang’qu ( 幻想曲 Fantasy)
Huanyin ( 欢音 Happy Scale)
Huaqiao ( 花敲 Colourful Beatings)
Huarong’dao ( 华容道 Huarong Road)

Huashan (Flowery Dress 花衫 )
Huashe ( 花舌 Colourful Tonguing)
Huashe’yin ( 花舌音 Tongue Vibration)
Huashuo ( 话说 last time we talked about...)
Huatui Gu ( 花推鼓 Colourful Receding Drum)
Huawei’mei ( 花为媒 Flower as Match-maker)
Huayao’diao ( 花腰调 Colourul Waisted Tune)
Huayin ( 花音 Flowery Notes)
Huayin ( 滑音 Portamento),
Huazhou Yingxiong ( 华胄英雄 A Han Hero)
Hubei Yugu ( 湖北渔鼓 Fish Drum from Hubei)
Hubu’yue 胡部乐 (Department of Foreign Music)
Hudie Shuangfei ( 蝴蝶双飞 Butterflies Flying in Pairs )
Hudie’meng ( 蝴蝶梦 Dream of Butterfly)
Huguang’diao ( 湖广调 Tune of Hubei and Hunan)
Huhai ( 胡亥 )
Huhu ( 呼胡 , 胡呼 , 胡胡 , a kind of fiddle)
Hui ( 徽 white dots made of tortoise shell on top of Qin soundboard marking positions
of harmonics, total 13)
Hui’niangjia ( 回娘家 Women Returning Home)
Huibu’yue ( 回部乐 Muslim National Music)
Huihe ( 回纥 )
Huihu ( 回鹘 )
Huiju ( 徽剧 Anhui Opera)
Huilong ( 回龙 Returning Melody)
Huilong Tune (Huilong’qiang 回龙腔 )
Huiwen’jin ( 回文锦 Muslim Silk)
Huixi Daoqing ( 洄溪道情 Daoqing Music of Huixi)
Hujia Shibapo ( 胡笳十八拍 Eighteen Beats Played on the Hujia)
Huju ( 湖剧 Huzhou Opera, Zhejiang)
Huju ( 沪剧 Shanghai Opera)
Hulang’tan ( 虎囊弹 Story on Lu Zhishen)
Hulu’qin ( 葫芦琴 Gouard Instrument)
Hulu’sheng ( 葫芦笙 Gouard Mouth Organ)
Hulu’zi ( 胡芦子 )
Hunan Caichaxi ( 湖南采茶戏 Tea Picking Opera of Hunan)
Hunting ( 打围 )
Huntuo ( 浑脱 )
Huo Mingliang ( 霍明亮 )
Huo’qiang ( 霍腔 )
Huobusi ( 火不思 lute popular among Chinese minorities)
Huopao Quzi ( 火炮曲子 Fire Cannon Music)
Huoshao Bowangpo ( 火烧博望坡 Burning Bowangpo)

Huoshao Songminglou ( 火烧松明楼 Burning Songming Tower)
Huowu’diao ( 活五 Movable Five, with flat-mi in scale)
Huoyan’ju ( 火焰驹 The Flame Colt)
Huoyan’shan ( 火焰山 The Flame Mountain)
Huozhuo Zhang’sanlang ( 活捉张三郎 Capturing Zhang Sanlang Alive)
Huqin ( 胡琴 Foreign Fiddle)
Huqin’qiang ( 胡琴腔 Pihuang Melodic Pattern)
Hushe ( 呼舌 Colourful Tongue, a kind of tonguing)
Huweizhou ( 胡谓州 )
Huyin ( 苦音 Bitter Notes)
Huyue ( 胡乐 Music of Ethnic Minorities)
Huyue music ( 胡乐 Music of Ethnic Minorities)
I
Inner Mongolia Daoqing ( 内蒙道情 )
Inserted Melodies (Chacha 茶插 )
Introduction to National Music ( 民族音乐概论 )
Introduction to Traditional Chinese Music (Minzu Yinyue Gailun 中国传统音乐概论 )
Introductory Sharp Beat ( 引子尖板 )
Inverted Jingougua (Fan Jingou’gua 反金钩挂 Inversed Golden Hook)
J
Jangar ( 江格尔 )
Jasmine Flower (Moli’hua 茉莉花 )
Ji Kang( 嵇康 )
Ji Zhenhua ( 计镇华 )
Jiacao ( 加 / 夹操 Added Narration)
Jiahu Huagu ( 夹湖花鼓 Flower Drum of Jiahu)
Jiahua ( 加花 Adding Embellishments)
Jiahuo’she ( 家伙社 Tools Group)
Jiamei ( 嫁妹 Marrying off the Younger Sister)
Jian Guangyi ( 简广易 )
Jian Wenjun ( 建文君 )
Jian’denghua” ( 剪灯花 Paper Cutting)
Jian’dianhua ( 剪靛花 Cutting a Blue Paper Flower)
Jian’dianhua Diao ( 剪剪花 Cutting Flowers Melody)
Jian’ge ( 剑阁 , or 剑门关 Jianmeng Pass in Sichuan)
Jian’ge Wenling ( 剑阁闻铃 Wind Chimes Ringing at Jian’ge)
Jianbai’lian ( 奸白脸 Crafty While Face)
Jianban ( 尖板 Sharp Beat)
Jianban clappers ( 简板 two wooden beating sticks)
Jian-Drum Dance (Jiangu Wu 建鼓舞 )
Jiang Baishi ( 姜白石 )

Jiang Kui（姜夔）
Jiang Mingdun ( 江明惇 )
Jiang School, or Jiang Branch ( 江派 )
Jiang Tai ( 蒋泰 )
Jiang Taigong Sitting Alone on a Fishing Platform (Jiang Taigong Duzuo Diaoyutai
姜太公独坐钓鱼台 )
Jiang Wenxun ( 蒋文勋 )
Jiang Xianwei ( 江先渭 )
Jiang Xingchou ( 蒋兴俦 )
Jiang Xunfeng ( 蒋巽风 )
Jiang Yuequan ( 蒋月泉 )
Jiang/Yang ( 江阳 )
Jiangchang ( 讲唱 Storytelling and Singing)
Jianghe’shui ( 江河水 River Water)
Jianghua Dagu ( 犟花大鼓 Big Drum Song of Jiang Flower)
Jiangjun Desheng’ling ( 将军得胜令 Song of the Victorious General)
Jiangjun’ling ( 将军令 Song of the General)
Jiangnan Sizhu ( 江南丝竹 Silk-and-Bamboo Flute Ensemble in Southern Jiangsu)
Jiangsu Bangzi ( 江苏梆子 Clapper Opera of Jiangsu)
Jiangtou’gui ( 江头桂 Osmanthus Tree by the River)
Jiangu ( 建鼓 Standing Drum)
Jiangxi Daoqing ( 江西道情 Taoist Expressions of Jiangxi)
Jiangxiang’he ( 将相和 Lian Po and Lin Xiangru)
Jiangyou’guan ( 江油关 Jiangyou Pass)
Jiangzhe Shange ( 江浙山歌 Mountain Songs of Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces)
Jiangzhou Luogu ( 绛州锣鼓 Percussion Ensemble in Jiangzhou)
Jianhua ( 减花 reducing embellishments)
Jianjian’hua ( 剪剪花 Cutting Flowers)
Jianqi ( 剑气 )
Jianwu ( 剑舞 Sword Dance)
Jianwu ( 健舞 Strong Dance)
Jianzhi Zhuren ( 茧室主人 )
Jianzi ( 减字 reducing several pitches)
Jianzi Notation ( 减字谱 abbreviated characters notation)
Jianzi’pu ( 减字谱 Notation with Abbreviated Characters)
Jiao Yulu Song ( 焦裕禄颂 Ode to Jiao Yulu)
Jiaoan Qinpu ( 蕉庵琴谱 Musical Scores for the Qin from Jiaoan Temple)
Jiaoban’dian ( 叫板点 Starting Rhythmic Pattern)
Jiaochuang Yeyu ( 蕉窗夜雨 Evening Rain Beating on the Leaves of Japanese Banana
Window Outside)
Jiaodai ( 交代 Clarification )
Jiaodi’xi ( 角抵戏 Wrestling Show)
Jiaodong Dagu ( 胶东大鼓 Big Drum Song of Eastern Shandong)

Jiaodong Shengguan’yue ( 胶东笙管乐 Drum-and-Wind Music in Eastern Shandong)
Jiaofang ( 教坊 Music House of the Tang Dynasty)
Jiaofu’diao ( 脚夫调 Tune of the Stevedore)
Jiaohu’ling ( 脚户令 Stevedore Song)
Jiaonunu Haba ( 脚奴奴哈巴 Sacrificial Song)
Jiaosan ( 叫散 )
Jiaoshi Mingqin ( 蕉石鸣琴 Rocks and Sounding Zither)
Jiaoxian ( 绞弦 Two strings intertwined)
Jiaoye ( 蕉叶 Plantain Leaves)
Jiaozhou Yangge ( 胶州秧歌 Field Dance in Jiaozhou of Shandong)
Jiasu ( 甲苏 )
Jiazhong ( 夹钟 )
Jiazhong’yun Cenong ( 夹钟均侧弄 do = bE)
Jiazi’hua ( 架子花 Stand, the make-up role emphasizing actions)
Jichangyuan Wenge Ji ( 寄畅园闻歌记 Records on Listening to Music at Jichang
Garden)
Jidong Diyangge ( 冀东地秧歌 Field Dance of Eastern Hebei)
Jidong Guanyue ( 冀东管乐 Wind Music of Eastern Hebei)
Jidong Guchui Yue ( 冀东鼓吹乐 Wind-and-Drum Music in Eastern Hebei )
Jidong Yangge ( 冀东秧歌 Field Dance in Eastern Hebei)
Jie ( 节 clapper)
Jie ( 解 dance interlude between the singing parts, appeared in Chapter 2)
Jie ( 解 Extension and development, appeared in Chapter 5)
Jie drum ( 羯鼓 )
Jie Sanxing ( 解三醒 Waking up Three Times)
Jieban ( 截板 Stopping Beat)
Jieduan Qiao ( 接断桥 Connected Broken Bridge)
Jiegu ( 节鼓 Controlling Drum)
Jiegu’yanr ( 节骨眼儿 Just in Time)
Jiejie’gao ( 节节高 Getting Higher)
Jiemian ( 界面 ) Modes
Jiesha ( 节煞 Stopping Beat)
Jieshi ( 碣石 Jie Stone)
Jieshi Diao Youlan ( 碣石调幽兰 Secluded Orchid in Jieshi Mode)
Jiezi ( 借字 Note Borrowing)
Jigu Macao ( 击鼓骂曹 Reviling Cao Cao While Beating A Drum)
Jiji Dapai ( 急急大排 Fast Lining Up)
Jiji’feng ( 急急风 Desperate Wind)
Jiju ( 吉剧 Jilin Opera)
Jilin Guchui Yue ( 吉林鼓吹乐 Wind-and-Drum Music in Jilin）
Jilong ( 济隆 )
Jilou Drum ( 鸡娄鼓 )
Jin ( 金 metal)
Jin ( 近 )
Jin Juhua ( 金菊花 )
Jin Kaifang ( 金开芳 )
Jin Koujiao ( 金口角 )
Jin Luosuo ( 金络索 Golden Lock)
Jin Rongshui ( 金荣水 )
Jin Wushu ( 金兀术 )
Jin’ganlan ( 金橄榄 Golden Olive)
Jin’ge (Beautiful Song)
Jin’gu Ganyang ( 金姑赶羊 Jin’gu the Shepherdess)
Jin’sanliao ( 紧三寮 Fast Three-six, 4/4)
Jinan Xiaokaimen ( 冀南小开门 Little Opening Piece in Hebei)
Jinban (Metrical Pattern in Tight/ Fast Tempo)
Jinbei Daoqing ( 晋北道情 Taoist Expressions in North of Shanxi)
Jinbei Shengguan’yue ( 晋北笙管乐 Sheng mouth organ and Guan pipe music in
Northern Shanxi Province)
Jinchan’bang ( 金蝉傍 Golden Cicadidae)
Jinda Manchang ( 紧打慢唱 Fast Instrumental Music and Slow Singing)
Jindiao ( 晋调 Tune of Shanxi)
Jindie, or Jindie’pai ( 紧叠 Fast Beat, 1/4)
Jing ( 净 Painted Face, Male Role)
Jing Bangzi ( 京梆子 )
Jing Erhu ( 京二胡 Two-string Fiddle for Beijing Opera)
Jing, Liu, Bai and Sha（荆、刘、拜、杀）
Jing’piner ( 净瓶儿 Clean Bottle)
Jingbei Shengguanyue ( 晋北笙管乐 Wind Music in North of Shanxi)
Jingbian Maiyu ( 惊变·埋玉 Story of Tang Minghuang and His Concubine Yang
Guifei)
Jingbian’hui ( 井边会 Meeting by the Well)
Jingchai’ji ( 荆钗记 The Romance of a Thorny Hairpin)
Jingdiao Dagu ( 京调大鼓 Big Drum Narratives in Beijing Tunes)
Jinghong’ji ( 惊鸿记 Tang Minghuang with his Two Concubines)Jinghu ( 京胡 Fiddle
used in Beijing opera)
Jingjin Dagu ( 京津大鼓 Big Drum Narratives of Beijing and Tianjin)
Jingju ( 京剧 Beijing Opera)Jingling (dang 当 , 铃声 bell sound)
Jingmeng ( 惊梦 Waking Dream)
Jingou’gua ( 金钩挂 Golden Hook)
Jingtao ( 京套 Beijing Suite)
Jinguo Nvzi Weifeng Luogu Dui ( 巾帼女子威风锣鼓队 Young Girl s’ Weifeng Luogu
Team)
Jingyun Dagu ( 京韵大鼓 Big Drum Song in Beijing Dialect)
Jinhua Daoqing ( 金华道情 Jinhua Taoist Expressions)
Jinji Paichi ( 金鸡拍翅 Golden Cockeral Shaking Its Wings)

Jinji Tuowei ( 锦鸡拖尾 Beautiful Cockeral Towing its Tail)
Jinjin’chou ( 襟襟丑 Beggar Clown)
Jinjing Hualing ( 金晶花儿令 Jinjin Flower Song)
Jinju ( 晋剧 Shanxi Opera)
Jinling’suo ( 金铃锁 Golden Bell Lock)
Jinniu’si ( 金纽丝 Golden Thread)
Jinqian Lianhua’lao ( 金钱莲花落 Golden Coin Lotus Rhyme)
Jinqian’bao ( 金钱豹 Gold Coin Spotted Leopard)
Jinsha Jiangpan ( 金沙江畔 By the Jinsha River)
Jinsha’tan ( 金沙滩 Golden Beach)
Jinshan’si ( 金山寺 The Jinshan Temple)
Jinshang Tianhua ( 锦上添花 Laying Flowers on the Brocade)
Jinsheng (Educated Young Male Role)
Jintang’yue ( 锦堂月 The Moon of Brocaded Hall)
Jinyin’ji ( 金印记 The Story of the Golden Seal)
Jinyue Kaozheng ( 今乐考证 Authentication of Contemporary Music)
Jipo Shengdan ( 鸡婆生蛋 Hen Laying Eggs)
Jiqin Zither ( 嵇琴 ancient two-string fiddle）
Jiqu ( 集曲 Taking Music Phrases from Different Pieces to Form a New Piece)
Jisheng’cao ( 寄生草 Parasitic Grass)
Jisheng’diao (Parasitic Tune)
Jita’er ( 基他尔 lute popular among Chinese minorities in the Western region)
Jiu Tangshu ( 旧唐书 Old Annals of Tang)
Jiu’dianzi ( 九点子 Nine Beatings)
Jiu’lianhuan ( 九连环 Nine Connected Rings)
Jiudian ( 九点 Nine-Beat Pattern)
Jiuge ( 九歌 Nine Songs)
Jiuge ( 酒歌 Drinking Song)
Jiugong Dacheng Nanbei Cigong’pu ( 九宫大成南北词宫谱 A Great Collection of
Songs in Nine Modes from North and South) Jiujiang Gaoqiang’xi ( 九江高腔戏
High Melo Opera of Jiujiang)
Jiujiang Tanxi ( 九江弹戏 Plucking Opera of Jiujiang)
Jiukuang ( 酒狂 Drunken Craze)
Jiulongjiang River ( 九龙江 )
Jiuyi ( 九疑 )
Jiuyin ( 九引 Nine Introductory Pieces)
Jiuzhen ( 九真 Nine Truths)
Jixian’bin ( 集贤宾 Propitious Guest Gathering)
Jizhong Guchui ( 冀中鼓吹 Wind-and-Drum Music in Central Hebei)
Jizhong Yangge ( 晋中秧歌 Field Dance of Central Shanxi)
Jiziabu ( 吉子阿布 )
Joining the Army (Congjun 从军 )
Joining the Army for Her Father (Daifu Congjun 代父从军 )

Journey to the West (Xiyou’ji 西游记 )
Ju ( 剧 Opera)
Ju Shilin ( 鞠士林 )
Ju’dagang ( 锯大缸 Sawing Big Jar)
Jueban ( 绝板 End Beat)
Junior Bai School (Shaobaipai 少白派 )
Junior Bai Yushuang ( 小白玉霜 )
Juntianji ( 钧天集 Society for Respecting Heaven)
Junxun ( 军训 Military Training)
Juqiang ( 拘腔 Beginning)
Jurchen Wanyan ( 女真完颜 )
Juzhong ( 剧种 Operatic Genres)
K
Kagyu Sect (Jibai’jiao 纪白教 )
Kaidian ( 开店 Running a Store)
Kaihua’pao ( 开花炮 Opening Fire Crackers)
Kaihuang ( 开荒 Cultivating from Bare Land)
Kaimen ( 开门 Opening Gate)
Kaipian ( 开篇 Introductory Song)
Kaishou ( 开手 Warming Up)
Kaitang’ge ( 开堂歌 Opening Song)
Kaitian Pidi ( 开天辟地 The Creation of the World)
Kaitian Pidi’ge ( 开天辟地歌 The Creation of the World Song)
Kan’dongshan ( 看东山 Watching the East Mountain)
Kan’yangge ( 看秧歌 Watching Field Dance)
Kang Kunlun ( 康昆仑 )
Kangguo Music ( 康国乐 )Kaoba Laosheng ( 靠把老生 Military general dressed with
small flags on shoulder)
Kaohong ( 拷红 Interrogating Hongniang)
Kaojia Hualian ( 靠甲花脸 Military Make-up)
Kaopai ( 拷拍 Off beat, also known as Kaoda 拷打 )
Kaoshan’diao ( 靠山调 Tune of Leaning on the Gable)
Kaoshan’genr ( 靠山根儿 Foot of a Hill)
Kaoshan’huang ( 靠山簧 Mountain Tunes)
Kaowu’sheng ( 靠武生 Male role dressed small flags on shoulder, a military
personnel)
Kaxi ( 咔戏 Imitating Operatic Songs)
Kaya’gum ( 伽椰琴 Korean zither-like instrument)
Kazak’s Arkalek ( 阿尔卡勒克 )
Keshan Hongri ( 柯山红日 Red Sun over Keshan Mountain)
Kexia’ke ( 苛夏克 )
King Gesar ( 格萨尔王 )

King Yi Mouxun of the Nanzhao Kingdom (Nanzhao’ wang Yi Mouxun 南诏王异牟
寻)
King Zhou of Shang Kills the Loyal Minister Meibo ( 殷纣王诛杀忠良梅伯 )
Kingdoms of Dian ( 滇王国 )
Kong Shangren（孔尚任）
Kong Wenqing（孔文卿）
Kongcheng’ji ( 空城计 Empty Fort Strategy)
Kongque Kaiping ( 孔雀开屏 Peacock Showing its Feathers)
Kongque’diao ( 孔雀调 Peacock Tune)
Kou Qianzhi ( 寇谦之 )
Ku’changcheng ( 哭长城 Crying at the Great Wall)
Ku’huangtian ( 哭皇天 Crying the Sky)
Ku’siji ( 哭四季 Crying for Four Seasons)
Ku’wugeng ( 哭五更 Crying Throughout the Night)
Kuai Sandian ( 快三点 Fast Three-Beat Pattern)
Kuai Sanyan ( 快三眼 Fast Three Upbeats)
Kuai Wudian ( 快五点 Fast Five-Beat Pattern)
Kuai Yudiao ( 快俞调 Fast Yu Style)
Kuai’er Liushui ( 快二流水 Fast Double Flowing Water Metre)
Kuai’liuban ( 快六板 Fast Six Beats)
Kuaiban ( 快板 Fast Beat, or 1/4)
Kuaiban Yangchun ( 快板阳春 Early Spring in Fast Beat)
Kuaigu’duan ( 快鼓段 Rapid Drum Section)
Kuaijia’sao ( 快加扫 Four strings of Pipa played together in fast tempo)
Kuaijie Ding ( 快结顶 Fast shrinking to the end)
Kuaishu ( 快书 Copper Clapper Reciting)
Kuang Yuzhong ( 邝宇忠 ).
Kui ( 夔 )
Kuigu’duan ( 快鼓段 Rapid Drum Section)
Kujia’ge ( 哭嫁歌 Marriage Crying Song)
Kujian ( 哭剑 Crying Sword)
Kumi’zi ( 哭迷子 Crying Tune)
Kundiao Di ( 昆调笛 Flute used for Kunqu opera)
Kunju ( 昆剧 Kun Opera)
Kunqiang ( 昆腔 Kun Melodic Type)
Kunqu ( 昆曲 Kun Song)Kunshan Qiang ( 昆山腔 Kunshan Melodic Type) Kuntou’zi
( 昆头子 The Head with Kun Opera Tune)
Kunshan’qiang (Kunshan Melodic Type, later called Kunqiang or Kun Melodic Type)
Kunxun ( 昆训 Training of Kunqu Opera)
Kuqiang ( 哭腔 Bitter Tune)
Kuta ( 哭塔 Crying at the Pagoda)
Kuta of Zhenzhu Ta ( 珍珠塔 - 哭塔 Crying at the Pagoda in The Pearl Pagoda)
Kuyin ( 苦音 Sorrowful Pitch）

Kuzhong’le ( 苦中乐 Bitter yet Happy)
Kylin Tune ( 麒麟调 )
L
La ( 拉 Pulling)
Laba ( 喇叭 Trumpet)
Laba Paizi ( 喇叭牌子 Trumpet Labelled Piece)
Lababu ( 喇巴卜 bowed fiddle)
Lady Meng Jiang ( 孟姜女 )
Laifu Shan’ge ( 来富山歌 Folk Song of Laifu)
Laili Guli ( 莱丽古力 )
Laiwu Bangzi ( 莱芜梆子 Clapper Opera of Laiwu)
Lama Mani ( 喇嘛玛尼 )
Lamed Antelope ( 瘸腿的羚羊 )
Lan Huahua ( 蓝花花 A Girl Called “Blue Flower”)
Lan Ruilian Fetching Water (Lan Ruilian Dashui 兰瑞莲打水 )
Landscape of Suzhou (Gusu Fengguang 姑苏风光 )
Langma Kang ( 朗玛康 Hall of Ministers)
Langtao’sha ( 浪淘沙 Waves Washing Sand)
Langtou ( 浪头 )
Langtou’zi ( 浪头子 Peak of Waves)
Langyashan Wuzhuangshi ( 狼牙山五壮士 Five Heroes Jumping Off the Langya
Mountain)
Lanhua ( 兰花 Orchid)
Lanhua’mei ( 懒画眉 Skipping Make Up for Eyebrows)
Lanhuahua Xushi’qu ( 兰花花叙事曲 Lanhuahua Ballad)
Lanke’shan ( 烂柯山 A Divorced Couple to Re-marry)
Lanlu’ge ( 栏路歌 Stopping Road Song)
Lanma ( 拦马 Toppling the Horse)
Lanqiao’hui ( 兰桥会 Meeting at Orchid Bridge)
Lantern Dance (Huadeng 花灯 )
Lantern Show in the Twelfth Month (Shieryue Guandeng 十二月观灯 )
Lantou ( 拦头 )
Lanzhou Guzi ( 兰州鼓子 Tunes from Lanzhou)
Lao’ sandian ( 老三点 Old Three-Beat Pattern)
Lao’baban ( 老八板 Old Eight Beats)
Lao’chapo ( 老茶婆 Tea Mother)
Lao’liuban ( 老六板 Old Six Beats)
Lao’sanfan ( 老三番 Old Three Variations)
Lao’sanliu ( 老三六 Old“Three-six”)
Lao’wudian ( 老五点 Old Five-Beat Pattern)
Laodan ( 老旦 Aged Female Role)
Laodiao ( 老调 Old Tune)

Laodiao Bangzi ( 老调梆子 Old Tune for Clapper Opera)
Laodong Haozi ( 劳动号子 Work Songs)
Laogua Qinchai ( 老鸹噙柴 Crow Picking a Wooden Stick)
Laohu Dianchui ( 老虎掂槌 Tiger Juggling with a Hammer)
Laomo ( 老末 Old Male Role)
Laomu ( 老母 Old Mother)
Laoninglang ( 劳宁朗 )
Laosheng ( 老生 Aged Male Role)Laotou Daling ( 老头打令 Old Man’s Chatter)
Laowai ( 老外 Rich man)
Laoxian ( 老弦 Second lowest string)
Laoxuean Biji ( 老学庵笔记 Notes of Old Temple Academy)
Laozi’xi ( 落子戏 Lotus Tune Opera)
Lapping Tune (Dadiao 搭调 )
Laqiang ( 拉腔 Dragging Tune) Larenbu and Qiemensuo ( 拉仁布与且门索 )
Lazhu Binglang Wu ( 蜡烛槟榔舞 Candle and Binglang Dance)
Lazy Wife Cursing the Chicken (Lan Poniang Maji 懒婆娘骂鸡 )
Leading Beat ( 导板 )
Leading Beat, or Leading Phrase (Daoban 倒板 )
Lebudi ( 勒部羝 )
Left Middle Banner ( 科左中旗 )
Legend of Fire (Huode Chuanshuo 火的传说 )
Legend of Heaven, Earth, and Man (Tiandiren Chuanshuo 天地人传说 )
Legend of the Cloud (Yunde Chuanshuo 云的传说 )
Legend of the Old Buffalo Beginning to Plow Farmland (Laoshuiniu Kaishi Litiande
Chuanshuo 老水牛开始犁田的传说 )
Legend of the Wind (Fengde Chuanshuo 风的传说 )
Lei Family ( 雷氏家族 )
Lei Haiqing ( 雷海青 )
Lei Wei ( 雷威 )
Lei Ziwen ( 雷子文 )
Leibo Diao ( 雷波调 Tune of Leibo)
Leifeng’ta ( 雷峰塔 Story of Leifeng Pagoda)
Leigu ( 垒鼓 Percussion section used in Xian Guyue)
Level Tune (Pingqiang 平腔 )
Li ( 里 each unit is equivalent to 500 metres)
Li Bai ( 李白 )
Li Deli ( 李德礼 )
Li Diaoyuan ( 李调元 )
Li Fanggui ( 李芳桂 )
Li Fangyuan ( 李芳园 )
Li Fuxiang ( 李富祥 )
Li Guan ( 李灌 )
Li Guaner ( 李管儿 )
Li Jinlou ( 李近楼 )
Li Jinshan ( 李金山 )
Li Jinshun ( 李金顺 )
Li Kaixian ( 李开先 )
Li Kongtong ( 李崆峒 )
Li Kui ( 李逵 )
Li Lianjun ( 黎连俊 )
Li Libo ( 李立伯 )
Li Qiyu ( 李其钰 )
Li Rihua（李日华）
Li Ruichen ( 李瑞臣 )
Li Shengyong ( 李绳墉 )
Li Shisan’s Ten Major Works ( 李十三十大本 )
Li Shuangshuang ( 李双双 Lday Li Shuangshuang)
Li Shujun ( 李淑君 )
Li Si Jian Zhukeshu ( 李斯谏逐客书 Guest Eradication Proposal by Li Si)
Li Tiaoyuan ( 李调元 )
Li Tingsen ( 李廷森 )
Li Tongxuan ( 李桐轩 )
Li Yancheng ( 李炎成 )
Li Yannian ( 李延年 )
Li Yu ( 李昱 )
Li Yu（李渔 )
Li Yu（李玉）
Li Yueqiu ( 李月秋 )
Li Zheng ( 李镇 )
Li Zicheng ( 李自成 )
Lian’ baju ( 联八句 , Connected Eight Phrases)
Lianban ( 连板 Consecutive Beat)
Liang Chenyu ( 梁辰鱼 )
Liang Hao Came First in Imperial Examination Aged Eighty-One ( 梁灏八十中状元 )
Liang Qiuming( 梁丘明 )Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai ( 梁山伯与祝英台 Butterfly
Lovers) Liang Shanbo Xiashan ( 梁山伯下山 Liang Shanbo Descending the
Mountain)
Liang Xiaolou ( 良小楼 )
Liang Zaiping ( 梁在平 )
Liangdan’shui ( 两担水 Two Buckets of Water）
Liangdiao ( 亮调 Opening Tune)
Liangluo Zuanzi ( 两锣钻子 Two Gongs Drill)
Liangqiao ( 料峭 )
Liangxiao’yin ( 良宵引 Tune for a Peaceful Night)
Liangxiong’di ( 两兄弟 Two Brothers)
Liangzhou ( 凉州 Liangzhou is a place, but here used as title of a music piece)

Liangzhou Daqu ( 凉州大曲 Composite Music from Liangzhou)
Liangzhou Xinlang ( 梁州新郎 Bridegroom of Liangzhou)
Liangzhou’qu ( 凉州曲 Music from Liangzhou)
Liangzhou’xu ( 梁州序 Liangzhou Prelude)
Liangzhu ( 梁祝 Butterfly Lovers) 3
Liangzhu Aishi ( 梁祝哀史 The Sad Story of Butterfly Lovers)
Liangzhu Xiashan ( 梁祝下山 Liang and Zhu Departing the Mountain)
Lianhua’lao ( 莲花落 The Lotus Flower Tune)
Lianhuan’ji ( 连环计 Coordinating One Stratagem with Another)
Lianhuan’ji ( 连环记 Story of Chain of Rings)
Lianhuan’kou ( 连环扣 Interlocked Chain)
Lianhuashan’ling（莲花山令）
Lianqu’ti ( 联曲体 Connected Labelled Tunes)
Lianxiang ( 莲湘 Lutus Bulbs, a kind of folk dance which dancers hold a stick with
inserted small bells)
Lianyin ( 连音 mordent)
Lianying’zhai ( 连营寨 Burning of Shu’s Camps)
Lianzhu ( 联珠 connected pearls)
Lianzhu Kuaishu ( 联珠快书 Run-on Quick Patter)
Liao Guixiong ( 廖桂雄 )
Liao’danzi ( 撩单子 Opening Curtain)
Liaocheng Bajiaogu ( 聊城八角鼓 Octagonal Drum Music in Liaocheng)
Liaohuaitang Qinpu ( 蓼怀堂琴谱 Musical Scores for the Qin from Liaohuaitang)
Liaonan Shengguanyue ( 辽南笙管乐 Drum-and-Wind Music in South Liaoning )
Liaoning ( 辽宁 )
Liaoning Guchui Yue ( 辽宁鼓吹乐 Wind-and-Drum Music in Liaoning)
Lieying ( 列营 Gathering Troops)
Liezi ( 列子 an ancient scholar)
Lihua Dagu ( 梨花大鼓 Pear Blossom Big Drum)
Lihun’diao ( 离魂调 Tune of Departing Spirit)
Liling’bei ( 李陵碑 Li Ling Tombstone)
Lilu ( 哩鲁 )
Lin Chong ( 林冲 )
Lin Chong Yeben ( 林冲夜奔 Lin Chong Escaping at Night)
Lin Jifan ( 林继凡 )
Lin Jiqiu ( 林霁秋 )
Lin Maogen ( 林毛根 )
Lin Shicheng ( 林石城 )
Lin Xiangyu ( 林祥玉 )
Lin Yun ( 林韵 )
Lin’an Yihen ( 临安遗恨 Remaining Regret at Lin’an)
Linchong Fapei ( 林冲发配 Banishment of Lin Chong)
Linchong Taxue ( 林冲踏雪 Lin Chong Walking in the Snow)

Ling Kingdom ( 岭国 )
Ling Tingkan ( 凌廷堪 )
Ling（令 , used for Cipai, and Huaer folk song）
Lingban ( 领板 Leading Beat)
Lingchang Yangge ( 领唱秧歌 Leading Field Dance)
Lingling’luo ( 零零落 Songs of Guilin, Guangxi)
Lingnan ( 岭南 )
Lingnan Zaji ( 岭南杂记 Miscellaneous Records of Lingnan)
Lingsan ( 领伞 Lead Umbrella)
Lingshi ( 伶史 The History of Xiqu)
Lingxing Yayue( 灵星雅乐 Elegant Music of Lingxing)
Lingxing’dui Fu ( 灵星队赋 Ode to Lingxing Team)
Linqing Luogu ( 临清驾鼓 )
Linzhong ( 林钟 )
Linzhong Gong ( 林钟宫 Linzhong as First Degree)
Linzhong’yun Cenong ( 林钟均侧弄 do = G)
Lion together with Tea (Shizi Jia Caicha 狮子夹采茶 )
Lisao ( 离骚 The Lament)
Lishui River Boatmen Song (Lishui Chuangong Haozi 澧水船工号子 )
List of Chaqu Songs (Chaqu Zongmu 岔曲总目 )
List of Traditional Folk Performing Arts in Beijing (Beijing Chuantong Quyi Zonglu
北京传统曲艺总录 )
Liu Bang ( 刘邦 )
Liu Baoquan ( 刘宝全 )
Liu Changfu ( 刘长福 )
Liu Chouyi ( 刘守义 )
Liu Chucai ( 刘楚才）
Liu Cuixia ( 刘翠霞 )
Liu Dehai ( 刘德海 )
Liu Fengtong ( 刘凤同 )
Liu Guanyue ( 刘管乐 )
Liu Hulan ( 刘胡兰 Heroine Liu Hulan)
Liu Jingting ( 柳敬亭 , Pinghua performer)
Liu Mengmei ( 柳梦梅 )
Liu Mingyuan ( 刘明源）
Liu Qiaoer ( 刘巧儿 The Girl Liu Qiaoer)
Liu Qingniang ( 柳青娘 Slender Lady)
Liu Tianhua ( 刘天华 )
Liu Tianyi ( 刘天一 )
Liu Tianyun ( 刘天韵 )
Liu Wenjin ( 刘文金 )
Liu Xi ( 刘熙 )
Liu Xiang ( 刘向 )
Liu Yinfeng ( 刘银凤 )
Liu Yuxia ( 刘玉霞 )
Liu Zhensu ( 刘箴俗 )
Liu Zhifang ( 刘志芳 )
Liu Zhiyuan Baituji ( 刘知远白兔记 Liu Zhiyuan and the White Rabbit)
Liu Zhiyuan Zhugong Diao ( 刘知远诸宫调 )
Liu Zongyuan ( 柳宗元 )
Liuba’ban ( 六八板 Six-Eight Beats)
Liubo’qu ( 流波曲 The Song of Waves)
Liuchu ( 流楚 Flowing Tune of Chu State)
Liudan ( 六旦 Sixth Female Role)
Liuhang ( 流行 )
Liuling Zuijiu ( 刘伶醉酒 Drunken Liu Ling)
Liuliu Dashun ( 六六大顺 Fortunes with Six-Six Numbers)
Liunao ( 六铙 Six Cymbals)
Liuqiang ( 留腔 Retaining Voice)
Liuqing’niang ( 柳青娘 A Slender Lady)
Liushui ( 流水 Flowing Water)
Liushui;’qiang ( 流水腔 Flowing Tune)
Liushui’ban ( 流水板 Flowing Water Beat)
Liuyang’he ( 浏阳河 Liuyang River)
Liuyao ( 六么 )
Liuyao’jin ( 柳摇金 Gold Swung by Slender Willow)
Liuye’jin ( 柳叶锦 Willow Leaf Brocade)
Liuye’qing ( 柳叶青 Green Willow Leaves)
Liuyin’ji ( 柳荫记 In the Shade of Willows)
Liuyuexue ( 六月雪 Snow in June)
Liuzi ( 六字 Fifth Degree)
Liuzi Kaimen ( 六字开门 Fifth Degree as Tonic Kaimen),
Liyin ( 历音 sliding from high to low ornamentation)
Liyou ( 离忧 Farewell and Sadness)
Liyu Pushui ( 鲤鱼扑水 Carps Playing with Water )
Liyu Shaigua ( 鲤鱼晒花 Carp Spraying Water)
Liyuanxi ( 梨园戏 Liyuan Opera)
Liyue’ji ( 礼乐记 Rites and Music Records)
Locking Beat (Suoban 锁板 )
Long Heishui River ( 黑水长 )
Long Interludes (Lan 拦 )
Long Melody (Changqiang 长腔 )
Long Qinfang ( 龙琴舫 )
Longchuan ( 龙船 Dragon Boat, a music piece)
Longdeng ( 龙灯 Dragon Lantern)
Long-drum Dance of Korean Ethnic Group (Chaoxian’zu Changgu Wu 朝鲜族长鼓

舞)
Longhu’dou ( 龙虎斗 Battle between Dragon and Tiger)
Longing for a Sunny Day (Pan Qingtian 盼晴天 )
Longing for My Love (Pan Qingren 盼情人 )
Longing for the Red Army (Pan Hongjun 盼红军 )
Longing for the Secular World (Sifan 思凡 )
Longjiang’xi ( 龙江戏 Longjiang Opera, Heilongjiang)
Longju ( 陇剧 Long Opera, Gansu)
Longtao ( 龙套 Supporting “Running” Actors)
Longtou Longwei ( 龙头龙尾 Dragon Head and Tiger Tail)
Longxiang Cao ( 龙翔操 Song of a Flying Dragon)
Longxiang’cao ( 龙翔操 Flying Dragon)
Longzhou ( 龙舟 Dragon Boat)
Longzhou Shuoshu ( 龙舟说书 Story Telling of Dragon Boat)
Lou Shuhua ( 娄树华 )
Loushang’lou ( 楼上楼 Floor over Floor)
Loutai’hui ( 楼台会 Meeting at Ying Tai’s Home)
Lover Falling Sick (Qinglang Haibing 情郎害病 )
Lower Hand ( 下手 )
Loyal Outlaws of the Marsh (Zhongyi Shuihu Zhuan 忠义水浒传 )
Lu Chunling ( 陆春龄 )
Lu Dongbin Teasing Mudan (Lu Dongbin Xi Mudan 吕洞宾戏牡丹 )
Lu Guang ( 吕光 )
Lu Rirong ( 鲁日融 )
Lu Shizhen ( 陆士珍 )
Lu Xiutang ( 陆修堂 )
Lu Xun ( 鲁迅 )
Lu You ( 陆游 )
Luan’baxian ( 乱八仙 Mixture of Eight Immortals）
Luancha’hua ( 乱插花 Flowers Wrongly Arranged)
Luanchang ( 乱场 Mixed Show)
Luanji’ti ( 乱鸡啼 Crowing Roosters)
Luansima ( 乱撕麻 Interweaved Strings)
Luantan ( 乱弹）
Luantan ( 乱弹 Miscellaneous Performances)
Luanxian ( 滦县 )
Lulei’yuan ( 露泪缘 The Love Story of Lin Daiyu and Jia Baoyu)
Luming ( 鹿鸣 Deer Crying, ancient poem)
Lun’mabian ( 轮马鞭 Juggling a Horsewhip)
Lunzhi ( 轮指 five fingers playing Pipa strings quickly in turns)
Luo Guanzhong ( 罗贯中 )
Luo Jiuxiang ( 罗九香 )
Luo Ye ( 罗烨 )
Luo Yusheng ( 骆玉笙 , Stage Name Xiao Caiwu 小彩舞 )
Luocheng Jiaoguan ( 罗成叫关 Luo Cheng Called at the Pass)
Luodi Changshu ( 落地唱书 Off Staged Narrative Singing)
Luodi Changshu Diao ( 落地唱书调 Off Staged Narrative Melody)
Luodi’shu ( 落地书 Off Staged Narrative Singing)
Luodian’zi ( 落点子 Ending Beatings)
Luofu ( 罗敷 Foilum mori picking girl)
Luogu ( 锣鼓 Gong and Drum)
Luogu Paizi ( 锣鼓牌子 Percussion Labelled Tunes)
Luogu Sihe ( 锣鼓四合 Suite of Four Pieces of Percussion Music)
Luogu’ban ( 锣鼓班 Percussion Group)
Luogu’yue ( 锣鼓乐 Percussion Music)
Luohan’qian ( 罗汉钱 The Luohan Coin)
Luojiang’yuan ( 罗江怨 Sorrow by the Luojiang River)
Luoqiang ( 落腔 Ending)
Luoqiang ( 落腔 Falling Tune)
Luosi Jieding ( 螺丝结顶 Screw Stuck at the Top)
Luoxia ( 落霞 Sunset)
Luoyang Shipanyue ( 洛阳十盘乐 Drum-and-Wind Music in Luoyang)
Luoyang Xing ( 洛阳行 Travelling to Luoyang)
Luoyang’qiao ( 洛阳桥 Luoyang Bridge)
Luoyang-based Yuxi’diao ( 豫西调 Tune Style of West Henan)
Luoyuan ( 落院 Landing on the Yard)
Lusheng ( 芦笙 Bamboo Mouth Organ)
Lusheng ( 芦笙 Bamboo Mouth Organ)
Lusheng Aige ( 芦笙哀歌 Mouth Organ Lusheng Elegy)
Lusheng Chuige ( 芦笙吹歌 Songs Accompanied by Bamboo Mouth Organ)
Lusheng Dance ( 芦笙舞 Dance of Bamboo Mouth Organ)
Lusheng Words ( 芦笙词 )
Luxinan Guchui Yue ( 鲁西南鼓吹乐 Wind-and-Drum Music in Southwest Shandong)
Lyu Mengzheng ( 吕蒙正 )
Lyu Mengzheng Receiving Alms (Mengzheng Ganzhai 蒙正赶斋 )
Lyu Shaoen ( 吕绍恩 )
Lyu Wencheng ( 吕文成 )
Lyu’s Spring and Autumn Annals - Ancient Music (Lyushi Chunqiu·Guyue 吕氏春秋·古乐 )
Lyupao’ji ( 绿袍记 Story of the Green Robe)
Lyushi Chunqiu ( 吕氏春秋 Lyu’s Spring and Autumn Annals)
Lyushi Chunqiu—Shenying Lan ( 吕氏春秋 - 审应揽 Master Lyu’s Spring and
Autumn Annals - Examinations)
Lyushu Yuetu ( 律书乐图 Temperament and Music Illustrations)
Lyushui ( 绿水 Lyushui River)
Lyuyao ( 绿腰 , title of a music piece)
M
Ma Chaoshui ( 马潮水 )
Ma Deshun ( 马德顺 )
Ma Jianling ( 马健翎 )
Ma Jianxiang ( 马健翔 )
Ma Jinfeng ( 马金凤 )
Ma Ke ( 可马 )
Ma Lianliang ( 马连良 )
Ma Nu ( 麻奴 )
Ma Pingmin ( 马平民 )
Ma Qiwu ( 马七五 )
Ma Rufei ( 马如飞 )
Ma Sange ( 骂三哥 Scolding Third Brother)
Ma Shaobo ( 马少波 )
Ma Style ( 马调 )
Ma Tai ( 马泰 )
Ma Zhanghua ( 马樟花 )
Ma Zhiyuan ( 马致远 )
Ma’anshan ( 马鞍山 The Saddle Mountain)
Ma’yulang ( 骂玉郎 Scolding the Jade Boy)
Madam Xianglin ( 祥林嫂 Xianglin’sao)
Mafeng’diao ( 马灯调 The Tune of Stirrup)
Maicai ( 卖菜 Selling Vegetables)
Maicha ( 卖茶 Selling Tea)
Maifu ( 埋伏 Ambush)
Main Vowel (Fu 腹 )
Maipo’ji ( 卖婆记 Selling Mother-in-Law)
Gutongji ( 箍桶记 Making Buckets)
Maiqingtan ( 卖青炭 Selling Charcoal)
Maisui’huang ( 麦穗黄 Ears of Wheat Turning Yellow)
Mama de Nver ( 妈妈的女儿 Mum’s Daughter)
Mama’niang Hutu Diao ( 妈妈娘糊涂调 Melody of Confused Mother)
Man Ganche ( 慢赶车 Driving a Cart Slowly)
Man Jiangjun Ling ( 满将军令 Song of the General of the Qing Dynasty)
Man Sanliao ( 慢三寮 Slow three-six, 4/2, one strong beat and 3 weak beats)
Man Xicheng ( 慢西城 Slow Western City)
Man（慢）
Man’er Liushui ( 慢二流水 Slow Double Flowing Water Metre)
Man’liuban ( 慢六板 Slow “Six Beats”)
Man’sanliu ( 慢三六 Slow Three-six)
Manas ( 玛纳斯 )
Manas ( 玛纳斯 )
Manban ( 慢板 Slow Beat)
Manggusi ( 蟒古斯 )
Mangong ( 慢宫 )
Mangtong ( 芒筒 bamboo pipes of different sizes)
Mangtong Lusheng( 芒筒芦笙 )
Mangu’duan ( 慢鼓段 Slow Drum Solo Section)
Manhan’ju ( 漫瀚剧 Manhan Opera, Inner Mongolia)
Maniangzi Shanshu ( 马娘子上树 Lady Ma Climbing Tree)
Manjiang’hong ( 满江红 The River All Red)
Manjue ( 慢角 )
Manlun ( 满轮 Full Lun, five fingers playing Lun once)
Manshu ( 蛮书 Book on Ethnic Minorities)
Mantang Hong ( 满堂红 Whole Room Red )
Manting’fang ( 满庭芳 Room Full of Fragrance)
Manting’fang Caoji ( 满庭芳草积 Room Full of Fragrance Piled with Grass)
Mao Minzhong ( 毛敏仲 )
Mao Zhongqing ( 毛仲青 )
Mao’er Xi ( 帽儿戏 Drama Featuring Hats)
Maobu Laoshu ( 猫扑老鼠 Cat Catching a Mouse)
Maodiao ( 冒调 Out of Tunes)
Maoren ( 旄人 officer for foreign music)
Maoyuan Drum ( 毛员鼓 Ancient Drum)
Maozi ( 帽子 Head）
Maozi’tou ( 帽子头 Head of Cap)
Maqian Poshui ( 马前泼水 Splashing Water before the Horse)
Marching off to War (Zhengtu 征途 )
Martial Scene (Wuchang 武场 )
Mashang Honglian ( 马上红脸 Red Face on Horse)
Masquerade (Zonghui Xianchang 总会仙倡 )
Matou ( 马头 Horse Head)
Matou ( 码头 Harbour)
Matou’diao ( 马头调 Horse Head Tune or 码头调 Dock Tune)
Matouqin ( 马头琴 Mongolian Horse Head Fiddle)
Mawei Huqin ( 马尾胡琴 Horse Tail Fiddle)
Mawei’po ( 马嵬坡 present Xingping 兴平 , Shaanxi)
Mawu ( 马五 )
Mawuge yu Gadoumei ( 马五哥与尕豆妹 Brother Mawu and Sister Gadou)
Maxie’di ( 麻鞋底 Soles of Hemp Shoes)
Maxim of Genghis Khan ( 成吉思汗汁箴言 Genghis Khan’s Words of Wisdom)
Medium Erbaban ( 中二八板 Medium Speed Two-Eight Beat)
Medium Manban ( 中慢板 Medium Speed Beat)
Meeting Mother-in-Law (Hui’qinjia 会亲家 )
Mei Lanfang ( 梅兰芳 )
Mei Qiaoling ( 梅巧玲 )

Meige ( 梅葛 , Meige, a girl’s name)
Meiguandiao ( 梅花调 Plum Blossom Mode)
Meiguandiao Flute ( 梅管调）
Meihu ( 眉户 Opera in Shaanxi)
Meihua Sannong ( 梅花三弄 Plum Blossom in Three Variations)
Meihua’cao ( 梅花操 Song of Plum Blossom)
Meihua’diao ( 梅花调 Plum Blossom Tune)
Meihua’qu ( 梅花曲 Plum Blossom Piece)
Meihua’yin ( 梅花引 Song of Plum Blossom)
Meihuachai ( 梅花拆 Plum Blossom Insertion)
Meilin ( 梅林 )
Meinv Sixiang ( 美女思乡 Beautiful Girl Missing Her Hometown)
Meishao’yue ( 梅梢月 The Moon Above the Plum Blossom)
Meiyuan Yin ( 梅园吟 Chant of Plum Garden)
Meng Qingshan ( 孟青山 )
Menggu bayin ( 蒙古八音 Mongolian Eight Categories of Musical Instruments)
Mengjiang’nu ( 孟姜女 Lady Mengjiang)
Mengjiang’nu Diao ( 孟姜女调 Lady Mengjiang Melody)
Mengliang Lu ( 梦粱录 Records of Mengliang)
Mengxi Bitan ( 梦溪笔谈 Written Discussion of Shen Mengxi)
Mianda’xu ( 棉答絮 Cotton Catkins)
Miao ( 妙 exquisite)
Miao Folk Customs (Miaosu’ji 苗俗记 )
Miao Jing ( 苗晶 )
Miaochang Yuan ( 妙常怨 Sorrow of Miaochang)
Middle Road Bangzi (Zhonglu Bangzi 中路梆子 )
Midu Shange ( 弥渡山歌 Midu Mountain Song)
Miluo’tuo (Miluo’tuo, 密洛陀 , a Goddess’ name)
Min Huifen ( 闵慧芬 )
Min School( 闽派 )
Ming Yi ( 明宜 )
Mingfei’qu ( 明妃曲 Song of Famous Concubine)
Mingfeng’ji ( 鸣凤记 Story of Cai Mingfeng)
Mingjie ( 明介 )
Mingquan ( 鸣泉 Sounding Spring)
Minxiang ( 民香 )
Minzu Qiyue ( 民族器乐 National Instrumental Music)
Minzu Qiyue Gailun ( 民族器乐概论 Overview of Folk Instrumental Music)
Minzu Yinyue Gailun ( 民族音乐概论 Overview of Chinese Traditional Music)
Miscellaneous Roles ( 杂行 )
Miserable Wife (Ku’xifu 苦媳妇 )
Misha’wei Haba ( 米刹威哈巴 Funeral Song)
Mishang Dupu ( 霓裳续谱 Subsequent Scores of Rainbow Tune)

Mizi ( 迷子 or Meizi 眉子 )
Mo ( 抹 index finger of right hand playing inwards)
Mo ( 末 Supporting Male Role)
Mochui ( 摹吹 Imitating)
Mode (Gongdiao 宫调 )
Mohe Doule ( 摩诃兜乐 )
Mohe’luo ( 魔合罗 )
Moli’hua ( 茉莉花 Jasmine Flower)
Moliao’ci ( 末了辞 Last Words)
Molun ( 末伦 )
Momo ( 默默 Meaningless)
Mosu’kun ( 摩苏昆 )
Motou Liuse ( 陌头柳色 Willows on the Side of Road)
Mourning by the River (Jijiang 祭江 )
Moyi Dawang ( 莫一大王 King Moyi)
Moyin ( 抹音 or Huayin 滑音 Soft slinding sound)
Moyu’ge ( 摸鱼歌 Fishing Song)
Mozi: Geng Zhu ( 墨子·耕柱篇 Mozi, Section of “Pillar of Planting”)
Mu ( 木 wood)
Mu Guiying Guashuai ( 穆桂英挂帅 Lady General Mu Takes Command)
Muban Dagu ( 木板大鼓 Wooden Clapper Big Drum Song)
Mudan ( 牡丹 Peony)
Mudan Chuanfeng ( 牡丹穿凤 Phoenix Flying Among Roses).
Mudan’ting ( 牡丹亭 Love Story of the Peony Pavillion)
Muguaji ( 木刮基 )
Mukam ( 木卡姆 )
Muke’zhai - Mutianwang ( 穆柯寨·穆天王 MuKe Walled Village - Fighting Heavenly
King Mu) Yuanmen zhanzi ( 辕门斩子 General Yang Liulang Executing His Son)
Mulanhua ( 木兰花 Orchid Flower )
Mulian’bian ( 目连变 Story of Mulian)
Multiplication Rhymes (Jiujiu Chengfa’jie 九九乘法解 )
Muma qingnian ( 牧马青年 Young Horse Hearding Lad)
Mumin Xinge ( 牧民新歌 New Song of Shepherd)
Munao Zhaiwa ( 木瑙斋瓦 Dancing Together with Sorcerer)
Music Book ( 乐书 )
Music of Bawu ( 巴乌 Reed Bamboo Flute)
Music Section of the Annals of Old Tang Dynasty ( 旧唐书·音乐志 )
Music Section of the Annals of Sui Dynasty ( 隋书·音乐志 )
Muyu’shu ( 木鱼书 Wooden Fish Narratives)
N
Na’tiane ( 拿天鹅 Catching the Geese)
Na’tianer ( 拿天鹅 Catching Swan)

Nada Mude ( 那达木德 )
Nahan ( 呐喊 Shouting)
Names of Music Instruments ( 乐器名物 )
Nan Bangzi ( 南梆子 Southern Clapper Tune Pattern)
Nanbei Erpai Miben Pipapu Zhenchuan ( 南北二派秘本琵琶真传 True Copy of
Secret Pipa Score of Southern and Northern Branches, 1819)
Nanbei Hetao ( 南北合套 Suite Combining Northern and Southern Tunes)
Nanbeipai Shisantao Daqu Pipa Xinpu ( 南北派十三套大曲琵琶新谱 New Edition
of Thirteen Great Pipa Pieces from North and South)
Nancheng’diao ( 南城调 Southern City Tune)
Nanci ( 南词 Southern Lyrics: or Southern Labelled Tunes)
Nanci Xulu ( 南词叙录 Southern Words and Expression Records)
Nandiao ( 南调 Southern Tune)
Nangma ( 囊玛 a kind of Tibetan court dance)
Nangma’xie ( 囊玛谐 Nangma dance)
Nanguan ( 南管 Southern Pipe)
Nanhai Changcheng ( 南海长城 The Great Wall in South China Sea)
Nanju Tanxi ( 南剧中的弹戏 Plucking Tune or Clapper Tune used Nanju Opera)
Nanke’ji ( 南柯记 Emperor’s Son-in-law in Dream)
Nanlu ( 南路 Southern Branch)
Nanlu ( 南吕 )
Nanlu’gong ( 南吕宫 Nanlu as First Degree)
Nanluo Beigu ( 南锣北鼓 Southern Gongs and Northern Drums)
Nannu Zhuma ( 男女竹马 Male and Female Bamboo Horses)
Nanqiang’diao ( 南腔调 Southern Melodies)
Nanqu ( 南曲 Southern Tunes)
Nanqu ( 南音 Southern Tunes)
Nanxi ( 南戏 Southern Opera)
Nanxi’xiang ( 南西厢 Romance of the Southern West Chamber)
Nanyang Bangzi ( 南阳梆子 )
Nanyin ( 南音 Southern Sounds)
Nanyin Niusi ( 南银纽丝 Southern Silver Thread)
Nanyin Pipa ( 南音琵琶 Southern Tune Pipa)
Nanyin Zhipu ( 南音指法谱 Nanyin Fingering Scores)
Nanyue ( 南乐 Southern Music)
Nanzhao ( 南诏国 )
Nanzhao Chaotian’yue ( 南诏朝天乐 Processional Music of Nanzhao)
Nanzhao Music Offered to the Imperial Court (Nanzhao Fengsheng’yue 南诏奉圣乐 )
Nanzhao Yeshi ( 南诏野史 Unofficial History of Nanzhao)
Nao Jiangzhou ( 闹江州 Making Havoc in Jiangzhou)
Nao Longgong ( 闹龙宫 Havoc in Dragon Palace)
Nao Tiangong ( 闹天宫 Havoc in Heaven)
Nao’qiting ( 闹齐庭 Uproar in the Court of Qi)

Nao’wugeng ( 闹五更 Celebrating at Dawn)
Nao’yuanxiao ( 闹元宵 Celebrating Lantern Festival)
Naohong’huo ( 闹红火 Noisy Celebrations)
Naohua’tai ( 闹花台 Celebrating the Colourful Stage)
Naonian Luogu ( 闹年锣鼓 Percussion Music for New Year Celebration)
Naotai ( 闹台 Calling the Stage)
Narration (Xu 叙 )
Narrative Singing ( 说唱音乐 Shuochang Yinyue)
National Music and Cultural Flow ( 民族音乐与文化流 )
Naxi Boshi Xili ( 勃什细喱 a kind of Naxi ethnic group instrumental ensemble
popular in the area Boshi Xili)
Nei Gong ( 内锣 Inner Gong)
Neimeng bayin shierdiao ( 内蒙八音十二调 Inner Mongolian Eight Tones and
Twelve Tunes)
Neng Wangla ( 能汪拉 )
Nengban Muzhan ( 能班木占 )
Nengxing Nongrui Muzhan ( 能星农锐木占 )
New Version of Narrative Singing of the Biography of Bao Daizhi (Xinbian Quanxiang
Shuochang Zuben Baodaizhi Chushenzhuan 新编全相说唱足本包待制出身传 )
New Version of Narrative Singing of the Family Background of Huaguansuo (Xinbian
Quanxiang Shuochang Zuben HuaguansuoChushenchuan 新编全相说唱足本花
关索出身传 )
New Version of Narrative Singing of the Huaguansuo recognizing His Father (Xinbian
Quanxiang Shuochang Zuben Huaguansuo Renfuzhuan 新编全相说唱足本花关
索认父传 )
Ni Junsheng ( 倪俊声 )
Ni Lu ( 倪辂 )
Niang Jiao’dao ( 娘教道 Mother’s Rules)
Nianshuo ( 念说 Reading and Speaking)
Niao’jingxuan ( 鸟惊喧 Birds Astonished by Noise)
Niao’toulin ( 鸟投林 Birds Flying to the Forests)
Nichang Dance ( 霓裳舞 Dance of Colourful Coat)
Nichang Xupu ( 霓裳续谱 Continuation of Nichang Scores)
Nichang Yuyi ( 霓裳羽衣 Rainbow and Colourful Coat, title of a famous music piece)
Nichang Yuyi’qu ( 霓裳羽衣曲 Rainbow and Clouds of Buddhist Music)
Nichang’qu ( 霓裳曲 Rainbow Tune)
Niedoujiang ( 聂兜姜 )
Nieniedou ( 聂聂兜 )
Niezi’ban ( 捏子板 Agitated Beat,1/4)
Nigu Xiashan ( 尼姑下山 A Nun Descending the Mountain)
Nine and Ten Types of Music ( 九部乐和十部乐 )
Nine Metrical Patterns and Eighteen Tunes (Jiuban Shiba’diao 九板十八调 )
Nine Metrical Patterns and Thirteen Tunes (Jiuban Shisan’qiang 九板十三腔 )

Nine Suns (Jiuge Taiyang 九个太阳 )
Ningguan’wa ( 宁贯瓦 )
Ningrui’cao ( 凝瑞草 Fresh Grass)
Niu Yunhai ( 牛玉海 )
Niuca’yang ( 牛擦痒 Cow Rubbing Its Itchy Skin)
Niulang Zhinu ( 牛郎织女 The Cowherd and the Weaving Maid)
Nongenjiya ( 农恩吉娅 )
North Road Bangzi (Beilu Bangzi 北路梆子 )
North Suites (Beitao 北套 )
Northern History: Biography of Turks ( 北史·突厥等传 )
Northern Shaanxi Daoqing Drama ( 陕北道情剧 Drama of Shaanbei Taoist
Expressions)
Northern Shanxi Daoqing Drama ( 晋北道情剧 Drama of Jinbei Taoist Expressions)
North-South Suites (Nanbei Hetao 南北合套 )
Notes of Eastern Guangdong (Yuedong Biji 粤东笔记 )
Nudan ( 奴旦 Servant Girl)
Nuodezhong Zhige ( 诺德仲之歌 Song of Nuodezhong)
Nuoge ( 傩歌 Nuo Song)
Nuwa ( 女娲 )
Nuze’he Haba ( 奴泽和哈巴 Festival Songs)
O
Octagonal Drum Songs (Bajiao Gu 八角鼓 )
Off Beats (Shanban 闪板 folk style of appellation, that is, anacrusis of melody in
narrative or operatic singing)
Old Man Tune (Laoren’diao 老人调 )
Old Tune (Laodiao 老调 )
Old Yu Singing Style ( 老俞调 )
On Classification of Han Folk Songs by Similar Regions ( 论汉族民歌近似色彩区的
划分 )
one strong/down beat and three weak/upbeats ( 一板三眼 4/4 metre)
Opening Beigongdiao ( 背工调 Reversed Gong Mode)
Opening Chapter of Tang Poetry (Tangshi Kaipian 唐诗开篇 )
Opening Poem (Kaipian 开篇 )
Opening Rhyme Phrase ( 起韵句 )
Opening Tune (Qiqiang 起腔 )
Opening Vowel (Chukou’qiang 出口腔 or Vowel Head, Qiangtou 腔头 )
Yin ( 阴 Feminine)
Original Two-six Beat (Yuanban Erliu 原板二六 )
Oulu Wangji ( 鸥鹭忘机 Sea Gull and Empty Mind)
Ouyang Shutang ( 欧阳书唐 pupil of Zhang Kongshan)
Ouyang Yuqian ( 欧阳予倩 )
Ox-horn fiddle (Niujiao’hu 牛角胡 )
P
Padding Beat or Intervening Beat (Dianban, Jieban 垫板、介板 )
Padding Characters ( 垫头 )
Pai ( 拍 right hand beating the Pipa body)
Paisheng ( 排笙 Keyed Sheng)
Paiyou ( 俳优 Acrobatics Entertainer)
Paiyun ( 排韵 Ordering rhymes)
Paizhen ( 排阵 Lining Up)
Paizi’qu ( 牌子曲 Labelled Pieces)
Palatals (E 颚 )
Pan Bizheng ( 潘必正 )
Pan Jinlian ( 潘金莲 )
Pan Yueqiao ( 潘月樵 )
Pan’ge ( 盘歌 Antiphonal Singing)
Pan’gu ( 盘鼓 Basin Drum)
Pangu ( 盘古 )
Pangu Wang ( 盘古王 King Pangu)
Pangu Yao ( 盘古瑶 )
Pangzhuang Tai ( 傍妆台 By the Make-up Table)
Panhu ( 盘瓠 )
Panqiao’li ( 判俏里 Pansori)
Panwa Nengsang ( 潘瓦能桑 )
Panwa Nengsang Zhewa Nengzhang ( 潘瓦能桑·遮瓦能章 )
Panwang’ge ( 盘王歌 Song of King Pan)
Pao ( 匏 gourd)
Pao’changzi ( 跑场子 Running Scene)
Pao’hanchuan ( 跑旱船 Running Land Boat)
Pao’sichuan ( 跑四川 Going to Sichuan)
Pao’zhuma ( 跑竹马 Riding on Bamboo Horse)
Pao’zhuma Qu ( 跑竹马曲 Song of Riding on Bamboo Horse)
Paochang’gu ( 跑场鼓 Drumming for Running Scene)
Paodai Hualian ( 袍带花脸 Painted Face as Officer)
Paodai’chou ( 袍带丑 Clown as a King)
Paolao’zhu ( 炮烙柱）(Cannon Burning Punishment)
Paolyu ( 跑驴 Running Donkeys)
Paowang Buyu ( 抛网捕鱼 Casting a Net to Fish)
Pashan’diao ( 爬山调 Mountain Climbing Tune) in Inner Mongolia
Pashan’hu ( 爬山虎 Mountain Tiger)
Passing the Rapids ( 过滩 , Guotan, sung when the boat sails through hazardous
conditions, divided into fragments in low and high pitches)
Pausing Beat (Dunban 顿板 )
Pausing Phrases of Pausing Beat (Dunban Dunzhuju 顿板顿住句 )

Peacock Flies to the Southeast (Kongque Dongnan’fei 孔雀东南飞 )
Peacock Princess (Kongque Gongzhu 孔雀公主 )
Pei Shenfu ( 裴神符 )
Peilan ( 佩兰 Having Orchid)
Peng Tianzhu ( 碰天柱 Hitting the Sky Column)
Peng Xiuwen ( 彭修文 )
Peng Zhengyuan ( 彭正元 )
Peng’hama ( 砰蛤蟆 Weighing Crabs)
Peng’jinbei ( 捧金杯 Holding a Golden Cup)
Pengban ( 碰板 Concurrent Beat)
Pengding ( 棚顶 Tent, refers to ritual performance)
Percussion (Da 打 )
Percussion Text (Luogu Ci 锣鼓词 )
Phoenix Head (Fengtou 凤头 )
Pi ( 劈 right hand thumb playing inwards)
Piao ( 瓢 )
Piaoyou ( 票友 ticket friends, or amateur performers of Beijing Opera)
Picking Grapes (Zhai’putao 摘葡萄 )
Picture of Lintang Qiuyan ( 麟堂秋宴图 )
Pihuang ( 皮黄 Xipi and Erhuang, or Skin and Yellow, two melodic types)
Pihuang Melodic Type (Pihuang Qiang 皮黄腔 )
Pihuang Opera ( 皮黄戏 )
Pihuang’qiang ( 皮黄腔 Xipi and Erhuang melodic types)
Pile Metre ( 垛板 )
Piled Phrases (Duoju 垛句 )
Pimo ( 批莫 )
Ping ( 平 smooth)
Ping’banshe ( 平般涉调 Smooth Banshe Mode)
Pingdiao ( 平调 Level Mode; or Pingdiao Tune in Bangzi Melodic Type System)
Pingdiao flute ( 平调笛 also called “Manyan Di” 满眼笛 or Full-Eye Flute)
Pingfeng Yangge ( 平凤秧歌 Field Dance of Pingfeng)
Pinghu Fiddle ( 平胡 )
Pinghu Qiuyue ( 平湖秋月 Autumn Moonlight over the Serene Lake)
Pinghua ( 评话 Storytelling)
Pingju Opera ( 评剧 Opera popular in Hebei, Beijing and Tianjin)
Pingqi ( 平起 Level Up)
Pingqiang ( 平腔 Level Tune, or Smooth Melodies, a melodic pattern of Jingyun
Dagu or Henan Zhuizi)
Pingqiang ( 平腔 Level Melodies, a melodic style used in folk songs)
Pingqiang Bangzi’xi ( 评腔梆子戏 Clapper Opera with Ping Melodic Tune, or Pingxi
for short)
Pingsha Luoyan ( 平沙落雁 Wild Geese Alighting on a Sandy Beach)
Pingshan Le ( 平山乐 Happiness of Pingshan Mountain)

Pingtan ( 评弹 Plucking Words)
Pinguan ( 品管 Tasting Pipe)
Pingyun’chuan ( 平韵串 Level Rhyme Cluster)
Pipa ( 琵琶 Four-string lute)
Pipa ‘pu ( 琵琶谱 Pipa Score)
Pipa Daqu ( 大曲 Long Pieces for Pipa)
Pipa Songs ( 琵琶歌 )
Pipa Wenqu ( 文曲 Music in Elegant Style)
Pipa Wuqu ( 琵琶武曲 Music in Military Style)
Pipa’ji ( 琵琶记 The Story of Pipa)
Pipa’xing ( 琵琶行 Song of Pipa Player)
Pipo’yu ( 劈破玉 Breaking the Jade)
Pitu Dingling’sai ( 辟土丁零塞 Dying for Expanding Land)
Plain Beigongdiao ( 素背工调 )
Plain Narrative (Huabai 话白 )
Plays of Eight Outer Roles (Waibajiao Xi 外八角戏 )
Plucking ( 弹 )
Plucking in the South and Drumming in the North (Nantan Beigu 南弹北鼓 )
Po ( 破 Broken Form, or accelerated tempo)
Poem (Shipian 诗篇 )
Poem (Shizan 诗赞 )
Poetic (Shibai 诗白 )
Pohai’qin ( 渤海琴 a lute)
Pohongzhou ( 破洪州 Capturing Hongzhou)
Pola’dan ( 泼辣旦 Ferocious Female Role)
Poluomen’yue ( 婆罗门乐 Brahman Music)
Prelude ( 散序 Sanxu)
Prince Darhan ( 达尔罕 )
Prince Zhaoshutun ( 召树屯 )
Prologue (Shuzhu Tou 书注头 )
Pu ( 谱 Scores)
Pu Songling Liqu (Secular Songs of Pu Songling 蒲松龄俚曲 )
Pu’difeng ( 扑地蜂 Catching Ground Bees)
Pu’hudie ( 扑蝴蝶 Catching Butterfly)
Puan’zhou ( 普庵咒 Buddhist Incantation for the Peace)
Pucheng ( 浦城 )
Puju ( 蒲剧 Puju Opera, Shanxi)
Pure Beigongdiao ( 净背工调 )
Pure Percussion Ensemble ( 打击乐 )
Puyu Society ( 普裕 )
Q
Qi Baoligao ( 齐·宝力高 )
Qi Bili ( 漆荜篥 )
Qi cymbals ( 七钹 )
Qi Diao ( 祁调 Qi Style)
Qi drum ( 齐鼓 )
Qi Jiguang ( 戚继光 )
Qi Lianfang ( 祁莲芳 )
Qi Renfa ( 戚仁发 )
Qi Rushan ( 齐如山 )
Qi Yaxian ( 戚雅仙 )
Qi’yahuan ( 起丫环 Beginning of a Maid)
Qi’yanhui ( 泣颜回 Crying for Yanhui)
Qian’an ( 迁安 )
Qiangdi ( 羌笛 Flute of Qiang people）
Qiangdiao Kaoyuan ( 腔调考源 Origins of Various Xiqu Tunes)
Qianger ( 腔儿 Tune Adding)
Qiangge’zi ( 腔隔字 Partitioned Notes)
Qiang-huo-Qiang ( 枪火枪 Firing the Gun)
Qiangmu ( 羌姆 Cham) 2
Qiangyun Luogu ( 腔韵锣鼓 Percussion Music Accompanying Vocal Rhymes)
Qianjia’deng ( 千家灯 Lanterns of Thousand Families)
Qianjin ( 千斤 a string tied on neck of bowed instruments to mark effective lengths)
Qianjin Quande’bao ( 千金全德报 Gao Guiying and Shi Shouxin)
Qianjin’ji ( 千金记 Story of Han Xin)
Qianli’yuan ( 千里缘 Predestined Relations from Thousand Li)
Qianqiang ( 前腔 Introduction, or opening melody, depending the context)
Qianshu ( 黔书 Book on Guizhou Province)
Qian’zhazi ( 前扎子 , first percussion section)
Qiao Fei ( 乔飞 )
Qiao Jianzhong( 乔建中 )
Qiao Liyuan ( 乔利元 )
Qiao Qingxiu ( 乔清秀 )
Qiaoci ( 巧词 )
Qiaoge ( 樵歌 Song of Woodcutter)
Qiaokou ( 俏口 Comic Melodies)
Qibu’e ( 其布厄 )
Qichanyin ( 气颤音 breath trills)
Qichui ( 骑吹 Riding Wind)
Qichui ( 起槌 Beginning of Hammering; also termed Leichuizi, Beating Hammers)
Qidianzi ( 七点子 Seven Beatings)
Qiduan ( 七段 seven phrases)
Qie’dagu ( 怯大鼓 Rustic Big Drum Song)
Qie’kuaishu ( 怯快书 Rural Copper Clapper Reciting)

Qier ( 其二 Second Variation)
Qigong’yin ( 气拱音 Breath Bushing Sound)
Qiju ( 祁剧 Qiyang Opera in Hunan)
Qiliang Liaogong’yue ( 凄凉辽宫月 The Moon Shines over the Forlorn Liao Palace)
Qiliao ( 七寮 8/2, one strong beat and seven weak beats)
Qilin’ge ( 麒麟阁 Qilin Chamber)
Qiliu ( 其六 Sixth Variation)
Qilu Qinqu ( 齐鲁琴曲 Shandong Tunes for Qin)
Qima’diao ( 骑马调 Tune of Riding a Horse)
Qin ( 琴 Seven Stringed Zither)
Qin Singing Style ( 琴调 )
Qin Weihan ( 秦维瀚 )
Qin Xianglian ( 秦香莲 Lday Qin Xianglian)
Qin Xuemei ( 秦雪梅 )
Qincao ( 琴操 The Playing of Qin)
Qindiao ( 琴调 Mode of Qin)
Qing ( 磬 Sonorous Stones)
Qing Sanliu’diao ( 轻三六 Unpressed three-six mode, with mi and la in scale)
Qing’fengnian ( 庆丰年 Celebrations of Harvest Year)
Qing’luogu ( 清锣鼓 Pure Percussion Music)
Qing’sanliu ( 轻三六 Unpressed three and six)
Qingban ( 清板 Clear Metre, or Clear beat, appeared in Chapter IV)
Qingban ( 清板 Unaccompanied Recitation, appeared in Chapter III)
Qingbo Luogu ( 清拨锣鼓 Pure Gong and Drum)
Qingchang ( 清唱 Pure Singing)
Qingchui ( 清吹 Pure Wind Section)
Qinge ( 琴歌 Qin in conjunction with singing)
Qingfeng Mingyue ( 清风明月 Gentle Breeze and Bright Moon)
Qinghai Daoqing ( 青海道情 Qinghai Taoist Expressions)
Qinghai Fuzi ( 青海赋子 Tunes from Qinghai)
Qinghe’ling ( 庆贺令 Song of Celebration)
Qingjue ( 清角 Fourth Degree)
Qingke’chuan ( 清客串 Amateurs’ Group)
Qinglian Yuefu ( 青莲乐府 Green Lotus Music House)
Qingliangde Kengkai ( 清凉的坑盖 Cooling Sky)
Qingluan’wu ( 青鸾舞 Pure and Beautiful Dance)
Qingmian’shou ( 青面兽 Blue Beast)3
Qingnian Nanzi Weifeng Luogu’dui ( 青年男子威风锣鼓队 Young Boys Weifeng
Luogu Team)
Qingpao’ji ( 青袍记 Story of the Blue Robe)
Qingping’ji ( 清平集 Society for Qingping Music)
Qingpingshan Tanghua’ben ( 清平山堂话本 Scenario from Qingping Mountain)
Qingshang ( 清商 )
Qingshang Daqu ( 清商大曲 , a type of ancient composite music)
Qingshang Music(Qingshang Yue 清商乐 , a type of ancient artistic music)
Qingshen’ge ( 请神歌 Welcoming Spirits)
Qingshi’gao ( 清史稿 Draft History of Qing Dynasty)
Qingsong Yeyou ( 青松夜游 Touring at Night amongst Green Pines)
Qingtan ( 情探 Test of Love) 3
Qingtian’ge ( 青天歌 Blue Sky Song)
Qingtian’tao ( 青天套 BlueSky Suite)
Qingting Disnshui ( 蜻蜓点水 Dragonfly Skimming on Water)
Qingyi’dan ( 青衣旦 Blue Clothes, female role)4
Qingyin Luogu ( 清音锣鼓 Pure Sounding Percussion)
Qingyin Zidi’shu ( 清音子弟书 Pure Sound and Big Drum Singing Popular among
Manchurians)
Qingyin’ban ( 清音板 Pure Sound Beats)
Qingyin’chuan ( 清音串 Pure Sound Cluster)
Qingyue ( 清乐 Han Chinese music)
Qingyue Daqu ( 清乐大曲 , a type of ancient composite music)
Qingyue music ( 清乐 Han ethnic music)
Qingzhong’ji ( 青冢记 Tomb of Zhaojun) 3
Qingzhong’pu ( 清忠谱 Eradicating Disloyal Officials)
Qingzhou Luogu ( 青州锣鼓 )
Qinhan’yue ( 秦汉乐 Music of Central China)
Qinhan’zi ( 秦汉子 )
Qinhu ( 秦胡 Qin Fiddle)
Qinhui ( 琴徽）
Qinluo ( 擒锣 Arrested Gong)
Qinpu Zhengzhuan ( 琴谱正传 Authentic Scores of Qin Music)
Qinqiang ( 秦腔 Shaanxi Opera)
Qinqiang Jumu’kao ( 秦腔剧目考 A Study of Titles of Qinqiang Plays)
Qinqiang Paizi’qu ( 秦腔牌子曲 Labelled Tune from Shaanxi Opera)
Qinqiang Zhuti Shuixiang’qu ( 秦腔主题变奏曲 Capriccio of Shaanxi Opera Music)
Qinqiong Maima ( 秦琼卖马 Qin Qiong Selling the Horse)
Qinqu ( 琴曲 Qin solo music).
Qinshu ( 琴书 Dulcimer Narratives)
Qintiao ( 琴挑 Serenading by Guqin)
Qinwang Dianbing ( 秦王点兵 Arranging Troops by Qin Emperor)
Qinxi ( 琴戏 Dulcimer Opera)
Qinxue Congshu ( 琴学丛书 Collected Series of Qin Tutorial)
Qinyin Yueer’gao ( 琴音月儿高 Moon on High with Instrumental Sounds)
Qinzheng Qingqu ( 琴筝清曲 Pure Singing Accompanied by Dulcimer and Guzheng)
Qinzhi Xieying Xiaopu ( 秦之撷英小谱 Selected Music Scores of the Qin Dynasty)
Qionghua ( 琼花 Girl Qiong Hua)
Qiongren’hen ( 穷人恨 Self-condemning of the Poor)

Qiongsheng ( 穷生 Role of Poor Male)
Qiqi ( 其七 Seventh Variation)
Qiqiang ( 起腔 Opening Tune)
Qisan ( 其三 Third Variation)
Qishuang’hui ( 奇双会 Horse Trader)
Qisi ( 其四 Fouth Variation)
Qitai Yangge ( 祁太秧歌 Field Dance Song of Qitai)
Qiu Hechou ( 邱鹤俦 )
Qiu Shaoyun ( 邱少云 )
Qiu Yuan ( 邱园 )
Qiuci (a place currently called Kuche)
Qiuci Daqu ( 龟兹大曲 Composite Music of Qiuci)
Qiuci’yue ( 龟兹乐 Music from Qiuci)
Qiufeng Zhenzhen ( 秋风阵阵 Autumn Winds)
Qiuhong ( 秋鸿 Autumn Geese)
Qiuhu Yueye ( 秋胡月夜）
Qiujiang ( 秋江 The Autumn River)
Qiusi ( 秋思 Nostalgia in Autumn)
Qiwu ( 其五 Fifth Variation)
Qixian Qin ( 七弦琴 Seven-stringed zither)
Qixiang ( 旗香 )
Qixing Banyue ( 七星伴月 Seven Stars Accompanying the Moon)
Qixing’deng ( 七星灯 Seven-star Lamps)
Qizhe ( 七折 Seven-fold)
Qizhe ( 七辙 Seven Marks)
Qizi’zai ( 七字仔 Seven-character Form)
Qu ( 趋 coda)
Qu ( 曲 multi-movement singing, as used in Chapter II)
Qu ( 曲 Music, as used in Chapter V)
Qu Yuan ( 屈原 )
Quan Guomin ( 劝国民 Persuading People)3
Quanjin’bei ( 劝君杯 Persuading Another Cup)
Quannan Zhipu Chongbian ( 泉南指谱重编 Fingering Scores Recompilation from
Southern Quanzhou)
Quarrelling with In-Law During a Visit (Tanqing Dingzui 探亲顶嘴 )
Qudi flute ( 曲笛 )
Quechao ( 鹊巢 Birds nest, ancient poem)
Queqiao’hui ( 鹊桥会 Meeting at the Bridge of Magpies)
Qujiaying Music Association (Qujiaying Yinyue’hui 屈家营音乐会 )
Quju ( 曲剧 Beijing Narrative Opera)
Quju ( 曲剧 Qu Opera, a genre evolved from Narrative Singing)
Qulu ( 曲律 Principles of Labelled Tunes)4
Qunying’hui - Jie Dongfeng ( 群英会·借东风 Gathering of Heroes - Borrowing the

East Wind)
Qupai ( 曲牌 Labelled Pieces)
Qupai Form (Qupai’ti 曲牌体 )
Qupo ( 曲破 )
Qutou ( 曲头 Opening Tune)
Quwei ( 曲尾 Ending Tune)
Quzi ( 曲子 Tunes)
R
Raised Jue ( 角 third) Degree as Gong (fundamental pitch, Qingjue Weigong 清角为宫 )
Ramming Voice (Hangyin 夯音 )
Rangwode Quer Tianhuanxi ( 让我的曲儿添欢喜 Let My Song Add More Joy)
Rao Qingxiong ( 饶庆雄 )
Raolu ( 绕鲁 )
Raoteng ( 绕藤 Vine )
Raotian’fei ( 绕天飞 Flying Around the Sky)
Raoxian’tang ( 绕仙堂 Walking around Immortal Hall)
Recital-like Metre (Gunban 滚板 )
Records of Bai Nationality Music (Baizu Yinyue’zhi 白族音乐志 )
Records of Hou Qing (Hou Qing Lu 侯鲭录 )
Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (Dongzhou Lieguo’zhi 东周列国志 )
Records of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (Lieguo Yanyi 列国演义 )
Red Beat (Hongban 红板 )
Red Flowers (Honghua 红花 )
Red Lantern (Hongdeng 红灯 )
Red Walking Horse (Zaohongse de Zouma 枣红色的走马 )
Reformed Tune (Gailiang’diao 改良调 )
Regret (Hui 悔 )
Reiterative Phrases ( 叠句 )
Removed Beat (Diaoban 叼板 )
Ren Chen ( 人辰 )
Ren Qingzhi ( 任清芝 )
Ren Qirui ( 任起瑞 )
Ren Shanfeng ( 任善峰 )
Ren Tongxiang ( 任同祥 )
Renhuan Majiao ( 人欢马叫 People Bustling and Horses Neighing)
Renjian’hao ( 人间好 The Wonderful Human World)
Renlei de Qiyuan ( 人类的起源 Human Origin)
Replacing Gong, First Degree, with Fan (Qugong Tianfan 去工添凡 )
Resting Beat or Bypassing Beat (Liuban, Xieban, Raoban 留板，又名歇板、绕板 )
Retroflex Final ( 儿化韵 )
Returning Home (Hui’niangjia 回娘家 )
Returning Home After Victory (Desheng Huanxiang 得胜还乡 )

Returning in Glory (Ronggui 荣归 )
Reverse Erhuang Tune Pattern (Fan Erhuang 反二黄 )
Reverse Xipi Tunes (Fan Xipi 反西皮 )
Reversed Two Beats (Er Daoban 二倒板 )
Rice Husking (Chongmi’ge 舂米歌 )
Rice-husking Song (Chongmi Haozi 舂米号子 )
Riddle Performance ( 商迷 Shangmi)
Rising Falling Tune (Qifu’qiang 起伏腔 )
Rising Tone (Yangping 阳平 )
Rising Tune (Tiaoqiang 挑腔 )
Ritual Music Section (Yubao’bu 羽葆部 )
Ritual Song (Jisi’ge 祭祀歌 )
Roaming in Dreams (Mengyou 梦游 )
Roaming in the Underworld (Mingyou 冥游 )
Roaring Haozi (Hou Haozi 吼号子 )
Rocking Beat (Yaoban 摇板 )
Rolling Beat (Gunban 滚板 )
Romance of the Grassland (Liaokuode Caoyuan 辽阔的草原 )
Romance of Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi 三国演义 )
Romances of the Eastern Han Dynasty (Donghan Yanyi 东汉演义 )
Romances of the Sui and Tang Dynasties (Suitang Yanyi 隋唐演义 )
Romances of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi 三国演义；or Sanguo’xi 三国戏 )
Romances of the Western Han Dynasty (Xihan Yanyi 西汉演义 )
Rong Zhai ( 荣斋 )
Rongshu’gen ( 榕树根 Banyan Roots)
Rou ( 揉 Big amplitude vibrato)
Round (Tuan 团 )
Rouyin ( 揉音 vibrato)
Ruan Dacheng（阮大铖）
Ruan Ji ( 阮籍）
Ruan Sandishui ( 软三滴水 Soft Version of “Three Drops of Water”)
Ruan Xian ( 阮咸）
Ruangong ( 软弓 Soft bow).
Ruangong Jinghu ( 软弓二胡 soft bow Erhu)
Ruanwu ( 软舞 Soft Dance)
Ruanxian ( 软线 Soft strings)
Ruanyu’pin ( 软玉屏 Screen of Soft Jade)
Ruibin ( 蕤宾 )
Ruibin Gong ( 蕤宾宫 )
Rujia ( 儒家 Confucian)
Run-on Tune (Lianzhu’diao 联珠调 )
Runqiang ( 润腔 Vocal Embellishment)
Runyu Society ( 润裕 )
Ruolagu ( 若剌古 )
Ruqu ( 入曲 Entering)
Ruyi’zan ( 如意簪 The Fortunate Hairpin)
S
Sa’e Haba ( 撒扼哈巴 Complaining Songs)
Sad Tune (Beiqiang 悲腔 )
Sadness (Bei 悲 )
Sahuanr ( 撒欢儿 Gambol)
Saidiao ( 赛调 Competition Tune)
Saihai ( 赛咳 )
Sailong Duojin ( 赛龙夺锦 Winning the Boat Race at Dragon Boat Festival)
Saima ( 赛马 Horse-Racing)
Saishang’qu ( 塞上曲 Song of Frontier Fortress)
Saishe Luogu ( 赛社锣鼓 Ritual Percussion)
Sala’ling ( 撒拉令 Sala Ethnic Song)
Saliha and Saman ( 萨里哈与萨曼 )
San Guo ( 三国 Three Kingdoms)
San’bayin ( 散八音 Scattered Eight Sounds)
San’chuci ( 散楚辞 A Chuci Poem)
Sanba’zi ( 伞把子 Lead Dancer) 2
Sanban ( 三板 Third Beat)
Sanban ( 散板 Free Metre)
Zhongban ( 中板 Moderate tempo)
Sanban ( 散板 Free Rhythm, or scattered beat)
Sanbang’gu ( 三棒鼓 Three Drum Beats)
Sanbu’xian ( 三步弦 Three Steps Tune)
Sancai Huitu ( 三才图会 Pictorial Compilations of Three Gifted Scholars)
Sancha’kou ( 三岔口 Crossroads)
Sandi’lei ( 三滴泪 Three Tear Drops)
Sandi’shui ( 三滴水 Three Drops of Water)
Sandu Linying ( 三度林英 Saving Lin Ying Three Times)
Sanduan ( 三段 The Third Section)
Sanfeng ( 三风 Three Winds)
Sang Dureng ( 桑都冷 )
Sangu’bian ( 三股鞭 Three Intertwined Whip)
Sangye Gyatso ( 弟悉·桑结嘉措 )
Sanhe ( 三河 )
Sanhe Posui ( 山河破碎 The Disintegrated Country)
Sanhua’lian ( 三花脸 Third Painted Face)
Sanhui Zuo’eming ( 三回做鹅鸣 Third Theme Describing Swan Cry)
Sanhui’tou ( 三回头 Returning Three Times)
Sanjia’dian ( 三家店 Three Families Inn)

Sanjia’tou ( 三架头 Ensemble of Three Instruments)
Sanjie 1 ( 三借 Changing three pitches, type 1)
Sanjin’zhong ( 三尽忠 Three Loyal Ministers)
Sanku’dian ( 三哭殿 Three Crying Hall)
Sanle’xuan ( 三乐轩 Three Joys Club)
Sanliu ( 三六 Three-six)
Sanmenxia Changxiang’qu ( 三门峡畅想曲 Sanmen Gorge Rhapsody)
Sannong ( 三弄 Three Variations)
Sanqi ( 散起 Free rhythm),
Sanqing ( 三庆 Three Celebrations)
Sanqu ( 散曲 Loose Pieces)
San-san Er-liu Ling ( 三三二六令 Three-Three-Two-Six Song)
Sanshang’jiao ( 三上轿 The Chaste Female Taking Revenge)
Santai’ling ( 三台令 Song of Santai)
Santan Yinyue ( 三潭印月 Three Pools Reflecting the Moon)
Santiao’jian ( 三跳涧 Mountain Stream Falling Three Times)
Santong’gu ( 三通鼓 Drumming Three Times)
Santou ( 伞头 Head of Umbrella)
Santou Wuhe’dong ( 三头五合东 United Three and Five in East)
Santou Yangge ( 伞头秧歌 Leading Field Dance)
Sanwu Liji ( 三五历记 Records of Three-Five)
Sanwuqi ( 三五七 Three, Five, Seven)
Sanxi Lyubu ( 三戏吕布 Tricking Lvbu Three Times)
Sanxia ( 三匣 Third Box)
Sanxia Liuquan ( 三峡流泉 Flowing Spring Water in Three Gorges)
Sanxian ( 三弦 Three-stringed lute)
Sanxian’shu (Narrative Sings with Sanxian 三弦书 )
Sanxiao Yingyuan ( 三笑姻缘 The Three Smiles)
Sanxiao’xi ( 三小戏 Three Short Operas)
Sanxu ( 散序 Prelude in Free Rhythm)
Sanyan Di ( 三眼笛 Three-eyed flute)
Sanyao’tai ( 三么台 , a song for calm water route)
Sanyue ( 散乐 Han Chinese music)
Sao ( 扫 Sweeping back and forth with four right fingers)
Saofo ( 扫拂 Sweeping back and forth)
Saolun ( 扫轮 Index finger sweeping four strings, followed by four fingers plucking
each string in turns)
Saoqin ( 扫秦 )
Saotan ( 扫弹 Sweep plucking)
Saoxian ( 扫弦 Sweeping four strings together)
Scarf Dance (Jinwu 巾舞 )
Scattered Beat (Sanban 散板 , also known as “Flying Beat” 飞板 )
Scattered Beating and Scattered Singing (Sanda Sanchang 散打散唱 )

Scattered Manuscripts of Xu Wenchang: Vol. 4 (Xu Wenchang Yigao 徐文长佚稿·卷
四)
Se Laxi ( 色拉西）
Second Leading Beats (Er Daoban 二倒板 )
Second Sister at the Lantern Festival (Ermeizi Guandeng 二妹子观灯 )
Selected Tanci Works of Jiang Yuequan (Jiang Yuequan Changqiang’xuan 蒋月泉唱
腔选 )
Selected Tanci Works of Xu Lixian (Xu Lixian Changqiang’xuan 徐丽仙唱腔选 )
Senji Dema ( 森吉德玛）
Sen-si-ma ( 森丝玛 )
Sha Hankun( 沙汉昆 )
Shaanbei’hao ( 陕北好）
Shaanxi Guanzhong Quzi ( 陕西关中曲子 Tunes from Guanzhong Shanxi)
Shagalihe ( 沙嘎拉和 )
Shagang’cun ( 沙岗村 Shagang Village)
Shagou’ji ( 杀狗记 Killing the Dog to Rescue the Family)
Shahe’diao ( 沙河调 , 皖北 Tune of Shahe, or Shahe Melodic Style, North Anhui)
Shalabide Haba ( 沙拉比得哈巴 Congratulatory Songs)
Shama Wuzhi ( 莎马乌芝 )
Shan ( 鄯腔 )
Shan Dai ( 掸傣 )
Shanban ( 散板 Scattered metre type)
Shanban ( 闪板 Off Beat, rhythmic pattern starting on on the second half of the down
beat)
Shanbo and Yingtai ( 山伯英台 two lovers, male Shanbo and female Yingtai; same as
Butterfly Lovers)
Shanbo Songxing ( 山伯送行 Shanbo Parting at Pavillion)
Shandong Bangzi ( 山东梆子 Clapper Opera of Shandong)
Shandong Dulcimer Songs (Shandong Qinshu 山东琴书 )
Shandong Guzi Yangge ( 山东鼓子秧歌 Shandong Drum Field Dance)
Shandong Kuaishu’diao ( 山东快书调 Tune of Shandong Quick Patter)
Shandong Luju ( 山东吕剧 Lu Opera in Shandong)
Shandong Luozi ( 山东落子 Shandong Rhyme)
Shandong Qinshu ( 山东琴书 Dulcimer Songs of Shandong)
Shandong Yugu ( 山东渔鼓 Fish Drum of Shandong)
Shang Dengchang ( 上灯场 Entering Lantern Show)
Shang Lulu ( 尚陆陆）
Shang Siguan ( 上四管 Upper Pipe)
Shang Wuyin ( 上五音 Five Upper Notes)
Shang Xiaoyun ( 尚小云 )
Shang Yexing ( 商业兴 )
Shang Yunxia ( 商云霞 )
Shangban ( 上板 Introductory Beat)

Shangban ( 上板 On the Beat, introductory passage, transition from free rhythm to
regular beats in narrative and operatic singing)
Shangdang Bangzi ( 上党梆子 Clapper Opera of Shangdang, Shanxi)
Shangdiao ( 商调 Shang Mode)
Shange ( 山歌 Mountain Songs)
Shange’diao ( 山歌调 Tune of Mountain Songs)
Shangkou ( 上口 Ancient) 3
Shangkua Wuyin ( 上跨五音 )
Shanglou ( 上楼 Going Upstairs)
Shangpan’gu ( 上盘鼓 acrobatics involving staggering bodies)
Shangshou Suona ( 上手唢呐 Up-hand player)
Shangshu ( 尚书 Book of History)
Shangshu-Yiji ( 尚书·益稷 Book of History: Nurturing Food Plants)
Shangsi’guan ( 上四管 Upper Four Pipes)
Shangsidu Gongdiao ( 上四度宫调 Dominant of basic Gong Mode)
Shangtian’tai ( 上天台 Ascending to Heavenly Terrace)
Shangu ( 单鼓 , Drum for Dance of Shamanism)
Shangwudu Gongdiao ( 上五度宫调 Subdominant of basic Gong Mode)
Shangxia Xiaolou ( 上下小楼 Up-and-Down the Stairs)
Shangxia’ju ( 上下句 Phrases in Pairs)
Shangzhun ( 上准 Near the fourth and fifth Hui pitch marks of Qin)
Shangzi ( 上字 First Degree)
Shangzi Kaimen ( 上字开门 First Degree as tonic Kaimen),
Shangzi’diao ( 上字调 )
Shanhai’jing ( 山海经 Classic of the Mountains and Seas)
Shanhe’lian ( 山河恋 Love of Motherland)
Shanhua’ti ( 山花体 Mountain Flower Form)
Shanpo’yang ( 山坡羊 Sheep on Hill, a famous Kunqu melody)
Shanqu ( 山曲 Mountain Tunes)
Shanxi ( 山西 )
Shanxi Bada’tao ( 山西八大套 Eight Large Suites of Shanxi)
Shanxi Beilu Bangzi ( 山西北路梆子 Northern Clapper Opera of Shanxi)
Shanxi Guchui’yue ( 山西鼓吹乐 Wind-and-Drum Music in Shanxi）
Shanxi Weifeng Luogu ( 山西威风锣鼓 Powerful Percussion Ensemble of Weifeng,
Shanxi)
Shanxiang Chunzao ( 山乡春早 Early Spring Arriving at Mountain Village)
Shanxiang Fengyun ( 山乡风云 Storm in a Mountain Village)
Shanxing’zi ( 山荆子 )
Shanyao’qiang ( 山药腔 Yam Tune)
Shanzi’sheng ( 扇子生 Young Male Character Holding Fan)
Shao Jingxian ( 邵敬贤 )
Shaonian ( 少年 Lads)
Shaoqu ( 梢曲 Light Melody)

Shaotou ( 梢头 a typical beginning part of a piece）
Shaoxing opera ( 乱弹 Luantan)
Shaoxing Wenxi ( 绍兴文戏 Refined Opera of Shaoxing)
Shaoxing’deng ( 绍兴灯 Lanterns of Shaoxing)
Shaoxing’xi ( 绍兴戏 Shaoxing Opera)
sharp (Jian 尖 )
Sharp Beat (Jianban 尖板 )
Shasi’men ( 杀四门 Saving the Emperor at Shouzhou)
Shawei ( 煞尾 Ending Tune)
Shayin ( 煞音 Using right hand to stop strings vibrating)
Shayu Quzhong ( 杀鱼取种 Killing Fish for the Eggs)
She Minority Songs ( 畲族民歌 )
Shehuo ( 社火 Folk Festival “Community Fire”)
Shehuo Luogu ( 社火锣鼓 Percussion at Public Temple Fair)
Sheji in Shangshu ( 尚书·社稷 “Country Section”, Book of History)
Shen Cai ( 沈采 )
Shen Chongsui ( 沈宠绥 )
Shen Defu ( 沈德符 )
Shen Haochu ( 沈浩初 )
Shen Jian’an ( 沈俭安 )
Shen Kuo ( 沈括 )
Shen Liao ( 沈镣 )
Shen Liqun ( 沈利群 )
Shen Panhong ( 审潘洪 Trial of Pan Hong)
Shen Shihua ( 沈世华 )
Shen Xue Style ( 沈薛调 )
Shen Zhaozhou ( 沈肇州 )
Shenbao Daily ( 申报 )
Sheng ( 生 Male Role)
Sheng ( 笙 Mouth Organ)
Shenge ( 神歌 Spiritual Songs)
Shengli’cao ( 胜利操 Song of Triumph, by Wu Jinglue)
Shengping’shu ( 升平署 Bureau of Traditional Opera)
Shengqiang ( 声腔 Vocal Melodic Pattern)
Shengui’yuan ( 深闺怨 The Resentment at an Insular Girl’s Room)
Shengwu Aile’lun ( 声无哀乐论 Non-expressiveness of Music)
Shengzhang ( 升帐 Getting the Troops in Order)
Shengzhu Wuwei’hua ( 圣主无为化 meaning as “God appearing to be inert but in fact
active”)
Shenjing ( 沈璟 )
Shenqi Mipu ( 神奇秘谱 Mysterious and Secret Musical Scores)
Shenqing’ge ( 沈清歌 The Song of Shen Qing)
Shentou Citang ( 审头刺汤 Interrogating the Head and Assassinating Tang Qin)
Sheqing ( 社庆 Ritual Celebrations)
Shezu Minge( 畲族民歌 Folk Song of She Ethnic Group)
Shi ( 石 stone)
Shi ( 实 concrete)
Shi Chunniu ( 使春牛 )
Shi Dengkui ( 史登奎 )
Shi Jingyue ( 史敬约 )
Shi Juan( 师涓 )
Shi Kuang ( 师旷 )
Shi Nai’an ( 施耐庵 )
Shi Pang ( 石庞 )
Shi Wen( 师文 )
Shi Xiang ( 师襄 )
Shi Yinhua ( 施银花 )
Shi Zhaoyuan ( 史兆元 )
Shiba Liusi’er ( 十八六四二 Ten-Eight-Six-Four-Two)
Shiba Xiangsong ( 十八相送 Shanbo Seeing off Yingtai for Eighteen Li)
Shiba’fan ( 十八番 Eighteen Variations)
Shiba’pai ( 十八拍 Eighteen Beats)
Shibadajie dou Wangpi ( 十八大姐斗王皮 Eighteen Yeras Old Girl Fighting with
Wangpi)
Shiban ( 实板 True Beat)
Shibei’jiu ( 十杯酒 Ten Cups of Wine)
Shibu’xian ( 十不闲 Ten Non-Stops)
Shidiao ( 时调 Fashionable Song)
Shidui’hua ( 十对花 Ten Passages of Flower Song)
Shier’cao ( 十二操 Songs in Twelve Different Styles)
Shier’ceng Lou ( 十二层楼 Twelve-Storey Mansion)
Shier’ma Diao ( 十二马调 Twelve-Horse Tune)
Shierge’yue ( 十二个月 Twelve Months)
Shifan ( 十番 Ten Variations)
Shifan ( 十番 Ten Variations)
Shifan Luogu ( 十番锣鼓 Ten Variations of Wind-and-Percussion Music)
Shifan Xiaogu ( 十番箫鼓 Ten Variations of Xiao Flute and Drum)
Shifan’ban ( 十番班 Ten Variations Group)
Shifan’gu ( 十番鼓 Ten Variations Ensemble with Drum Solos)
Shigang Pingyao ( 史纲评要 Historical Outlines with Annotations)
Shigong Dance ( 师公舞 Taoist Dance)
Shigong Drama (Shigong’xi 师公戏 )
Shigong’diao ( 师公调 Taoist Song)
Shihou’ji ( 狮吼记 Roar of a Lion)
Shiji ( 史记 Book of History)
Shijie ( 实介 )
Shijie’chao ( 拾芥抄）
Shijin’pai ( 什锦排 Mixed Labelled Piece)
Shijing ( 诗经 Book of Songs)
Shijing ( 十景 Ten Sceneries)
Shijing Luogu ( 十景锣鼓 Ten Sceneries of Percussion Music)
Shijing-Xiaoya-Luming ( 诗经·小雅·鹿鸣 Poem entitled Luming collected in the “Section
of Xiaoya” of the Book of Songs)
Shilin Guangji ( 事林广记 Guide Through Forest of Affairs)
Shiliu’ban ( 十六板 Sixteen Beats)
Shiliu’hua ( 石榴花 Guava Blossoms)
Shiliu’pai ( 十六拍 Sixteen Beats)
Shimian Maifu ( 十面埋伏 Ambush on all Sides)
Shiming ( 释名 Explanations of Names)
Shinian’zai ( 什念仔 Recital Genre)
Shipai ( 十拍 Ten Beats)
Shiqian Touji ( 时迁偷鸡 Shi Qian Stealing Chicken)
Shisan’chui ( 十三槌 Thirteen Hammers)
Shisan’hai ( 十三咳 Thirteen Hai Syllabus)
Shishang Xiaoling ( 时尚小令 Short Fashionable Tunes)
Shitou Sun Li ( 石头孙立 Stone Sun Li)
Shiwu’guan ( 十五贯 Fifteen Chains of Coins)
Shiyang’jin, or Shiyang’jing ( 十样锦，十样景 Ten Sceneries)
Shiyi’dian ( 十一点 Eleven-Beat Pattern)
Shiyu’zhuo ( 拾玉镯 Romance of the Jade Bracelet)
Shiyun ( 石韵 Stone Ryhme Tune)
Shizan’xi ( 诗赞系 Poetic Chanting Category)
Shizhi’yao ( 食指摇 Index-finger trill)
Shizi Gunqiu ( 狮子滚球 Lion Rolling a Ball)
Shizi Gunxiu’qiu ( 狮子滚绣球 Lion Playing with a Decorated Ball)
Shizi Xiqiu ( 狮子戏球 The Lion Playing with Ball)
Shizi’lou ( 狮子楼 The Lion Chamber)
Shizi’po ( 十字坡 The Crossed Slope)
Short Stories (Xiaoshuo 小说 )
Shou Jiangnan ( 收江南 Recovering Jiangnan)
Shou’bangzi ( 手梆子 Hand clapper)
Shouban 收板 (Closing Tune)
Shouban 手板 (a kind of clapper)
Shoulder Melodies (Bijian Qupai 比肩曲牌 )
Shouting Haozi (Han Haozi 喊号子 )
Shouting’hou ( 寿亭侯 Song of Guan Yu, using soft percussions)
Shoutou ( 收头 Ending)
Shu Konghou ( 竖箜篌 Vertical harp)
Shu School( 蜀派 )
Shua’heshang ( 耍和尚 A Funny Monk)
Shua’wazi ( 耍娃子 A Naughty Boy)
Shuadiao ( 耍调 Playing Tune)
Shuai’haier ( 耍孩儿 A Naughty Boy)
Shuaidan ( 帅旦 Military Female Role)
Shuaipai Laosheng ( 衰派老生 Aged Male Role Emphasizing Action)4
Shuaiqiang ( 甩腔 Tossing Tune)
Shuang Baozitou Mangu ( 双豹子头慢板 Doubled Leopard Heads in Slow Rhythm)
Shuang Bili ( 双荜篥 Double-pipe Bili)
Shuang Hu ( 双虎 )
Shuang Qianjin Banhu ( 双千斤板胡 Banhu with Double Qianjin Stops)
Shuangchai ( 双拆 Doubled separation)
Shuangdiao ( 双调 Double Mode)
Shuangdiao’chang ( 双调场 Double Grouped Dance Pattern)
Shuangfeng Qiyuan ( 双凤奇缘 Romances of Double Phoenixes)
Shuanggan’che ( 双赶车 On the Cart)
Shuanghua’chang ( 双花场 Double Flower Show)
Shuangjie 1 ( 双借 1, Changing two pitches, type 1)
Shuangjie 2 ( 双借 2, Changing two pitches, type 2)
Shuangjin’yi ( 双锦衣 Two Elegant Robes)
Shuanglong Chudong ( 双龙出洞 Double Dragons Leaving Cave)
Shuanglong Xizhu ( 双龙戏珠 Two Dragons Playing Beads)
Shuangsheng ( 双声 double voices)
Shuangsheng’hen ( 双声恨 The Bitterness of the Double Voice)
Shuangsuo’shan ( 双锁山 Mountain of Double Locks)
Shuangtan ( 双弹 Double plucking)
Shuangtiao’gu ( 双条鼓 Two-Stick Drum)
Shuangxiong’meng ( 双熊梦 The Dream of Two Bears)
Shuangyin ( 双音 double voices)
Shuangzhu’feng ( 双珠凤 Double Pearl Phoenix)
Shuangzhu’feng ( 双珠凤 Double Pearl Phoenixes)
Shuaqu ( 耍曲 ) (Independent Tunes; or Xiaoqu, Small Tunes)
Shuban ( 数板 Rapping Beats)
Shuchang ( 数唱 Rapping Tune)
Shudao’nan ( 蜀道难 Hard Life Along Shu Path)
Shuigu’wu ( 水鼓舞 Water Drum Dance)
Shuihu’ji ( 水浒记 Story of Water Margin)
Shuijing’zhu ( 水晶柱 The Crystal Column)
Shuijun Caoyan ( 水军操演 Exercises of the Navy)
Shuilang’yin ( 水浪吟 Song of Waves)
Shuilian’dong ( 水帘洞 Cave of Water Curtain)
Shuilong’yin ( 水龙吟 Recital of the Water Dragon)
Shuimo’diao ( 水磨调 Water Mill Tune)

Shuiniu’er ( 水牛儿 Water Snail)
Shuiqu ( 水曲 Water Music)
Shuixian’cao ( 水仙操 Song of Narcissus)
Shuiyan Qijun ( 水淹七军 Guan Yu Flooding Seven Armies)
Shulai’bao ( 数来宝 )
Shule’yue ( 疏勒乐 Music from Shule)
Shuntian’you ( 顺天游 Following the Sky)
Shuochang ( 说唱 Narrative Singing)
Shuowen Jiezi ( 说文解字 Interpreting Words, ancient dictionary)
Shuxi’diao ( 数西调 Tune of Shuxi)
Shuzhuang ( 梳妆 Dressing and Making Up)
Shuzi ( 数子 Counting Words)
Si ( 丝 Silk)
Si Ruixuan 司瑞轩 (alias Suiyuanle 随缘乐 )
Si, Mei, Zou and Gui ( 四梅走归 )
Si’gongzhu ( 四公主 Fourth Princess)
Sibai ( 私白 Private Monologue)
Sibai ( 私摆 Private Feast)
Siban’qiang ( 四板腔 Tune of Four Downbeats)
Sicha Shaoshu ( 四岔捎书 Misinformed Letter Written by an Illiterate)
Sichuan Jinqian’ban ( 四川金钱板 Golden Coin Patter of Sichuan)
Sichuan Opera ( 川剧 )
Sichuan Qingyin ( 四川清音 Pure Sounds from Sichuan)
Sichuan Shange ( 四川山歌 Mountain Songs of Sichuan)
Sichuan Zhuqin ( 四川竹琴 Bamboo Dulcimer of Sichuan)
Sichun ( 思春 Missing Spring)
Sida Shengqiang ( 四大声腔 Four Major Melodic Types)
Sidiao from Shuang Zhufeng ( 双珠凤 - 私吊 Huo Dingjin Mourning for Her
Husband) 3
Siduan ( 四段 The Fourth Section)
Siduan’jin ( 四段锦 Four Beautiful Sceneries)
Sifan ( 思凡 Fancying Secular Love)
Sifan ( 四番 Four Variations）
Sighing ( 叹 )
Sighing in Brothel (Qinglou’tan 青楼叹 )
Sighing in the Weaving Room (Jifang Tanxi 机房叹息 )
Sigong’qiang ( 四工腔 Sigong Tune, emphasizing la and mi)
Sigu’yan ( 四股眼 )
Sihe Ruyi ( 四合如意 Suite of Four ad lib Pieces)
Sihong Sixi ( 四红四喜 Four Red and Four Happiness)
Sihu ( 四胡 four-stringed fiddle)
Sijin’shi ( 四进士 Four Imperial Scholars)
Siju Tuizi ( 四句推子 Four-phrase Tuizi of Anhui)

Sikong’guan ( 四空管 )
Sikong’zai ( 四空仔 Melody of Fujian Jinge)
Sikuai’wa ( 四块瓦 Four Pieces of Wooden Clappers)
Silk-and-Bamboo Music (Sizhu’yue 丝竹乐 )
Sima Qian ( 司马迁 )
Sima Toutang ( 四马投唐 Four Horses Going to Tang Court)
Simagunuo ( 司马古诺 )
Simen ( 四门 Four Gates)
Siming Nanci ( 四明南词 Southern Poetry with Four Sides of Brightness)
Siming Wenshu’diao ( 四明文书调 Elegant Story Tunes)
Siping Tune Pattern (Siping Diao 四平调 Smooth Tune)
Siping’xi ( 四平戏 Siping Opera)
Sipo ( 四破 Four Breaks)
Siqiang ( 四腔 Four-Tune)
Sisheng Qiangge ( 四声腔格 Melodies for Four Tones)
Sishi Tongtang Jiating Weifeng Luogu Dui ( 四世同堂家庭威风锣鼓队 Four
Generations Family Weifeng Luogu Term)
Sishi’jing ( 四时景 Four Seasonal Views)
Sishuai ( 四帅 Four Military Heads)
Sister and Brother (Jiedi’liang 姐弟俩 )
Sister Loves the Hardworking Man (Meier Aideshi Qinkuai’ren 妹儿爱的是勤快人 )
Six beats (Liuban 六板 )
Six Generations of Music (Liudai Zhiyue 六代之乐 )
Sixi ( 四喜 Four Happiness)
Sixi Facai ( 四喜发财 Four Fortunes Getting Rich)
Sixian ( 四弦 Four strings)
Sixian Plucking Singing (Sixian Tanchang 四弦弹唱 )
Sixian Xiaoqu ( 丝弦小曲 Small Tunes for Strings)
Sixian’deng ( 丝弦灯 Silk String Dance)
Sixian’diao ( 丝弦调 String Tune)
Sixiang ( 思乡 Homesickness)
Siyi ( 四夷 foreign tribes)
Siyouji Tanci ( 四游记弹词 Tanci of Four Roamings)
Sizhaotang Ji ( 四照堂集 Collection from Sizhaotang)
Sizhu ( 丝竹 Silk-and-Bamboo Ensemble)
Sizhu ( 四柱 Four Columns)
Sizhu’ban ( 丝竹班 Silk-and-Bamboo Group)
Sizhu’yue ( 丝竹乐 Silk-and-Bamboo Music)
Sizi Pashan’hu ( 四字爬山虎 Mountain Tiger in Sizi Mode)
Sleeve Dance (Xiuwu 袖舞 )
Slow Erba’ban (Man Erbaban, or Man Erba 慢二八板 Slow Two-Eight Beat)
Slow Erliu (Man Erliu 慢二流 )
Slow Flowing Water (Man Liushui 慢流水 2/4 Metre)

Slow Tempo ( 慢板 or Sigu’yan 四股眼 )
Slow Three-upbeats (Man Sanyan 慢三眼 )
Slow Zhongban ( 慢中板 Slow Medium Beat)
Small Eight Heroes (Xiao Bayi 小八义 )
Small Flat Drum (Xiao’piangu 小扁鼓 )
Small Horizontal Flute Section (Xiao Hengchui’bu 小横吹部 )
Small Masculine Tune (Xiaoyang’diao 小阳调 )
Small Ren/Chener ( 小人辰儿辙 )
Small Rhyme ( 小辙 )
Small Stories of Martyrs (Xiao Yinglie 小英烈 )
Smart Ten-character Phrases (Qiao’shizi 巧十字 )
Soft Bow Jinghu (Ruangong Jinghu 软弓京胡 )
Soft Fighting (Xiaoda 小打 )
Song of a Refugee (Taonan Xiaodiao 逃难小调 )
Song of Everlasting Regret (Changhen’ge 长恨歌 )
Song of Fengyang (Fengyang’ge 凤阳歌 )
Song of Harvest (Fengshou’ge 丰收歌 )
Song of Meiniang (Meiniang’ge 梅娘歌 )
Song of the Monthly Orders (Yueling’ge 月令歌 )
Song with Dance ( 合生 Hesheng)
Song Wu ( 宋五 )
Song-and-dance Composite Music (Gewu Daqu 歌舞大曲 )
Song-and-dance Court Music (Gewu Jiyue 歌舞伎乐 of Sui and Tang Dynasties)
Songcha Mula ( 松查木拉 )
Songfeng Shuiyue ( 松风水月 Soughing of Pines and Reflections of the Moon on
Water)
Songfengge Qinpu ( 松风阁琴谱 Musical Scores for the Qin from Songfengge)
Songshi Yuezhi ( 宋史·乐志 “Music Section” of the Annals of the Song Dynasty)
Songxianguan Qinpu ( 松弦馆琴谱 Musical Scores for the Qin from Songxianguan)
Songyue’rao ( 松月绕 Pines in Moonlight)
Sorcerer (Xi 觋 )
Sou ( 擞 Vibrato)
Sou ( 擞腔 , vibrato melody)
Sougu Jiugu ( 搜孤救孤 The Story of the Orphan of Zhao)
Sound of Camel in Desert (Shamode Tuoling 沙漠的驼铃 )
Sousheng ( 嗽声 Coughing Tone)
South Suites (Nantao 南套 )
Southern Lyrics (Nanci 南词 )
Southern Shanxi Daoqing ( 晋南道情）
Spring Tune (Chundiao 春调 )
Stable Beat (Anban 安板 )
Standing Voice (Liyin 立音 )
Starting Beat (Qiban 起板 )

Starting Rhyme ( 起韵 )
Stone-chimes (Bianqing 编磬 )
Story of Butterfly Lovers (Liangzhu Gushi 梁祝故事 )
Story of the States in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (Lieguo’zhi 列国志 )
Storytelling Tunes (Shudiao 书调 )
Strange Tales from a Lonely Studio (Liaozhai Zhiyi 聊斋志异 )
Street Angel (Malu Tianshi 马路天使）
String ensembles (Xiansuo’yue 弦索乐 )
Strings and Bamboo Flute Ensembles (Sizhu’hui 丝竹会 )
Su ( 诉 Expressions)
Su Fuzhi ( 苏复之 )
Su Luogu ( 素锣鼓 Pure Gong and Drum)
Su Wenxian ( 苏文贤 )
Su Yumin ( 苏育民 )
Su Zhemin ( 苏哲民 )
Su’luogu ( 苏锣鼓 Percussion of Jiangsu)
Suanqu ( 酸曲 Love Song)
Suhu’ge ( 诉苦歌 Songs of Woes)
Suidian ( 碎点 Broken Beats)
Suishu ( 隋书 Annals of Sui)
Suite (Liantao 联套 )
Suizi ( 穗子 Expansion of phrases)
Sujiang ( 俗讲 Public Narratives)3
Sun Chuxiu ( 孙楚秀 )
Sun Juxian ( 孙菊仙 )
Sun Juxian ( 孙菊仙 )
Sun Liang ( 孙良 )
Sun Renyu ( 孙仁玉 )
Sun Wenming ( 孙文明 )
Sun Yuxiu ( 孙玉秀 )
Suona ( 唢呐 Shawm, double –reed instrument)
Suona Erhuang ( 唢呐二黄 Erhuang Accompanied by Suona Oboe)
Suonan’zhi ( 锁南枝 Locking Southern Branch)
Suowu’long ( 锁五龙 Five Dragons Subdued)
Supai Zuoyue ( 俗派坐乐 Sitting Music in Folk Style)
Suqu ( 俗曲 Folk Tune)
Surprised Tune (Jingqiang 惊腔 )
Sushe ( 素社 Pure Club)
Suwu Sixiang ( 苏武思乡 Suwu Missing Home)
Suzhou Pingtan ( 苏州评弹 same as Suzhou Tanci)
Suzhou Tanci ( 苏州弹词 Plucking Words of Suzhou)
Suzhou Tanhuang ( 苏滩 narrative genre in Suzhou)
Swinging Tunes (Shuaiqiang 甩腔 of Bangzi, Erhuang)
T
Ta Xiao ( 踏跷 Sticks)
Tai’huajiao ( 抬花轿 Carrying Sedan for Bride)
Taibai Zuixie ( 太白醉写 Drunken Poems of Li Taibai)
Taicou ( 太簇 )
Taihe Zhengyin’pu ( 太和正音谱 Formal Scores of Great Harmony)
Tail (Saowei 扫尾 )
Tail Vowel (Wei 尾 )
Taiping Drum Songs (Taiping’gu 太平鼓 , also Peaceful Drum in Chapter II)
Taiping’chun ( 太平春 Great Peaceful Spring)
Taiping’ling ( 太平令 Song of Peace)
Taiping’nian ( 太平年 A Peaceful Year)
Tairen of King Wen ( 周文王之母太任 )
Taishi’gong ( 太史公 another name for Sima Qian)
Taitou ( 抬头 Looking Up)
Taiyile ( 泰依勒 )
Taizhen Waizhuan ( 太真外传 The Anecdotes of Taizhen)
Taking off the skirt ( 裙衫脱去 )
Tambourine ( 达卜 Dabu)
Tamping Song (Dawo’ge 打硪歌 )
Tan ( 弹 Index finger of right hand plucking outwards)
Tan Changci ( 弹唱词 Plucked and Sung Verses)
Tan Fuying ( 谭富英 )
Tan Jier ( 谭记儿 The Story of Tan Jier)
Tan Xinpei ( 谭鑫培 )
Tan’mianhua ( 弹棉花 Plucking Fluffy Cotton)
Tanban ( 檀板 Clapper as Accompaniment)
Tancha ( 探茶 Tea Searching)
Tanchang Cihua ( 弹唱词话 )
Tanci ( 弹词 Plucking Words)
Tanci of Twenty-one Histories (Ershiyi’shi Tanci 二十一史弹词 )
Tanci Opening Poems (Tanci Kaipian 弹词开篇 )
Tang Gong ( 汤锣 )
Tang Xianzu ( 汤显祖 )
Tang Yingzeng ( 汤应曾 )
Tang’s Series Novels (Shuotang 说唐 )
Tangdong Jiebu ( 汤东结布 )
Tanggu ( 堂鼓 Barrel Drum)
Tanghuang Tune (Tanghuang’diao 堂煌调 )
Tangju ( 唐剧 Tangshan Opera, Hebei)
Tangming ( 堂名 )
Tangshan Laozi ( 唐山落子 Lotus Tune of Tangshan)

Tangwen ( 汤问 Questions of Tang)
Tangwudai ( 唐兀歹 )
Tanhuang ( 滩簧 local narrative genre)
Tanhuang’diao ( 滩簧调 Tanhuang Tune)
Tanhuang’xi ( 滩簧戏 Tanhuang Opera)
Tanka Boat Songs (Danjia Chuange 疍家船歌 )
Tanpo ( 摊破 Changes in Metre and Number of Characters)
Tanqin Shoushi’tu ( 弹琴手势图 Illustrations of Hand Movement of Performing Qin)
Tanqin Youshou’fa ( 弹琴右手法 Right-hand Techniques of Performing Qin)
Tantiao ( 弹挑 Index finger and thumb playing alternately)
Tanxi ( 弹戏 Plucking Opera, a kind of Clapper Melodic Pattern)
Tanyin ( 弹音 Plucking Pitch)
Tanyue ( 弹乐 Plucking Music, also known as Tanliu-Plucking Six Measures)
Tanyun ( 叹韵 Tune of Sigh)
Tao Tanci 掏弹词 (Plucked Verses)
Taoan Mengyi ( 陶庵梦忆 A Dream Record at Taoan Temple)
Taoci ( 套词 Set Lyrics)
Taoda ( 套打 Connected Play)
Taodian ( 掏点 off beats or without strong beats)
Taohua’an ( 桃花庵 Peach Blossom Nunnery)
Taohua’shan ( 桃花扇 Fan Inscribed with Peach Blossom)
Taohun’ji ( 逃婚记 Runaway Bride)
Taoist Expressions (Daoqing 道情 )
Taojin’ling ( 淘金令 Washing for Gold Song)
Taopi Bili ( 桃皮荜篥 Peach Skin Bili)
Taoqiang Luogu ( 套腔锣鼓 Percussion Music Accompanying Voice)
Taoqu ( 套曲 Suite, or Sectional Pieces)
Taoyuan Jieyi ( 桃园结义 Making a Brother Alliance at Taoyuan)
Taozhen ( 陶真 True Story, a kind of narrative singing)
Tapo Gets Seeds (Tapo Quzhong 塔婆取种 )
Tashvay ( 塔什瓦依）
Tata’ge ( 踏踏歌 Tapping Song)
Tathagata Buddha Putting the Rebellious Monkey King Under the Mountain of Five
Fingers ( 孙悟空大闹天宫被佛祖收伏 )
Tayao’niang ( 踏谣娘 Female Song Drama)
Tayao’niang ( 踏摇娘 )
Tea Episodes (Chacha 茶插 )
Tea Melodies (Chaqiang 茶腔 )
Tea Picking Song (Caicha’ge 采茶歌 )
Tea-picking (Caicha 采茶 )
Tea-picking Ballad (Caicha’yao 采茶谣 )
Tea-picking Baoge Songs (Caicha Baoge 采茶褒歌 )
Tea-picking Grand Series (Caicha Dalie 采茶大列 )

Tea-picking in Twelve Months(Shieryue Caicha 十二月采茶 )
Tea-picking Song-and-Dance of Northern Guangxi (Guinan Caicha Gewu 桂南采茶
歌舞 )
Tea-picking with Connected Stories (Caicha Chuangu 采茶串古 )
Teasing ( 噱 )
Telling the right thing ( 道正事 )
Ten Cups of Wine (Shibei’jiu 十杯酒 )
Ten Months ( 十个月 )
Ten Sighs for Three Kingdoms（Sanguo Tanshi’sheng 三国叹十声）
Ten-character Rhymes (Shizi’yun 十字韵 )
Tengfei Luogu ( 腾飞锣鼓 Flying Gong and Drum)
Tengwangge Xu ( 滕王阁序 Preface of Tengwang Pavillion)
Teqin zither ( 特琴 )
The Ballad of Mulan ( 木兰诗 )
The Black Lark (Hei Yunque 黑云雀 )
The Commentary of Zuo (Zuozhuan 左传 )
The Crescent Moon Shining on Nine Zhou (Yue’er Wanwan Zhaojiuzhou 月儿弯弯照
九州 )
The Eight Immortals Attending Birthday Celebrations (Baxian Qingshou 八仙庆寿 )
The Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea (Baxian Guohai 八仙过海 )
The Encyclopedia of China: Xiqu and Narrative Arts (Zhongguo Dabaike
Quanshu·Xuqu Quyi 中国大百科全书·戏曲曲艺 )
The First Myth (Fengshen’bang 封神榜 )
The Fourth Heavenly Sister Descending to Earth (Sijie Xiafan 四姐下凡 )
The General Annals of Shanxi ( 山西通志 Shanxi Tongzhi)
The Hero Geser Khan ( 英雄格斯尔汗 )
The History of Chinese Drama (Zhongguo Xiju’shi 中国戏剧史 )
The Idea of Yuezhong Studies ( 乐种学构想 )
The Investiture of the Gods (Fengshen Yanyi 封神演义 )
The Legend of Geser ( 格斯尔的故事 )
The Legend of Sayram Lake ( 赛里木湖的传说 )
The Lost Ring (Diu’jiezhi 丢戒指 )
The Meeting of In-Laws (Hui Qingjia 会亲家 )
The Mountain Keeps My Lover Out of Sight (Liaobujian Meimei Shan Dangzhule 瞭
不见妹妹山挡住了 )
The Mulberry by the Road (Moshang’sang 陌上桑）
The Music of the Getian Clan (Getianshi Zhiyue 葛天氏之乐 )
The Origin of Worshiping the Village God (Jihu Zhaishende Youlai 祭护寨神的由来 )
The Orphan of the Zhao Family (Zhaoshi Guer 赵氏孤儿 )
The People’s Daily ( 人民日报 )
The Plum in the Golden Vase (Jinpeng’mei 金瓶梅 )
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms ( 三国演义 )
The Stories of Yue Fei (Shuoyue Quanzhuan 说岳全传 )

The Story of Wu Song (Wu Song Zhuan 武松传 )
The Suffering People (Ku Baixing 苦百姓 )
The Water Margin (Shuihu’zhuan 水浒传 ; Shuihu’xi 水浒戏 )
The Water Margin Cihua ( 水浒传词话 )
The Water Margin Sequel (Hou Shuihu 后水浒 )
The White-Haired Girl (Baimao’nu 白毛女 )
the Wind Music Associations in Ziwei Village of Ding County （Dingxian Ziweicun
Yinyue 定县子位村音乐会）
Thirteen Rhymes (Shisan’zhe 十三辙 )
Three Best Beijing Opera Actors (Sanding’jia 三鼎甲 )
Three Best Laosheng Actors ( 老生三杰 )
Three Five Seven (Sanwuqi 三五七 )
Three Kingdoms (Sanguo 三国 )
Three Rises and Three Falls ( 三起三落 Sanqi Sanluo)
Three Times of Salvation to Lin Ying (Sandu Linying 三度林英 )
Three-by-three Grid System (Jiugong’ge 九宫格 writing paper with sets of nine
squares to accommodate the characters)
Three-character Head (Qian Sanzi’tou 嵌三字头 )
Three-character Waist (Sanzi’qian 三字嵌 )
Three-six ( 三六 Sanliu）
Ti ( 剔 Middle finger of right hand playing outwards)
Ti ( 提 Index finger of right hand flipping Pipa body)
Tian Chuan ( 田川 )
Tian Denian ( 田德年 )
Tian Yirong ( 田益荣 )
Tian’e ( 天鹅 Swan)
Tianbao Anecdotes Zhugong’diao (Tianbao Yishi Zhugong’diao 天宝遗事诸宫调 )
Tiandi’de Qiyuan ( 天地的起源 Origin of the Sky and Earth)
Tiange ( 田歌 Field Songs)
Tianjin Huanghui’kao ( 天津皇会考 Historical Study of Emperor Approved Festivals)
Tianjin Shidiao ( 天津时调 Fashion Tune of Tianjin)
Tiannan Dianyue’su ( 天南滇越俗 Yunnan Customs on the Southern Land )
Tianning Festival ( 天宁节 Birthday of Emperor Huizong of Song)
Tianshan Zhichun ( 天山之春 Spring in Tianshan Mountain)
Tianshan’de Chuntian ( 天山的春天 Spring Time in Tianshan Mountain)
Tiansheng ( 添声 Adding Characters)
Tianwenge Qinpu ( 天闻阁琴谱 1876)
Tianxia Datong ( 天下大同 A Great Universal Unity)
Tianxia’le ( 天下乐 Happy World)
Tianyang Shange ( 田秧山歌 Rice Planting Mountain Songs)
Tianyang’ge ( 田秧歌 Rice Planting Songs)
Tianyu’hua ( 天雨花 Rain Flowers from Sky )
Tianyue ( 天乐 Heavenly Music)

Tianzhu’yue , or Tianzhu music ( 天竺乐 Music from India)
Tianzi ( 添字 adding pitches)
Tiao ( 挑 Index finger plucking outwards, a Guzheng playing technique)
Tiao ( 挑 Thumb plucking inwards, a Pipa playing technique)
Tiao ( 挑腔 )
Tiao Jinmen’kan ( 跳金门槛 Jumping over the golden gate)
Tiaobai Music ( 跳摆 Dance and swing, a concept of dance used by many ethnic
groups in Yunnan)
Tiaodiao ( 跳调 Dancing Tune)
Tiaohua’che ( 挑滑车 Ramming Carts)
Tiaolian ( 挑帘 Opening the Curtain)
Tiaolun ( 挑轮 Thumb of right hand playing the low string outwards, while remaining
fingers playing other strings)
Tiaoqiang ( 挑腔 Rising Tune)
Tiaoyue ( 跳月 Dance Under the Moon)
Tibetan Zhuo Dance ( 藏族卓舞 )
Tichang Guohuo ( 提倡国货 Advocating Domestic Products)
Tied Tune ( 札板 )
Tiedan ( 贴旦 Maidservant)
Tiejiang Datie ( 铁匠打铁 Blacksmith at Work)
Tight Erbaban (Jin Erbaban 紧二八板 Fastest Two-Eight Beat)
Tijiao’kao ( 踢脚靠 Foot Kicking)
Timbrel ( 铃鼓 )
Tingsong ( 听松 Listening to the Pines)
Tingtang Duozi ( 厅堂夺子 Seizing the Son in the Hall)
Tiqin ( 提琴 bowed fiddle)
Tixiao Yinyuan ( 啼笑因缘 The Story of Three Lovers)
Toasting Song (Jiuge 酒歌 )
Tong Drum ( 同鼓 Barrel-shaped drum)
Tongcheng’ge ( 桐城歌 Song of Tongcheng)
Tongchui or Heitou ( 铜锤 , 黑头 Brass Hammer, or Black Head，Painted Face
emphasizing singing)
Tong-coherent ( 通 )
Tonggu drum ( 同鼓）
Tongle’gu ( 同乐鼓 Happy Drum, also known as Gao’bazi 高把子 )
Tongle’she ( 同乐社 Enjoyment Group)
Tongqi’she ( 铜器社 Bronze Instrumental Group)
Tongtian’xi ( 通天犀 Story between Warlords of Ming Dynasty and Miao Ethnic
Group)
Tongzhi ( 同治 Qing Emperor)
Tongzhou Bangzi ( 同州梆子 Clapper Opera of Tongzhou, Shanxi)
Tossing Tune (Shuaiqiang 甩腔 )
Touban ( 头板 First Beat)

Toubi’ji ( 投笔记 The Story of Ban Chao)
Touguan ( 头管 First Pipe)
Toujiang ( 投江 Drowning in the River)
Toujiang in Du Shiniang ( 杜十娘 - 投江 “Drowning in the River” in Lady Du
Shiniang)
Tousheng ( 偷声 Reducing One Character)
Touxia ( 头匣 First Box)
Touxian ( 头弦 First Fiddle)
Traditional Chinese Music Improvement Society (Guoyue Gaiji’she 国乐改进社 )
Travelling troupe (Zouhui 走会 )
Trichotomy Method (Sanyin Qiefa 三音切法 )
Tu ( 土 earth)
Tubie ( 土别 Parting of Land)
Tuge ( 徒歌 Bare Songs, unaccompanied singing)
Tugu ( 土鼓 Clay Drum)
Tuhaizi ( 秃孩子 The Bald Child)
Tui ( 推 pushing)
Tui’luzhou ( 推辘轴 Pushing Reel Shaft)
Tuigu ( 退鼓 Retreating Drum)
Tuigu Zhengshen ( 退鼓正身 Body of Retreating Drum)
Tuigu’tou ( 退鼓头 Head of Retreating Drum)
Tuigu’wei ( 退鼓尾 Tail of Retreating Drum)
Tuipin shuangxiang ( 推拼双弦 Pushing and pulling two strings back and forth)
Tujia Daliuzi ( 土家族打溜子 Percussion Ensemble of Tujia People)
Tujia funeral dance (Saye Erhe 撒叶尔荷 )
Tujue Santai ( 突厥三台 Three Variations of Turks)
Tune of Love Sickness (Xiangsi’pu 相思谱 )
Tune of Siping (Siping’diao 四平调 )
Tuo ( 托 Thumb of right hand playing outwards)
Tuo’bushan ( 脱布衫 Undonning Clothes)
Tuoqiang ( 托腔 Expanding Melody)
Tuoyin Huqin ( 托音胡琴 a kind of tuning for Erhu fiddle）
Tuyin ( 吐音 staccatos)
Tuzu’ling ( 土族令 Tu Ethnic Song)
Twelve Fundamental Pitches (Shier Lulu 十二律吕 )
Twelve Muqam ( 十二木卡姆 )
Twelve-Horse Dance (Shier’ma Wu 十二马舞 )
Twenty-Four Annals (Ershi’si Shi 二十四史 )
Twenty-one Historic Annals Tanci (Ershi’yi Shi Tanci 二十一史弹词 )
Two-eight (Erba 二八 one downbeat and one upbeat)
Two-six Beat (Erliu, or Erliu’ban 二六板 one downbeat and one upbeat, or 2/4)
U
Uliger ( 乌力格尔 )
Underground Party Member Hua Ziliang (Dixia Cangsong 地下苍松 )
Upper Hand ( 上手 )
Uyghur Hand Drum Dance (Shougu’wu 手鼓舞 )
Uyghur’s Yusuf Amat ( 优素甫·艾买提 )
V
Vimalakirti Scripture ( 维摩经文 )
Visiting In-Laws’ Family (Tan’qingjia 探亲家 )
Visiting the Qingshui River (Tan Qingshui’he 探清水河）
Vocal Accompaniment (Bang 帮 )
W
Wa Ethnic Group ( 佤族 )
Wa People’s Shuigu’wu ( 水鼓舞 Water Drum Dance)
Wade ( 佤德 )
Wahutong’she ( 瓦胡同社 )
Wai’nanci ( 外南词 Outer Southern Lyrics)
Waidiao ( 外调 Outer mode)
Waist Drum Dance of Northern Shaanxi (Shanbei Yaogu 陕北腰鼓 )
Wan Baochang ( 万宝常 )
Wanbang ( 宛梆 Wanbang Clapper Opera)
Wanbodi ( 万播笛 )
Wandiao ( 玩调 Playful Melodies)
Wanfu’lian ( 万福莲 also known as Xie Yaohuan)
Wang Baochuan ( 王宝钏 Lady Wang Baochuan and Her Husband Xue Pinggui)
Wang Bo ( 王勃 )
Wang Bocheng ( 王伯成 )
Wang Changyuan ( 王昌元 )
Wang Chengkui ( 王成奎 )
Wang Chuanshan ( 王船山 )
Wang Chunrong ( 王春荣 )
Wang Dianyu ( 王殿玉）
Wang Erijie Sifu ( 王二姐思夫 Wang Erjie Missing Her Husband)
Wang Erxiao Ganjiao ( 王二小赶脚 Wang Erxiao the Porter)
Wang Fandi ( 王范地 )
Wang Fuzhi ( 王夫之 )
Wang Guifen ( 汪桂芬 )
Wang Guomin ( 王国民）
Wang Guotong ( 王国潼 )
Wang Guowei ( 王国维 )
Wang Hanxi Makes Borrowings on the Spring Festival Eve (Wang Hanxi Jienian 王汉
喜借年 )
Wang Huiran ( 王慧然 )
Wang Huisheng ( 王惠生 )
Wang Ji ( 忘机 Empty Mind)
Wang Ji（王济）
Wang Jiangting( 望江亭 Looking at the River Pavillion)
Wang Jianmin ( 王建民 )
Wang Junxi ( 王君锡 )
Wang Longzhang ( 王隆彰 )
Wang Manu ( 王麻奴）
Wang Panci ( 王磐词）
Wang Qi ( 王圻 )
Wang Sanjie Ganji ( 王三姐赶集 Wang Sanjie Rushing to Market)
Wang Shanpu ( 王善朴 )
Wang Shaoqing ( 王少卿 )
Wang Shengwu ( 王省吾 )
Wang Shifu ( 王实甫 )
Wang Shiquan ( 王石泉 )
Wang Shiyu ( 汪世瑜 )
Wang Shizhen ( 王世贞 )
Wang Tianmin ( 王天民 )
Wang Tiechui ( 王铁锤 )
Wang Tingne ( 汪廷讷 )
Wang Xiangyun ( 王湘云 )
Wang Xiaohe ( 王孝和 )
Wang Xiaosong ( 王效松 )
Wang Xunzhi ( 王巽之 )
Wang Yanjiao ( 王燕樵 )
Wang Yaohua ( 王耀华 )
Wang Yiyou ( 王子犹 )
Wang Youding ( 王猷定 )
Wang Yufeng ( 王玉峰 )
Wang Yun ( 王筠 )
Wang Yuting ( 汪昱庭 )
Wang Zhaojun Bianwen ( 王昭君变文 Buddhist Text on Wang Zhaojun)
Wang Zhideng ( 王穉登 )
Yangchun’qu ( 阳春曲）
Wang Zhizhang’s ( 王芷章 )
Wang Zhoushi ( 王周士 )
Wang’daniang ( 王大娘 Aunt Wang)
Wangji ( 忘机 Empty Mind)
Wangkui Fu Guiying ( 王魁负桂英 Wang Kui Deserting Jiao Guiying)
Wangma Benteng ( 万马奔腾 Ten Thousand Horses Racing)
Wanhua Xiaoqu ( 万花小曲 Myriad Colourful Small Tunes)

Wanhua’deng ( 万花灯 Myriad Lanterns)
Wanli ( 万里 Ten Thousand Li)
Wanli Changcheng ( 万里长城 The Great Wall)
Wanli Jiangshan Chunyi’se ( 万里江山春一色 All Spring Sceneries over the Land)
Wanli Yehuo’bian ( 万历野获编 Miscellaneous Records in the Reign of Wanli
Emperor)
Wannian’hua ( 万年欢 Myriad Years of Happiness)
Wanshua’diao ( 玩耍调 Playful Tune)
Wanwan’qiang ( 碗碗腔 )
Wanwan’qin ( 碗碗琴 a kind of fiddle)
Wanxia ( 晚霞 The Sunset Glow)
Wanxiao’dan ( 玩笑旦 Joking Female Role)
Wanyan Aguda ( 完颜阿骨打 )
Watching Opera (Xiao’kanxi 小看戏 )
Watching the Barbarian Female Singer ( 观蛮妓 Guan Manji)
Water-Drum Dance (Shuigu’wu)
Waves of Dayin Lake (Dayinhu de Bolang 达茵湖的波浪 )
Wawa’diao ( 娃娃调 Kid’s Tune)
Wawa’sheng ( 娃娃生 Young Male Role)
Waxiang’neng Tuila ( 娃襄能退腊 )
Wazi Goulan ( 瓦子勾栏 Fenced Stage)
Wazili ( 洼子里 )
Wedding Song (Hunli’ge 婚礼歌 )
Weeding Song (Chucao’ge 锄草歌 )
Wei ( 微 subtle)
Wei Bangzi 卫梆子 Bangzi in Tianjin)
Wei Changsheng ( 魏长生 )
Wei Chiqing ( 尉迟青 )
Wei Gao ( 韦皋 )
Wei Hanying ( 魏含英 )
Wei Jianian ( 魏家念 )
Wei Liangfu ( 魏良辅 )
Wei Meiduo ( 魏梅朵 )
Wei Rongyuan ( 魏荣元 )
Wei Yongtang ( 魏永堂 )
Wei Yun ( 魏云 )
Wei Yuqing ( 魏钰卿 )
Wei Ziyou ( 魏子猷 )
Weichi Visiting Xue Rengui ( 尉迟恭访薛仁贵 )
Weifeng Luogu ( 威风锣鼓 Percussion Ensemble Music of Weifeng)
Weijun ( 为君 For the Respected)
Weining’diao ( 威宁调 Turn of Weining)
Weiqiang ( 尾腔 End Voice)

Weisha ( 尾煞 Ending Phrase)
Weisheng’zi ( 尾声子 Concluding Passage)
Wen Bo ( 文博 )
Wenban ( 文板 Elegant Style)
Wenchou ( 文丑 Civil Clown)
Wenghaiya ( 嗡嗨呀 )
Wenhuatang Chuke Zhipu ( 文焕堂初刻指谱 First Printed Fingering Scores from
Wenhuatang)
Wenhuitang Qinpu ( 文会堂琴谱 Music Scores for the Qin from Wenhuitang)
Wenjing Yuanyang’hui ( 刎颈鸳鸯会 Killing in the Event of an Illicit Affair)
Wenkang’yue ( 文康乐 Music from Wenkang)
Wenming Dagu Shuci ( 文明大鼓书词 Civilized Drum Song Lyrics)
Wenming Yaji ( 文明雅集 Civilized Elegant Society)
Wensan ( 文伞 Civil Umbrella, excels in singing and improvisation)
Wensheng ( 文生 Civil Male)
Wentui’gu ( 文退鼓 Refined Receding Drum)
Wenwu ( 文舞 Civil Dance)
Wenwu Dagu ( 文武大鼓 Civil and Martial Big Drum Song)
Wenxi ( 文戏 Civil Play)
Wenzhao’guan ( 文昭关 Exiting Shaoguan Pass)
Wenzhou Zaju ( 温州杂剧 )
West Chamber Zhugong Melodies (Xixiangji Zhugong’diao 西厢记诸宫调 )
Western Hu’nan Yugu ( 湘西渔鼓 )
Western Shanxi Daoqing Drama ( 晋西道情剧 )
When Mentioning My Lover Going West (Tiqi Gege Zou Xikou 提起哥哥走西口 )
When Shall the Flower of Chinese Scholartree Blossom (Huaihua Jishi’kai 槐花几时
开）
Whirling Dance (Huxuan’wu 胡旋舞 )
White Brahma (Baifan Wang 白梵王 )
White Lady (Bai Niangzi 白娘子 )
Wind-and-Drum Ensemble (Guchui Music, or Guchui’yue 鼓吹乐 )
Wind-and-Drum Music Section (Guchui’bu 鼓吹部 )
Wind-and-percussion ensemble (Chuida Music, or Chuida’yue 吹打乐 )
Wind-and-Percussion Music in South Jiangsu Province ( Sunan Chuida’yue 苏南吹打
乐)
witches (Wu 巫 female)
Without changing the finger positions ( 定把滑音）
wizards (Xi 觋 male)
Wo Konghou ( 卧箜篌 horizontal harp)
Wode Rewapu ( 我的热瓦甫 My Rubab)
Woodcutter Song (Qiaoge 樵歌）
Wo-re-re ( 哦热热 )
World Anthology (Shijie Wenku 世界文库 )

Woxin Changdan ( 卧薪尝胆 Stooping to Conquer)
Writing Style (Wenzhang’diao 文章调 )
Wu Baijun ( 吴柏君 )
Wu Changyuan ( 吴长元 )
Wu Chasan ( 舞岔伞 Umbrella Dance)
Wu Dadiao ( 五大调 Five Great Tunes)
Wu Enqi ( 乌恩齐 )
Wu Gui ( 武贵 )
Wu Guniang ( 五姑娘 Five Sisters)
Wu Guodong ( 伍国栋 )
Wu Hong ( 吴灴 )
Wu Houyuan ( 吴厚元 )
Wu Mengfei ( 吴梦非 )
Wu Shimei ( 吴世美 )
Wu Song ( 武松 )
Wu Wanqing ( 吴畹卿 )
Wu Xiaolou ( 吴小楼 )
Wu Xihe ( 吴锡和 )
Wu Yi ( 吴逸 )
Wu Yingming ( 吴应明 )
Wu Yunlong ( 吴运龙 )
Wu Zhenfang ( 吴震方 )
Wu Zixu Bianwen ( 伍子胥变文 Story from Buddhist Text on Wu Zixu)
Wu Zuqiang ( 吴祖强 )
Wu’an Pingdiao ( 武安平调 Pingdiao Tune of Wuan County)
Wu’bangzi ( 五梆子 Five Clappers)
Wubei’zhi ( 武备志 Military Oath)
Wucai Daoban’jiang ( 五采倒板浆 Colourful Turning of the Oar Upside Down)
Wuchou ( 武丑 Martial Clown)
Wuchou, or Kaikou’tiao ( 武丑 , 开口跳 , Acrobatic Clown, or Jumping Clown)
Wuchui’gu ( 五锤鼓 Beating Drum Five Times)
Wudai Tongtang ( 五代同堂 Five Generations Living in the Same Family)
Wudan ( 五旦 Fifth Female Role)
Wudan ( 武旦 Acrobatic Female Role)
Wudan ( 武旦 Martial Female Role)
Wudi’dong ( 无底洞 The Bottomless Ditch)
Wudian’zi ( 五点子 Five Beatings)
Wuge ( 吴歌 Songs of Wu)
Wuge Fangyang ( 五哥放羊 Wuge Herding Sheep)
Wugeng ( 五更 Fifth Watch of the Night)
Wugeng’diao ( 五更调 Melody for Five Watches of the Night)
Wuhang ( 武行 Martial Role)
Wuhu Xiaxi’chuan ( 五虎下西川 Five Tigers Coming to Xichuan)

Wujia’tou ( 五架头 Ensemble of Five Instruments)
Wujiang Ziwen ( 乌江自刎 Committing Suicide at Wujiang River)
Wujiang’yin ( 吴江吟 The Song of Wujiang River)
Wujing or Wuer’hua ( 武净 , 武二花 Acrobatic Painted Face, or Second Acrobatic
Coloured Face)
Wujinglue ( 吴景略 )
Wuju ( 婺剧 Wu Opera in Zhejiang)
Wukong Siche’guan ( 五空四尺管）
Wukong Zanian’zai ( 五空杂念仔 Varied Recitals in the Wukong Mode)
Wukong’guan ( 五空管 )
Wukong’zai ( 五空仔 )
Wuli’qiao ( 五里桥 Wuli Bridge)
Wulin Jiushi ( 武林旧事 Old Stories from Hangzhou)
Wulin Zheng ( 武林筝 )
Wulong’yuan ( 乌龙院 Song Jiang Slaying His Mistress Yan Poxi)
Wuma Pocao ( 五马破曹 Five Horses Defeating Cao Troops)
Wumei ( 无媒 Without Matchmaker)
Wuming’ma ( 舞明马 Dancing with a Famous Horse)
Wuqin ( 乌钦 )
Wuqu ( 武曲 Military Music)
Wusan ( 武伞 Martial Umbrella, excels in dance/acrobatics)
Wushan’ding ( 巫山顶 Top of Wushan Mountain)
Wushan’qiang ( 五山腔 Five-mountain Tune)
Wusheng ( 武生 Male Martial Role)
Wusheng ( 武生 Martial Male Role)
Wusheng Fo ( 五声佛 Praising Buddha Five Times)
Wushi’yan ( 五十眼 Fifty Eyes)
Wusong Dahu ( 武松打虎 Wu Song Fighting the Tiger)
Wutao ( 武套 Military Suite)
Wutou Ganche ( 五头赶车 Wutou Driving the Cart)
Wutou’chang ( 五头场 Five Head Stages)
Wuwu ( 武舞 Martial Dance)
Wuxi ( 武戏 Martial Play)
Wuxi’jing ( 无锡景 Scenery of Wuxi)
Wuxi’jing Diao ( 无锡景调 Melody of the Scenery of Wuxi)
Wuxian Ruan ( 五弦阮 Round lute with five strings)
Wuxian’pu ( 五弦谱 Five-string Score, c. Tenth century)
Wuxing Shanguang ( 五星闪光 Five Stars Shinning)
Wuxing’zhe ( 武行者 Martial Personnel)
Wuxing’zhu ( 五行柱 Five Principal Roles)
Wuya ( 乌鸦 Crows)
Wuye Wuqiufeng ( 梧叶舞秋风 Leaves of Chinese Parasol Dancing in Autumn Wind)
Wuye Yaowen Tiemasheng ( 午夜遥闻铁马声 Hearing Horse Trotting Sound in

Midnight)
Wuye’ti ( 乌夜啼 Crying in Evening)
Wuyi ( 无射 )
Wuyi’yun Cenong ( 无射均侧弄 )
Wuyin ( 五音 Five Degrees)
Wuyue ( 吴越 South China, particularly for areas around south of Yangtse River)
Wuzhizhai Qinpu ( 五知斋琴谱 Musical Scores for the Qin from Wuzhizhai)
Wuzi Kaimen ( 五字开门 Sixth degree as tonic Kaimen)
X
Xi Cailian ( 喜彩莲 )
Xi gong ( 喜锣 )
Xi Xiaofeng ( 喜小峰 )
Xi’an Guyue ( 西安鼓乐 Xi’an Wind-and-Percussion Music)
Xi’er ( 雪儿 a female character in The White Haired Girl)
Xi’niusi ( 西钮丝 Western Threading String)
Xi’xiangfeng ( 喜相逢 Blissful Encounter)
Xi’yuanxiao ( 喜元宵 Happy Yuanxiao Festival, fifteenth of the first lunar month)
Xi’yudeng ( 喜鱼灯 Happy Fishing Lamp)
Xia (Hesheng 夏荷生 )
Xia ( 匣 Boxes, the main body part)
Xia Shi ( 夏史 )
Xia Yifeng ( 夏一峰 )
Xiadiyana ( 夏地亚纳 )
Xiakua Wuyin ( 下跨五音 )
Xialafu ( 夏拉甫 )
Xiali Baren ( 下里巴人 Ordinary People)
Xialou ( 下楼 Going Downstairs)
Xianban ( 险板 Dangerous Beat)
Xianbei ( 鲜卑 , an ancient ethnic group)
Xianci ( 弦词 String Words)
Xianfeng Reign ( 咸丰 1851–1861)
Xianfeng’yin ( 先锋音 Anticipation)
Xiang Sihua ( 项斯华 )
Xiang Xiuli ( 向秀丽 )
Xiang Yu ( 项羽 )
Xiangba Dance ( 响把舞 Bamboo Stick Dance)
Xiangda ( 响打 Sounding and Beating)
Xiangdai ( 香袋 Fragrant Pouch)
Xiangdang’ran ( 想当然 Thinking the Inevitable)
Xiangfu’diao ( 祥符调 Xiangfu Melodic Style)
Xianghe Daqu ( 相和大曲 Composite Harmonious Music)
Xianghe’ge ( 相和歌 literary translation as “harmonious song”, a kind of ancient art

song)
Xiangjiang ( 芗江 )
Xiangju ( 芗剧 Xiang River Opera)
Xiangju ( 湘剧 Hunan Opera)
Xianglian’pei ( 香莲佩 The Story of Wei Jiangxiao)
Xianglin’sao ( 祥林嫂 Madam Xianglin)
Xiangluo’dai ( 香罗带 Strap Made of Fragrant Grosgrain)
Xiangmo ( 祥莫 a kind of folk dance of Achang people)
Xiangshan Shegu ( 香山射鼓 Shooting Drum at Xiangshan Mountain)
Xiangsheng ( 相声 Crosstalks)
Xianguan ( 弦管 Strings Pipe)
Xiangwang Baizhen ( 项王败阵 Warlord Xiang Yu Being Defeated)
Xiangzi Chujia ( 湘子出家 Xiangzi Becoming a Taoist Monk)
Xianhua’diao ( 鲜花调 Flower Melody)
Xianhua’diao ( 鲜花调 Flower Tune)
Xianjing Song ( 献经歌 song offered to past singing masters)
Xianlu’gong ( 仙吕宫 Xianlu as First Degree)
Xianshi’yue ( 弦诗乐 String Poem Music)
Xianshui Yan ( 仙水岩 )
Xiansuo ( 弦索 Strings, indicating “Stringed Ensembles”)
Xiansuo Beikao ( 弦索备考 Memorable Scores for String Ensemble)
Xiansuo Shisan’tao ( 弦索十三套 Thirteen Suites for String Ensemble)
Xiansuo’qiang ( 弦索腔 String Tune Pattern)
Xiansuo’yue ( 弦索乐 Strings Music)
Xiantao ( 弦鼗 Tao drum with strings attached)
Xianxia’qiang (Xianxia Tune 弦下腔 )
Xianzi ( 弦子 string instrument)
Xianzi Dance (Xianzi’wu 弦子舞 )
Xiao Baima ( 小白马 A Small White Horse)
Xiao Bangzi’diao( 小梆子调 Small Bangzi Melodic Style )
Xiao Bili ( 小荜篥 )
Xiao Caiwu ( 小彩舞 )
Xiao Chaqu ( 小岔曲 Small Chaqu Songs)
Xiao Dangui ( 筱丹桂 )
Xiao Fang’fengzheng ( 小放风筝 Little Flying Kite)
Xiao Fanzi’diao ( 小凡子调 )
Xiao He Chasing Han Xin Under the Moonlight ( 萧何月下追韩信 )
Xiao Hujia’ming ( 小胡笳鸣 The Sound of Small Hujia Flute)
Xiao Luan ( 萧鸾 )
Xiao Mingyan ( 萧铭炎 )
Xiao Paizi’qu ( 小牌子曲 Small Labelled Tunes)
Xiao Yangchun ( 小阳春 Small Early Spring)
Xiao Yangdiao ( 小阳调 Small Masculine Style)

Xiao, Ren, Chen, Er ( 小人辰儿 )
Xiao, Yan, Qian, Er ( 小言前儿 )
Xiao;erfan ( 小二番 Two Small Variations)
Xiao’beidiao ( 小悲调 Small Sad Tune)
Xiao’bushanr ( 小布衫儿 Small Cotton Robe)
Xiao’fangche ( 小纺车 A Small Spinning Wheel)
Xiao’fanglyu ( 小放驴 Small Fanglyu)
Xiao’fangniu ( 小放牛 A Little Cowherd)
Xiao’heilu ( 小黑驴 Little Black Donkey, a singing technique)
Xiao’hengchui ( 小横吹 Small horizontal flute)
Xiao’huachang ( 小花场 Little Flower Show)
Xiao’huayan ( 小华严 )
Xiao’huixiang ( 小茴香 Fennels)
Xiao’hujia ( 小胡笳 Small Double-reed Flute)
Xiao’huolang ( 小货郎 A Young Pedlar, Shandong field dance)
Xiao’jiaoluo (or Geda gong 疙瘩锣 )
Xiao’jinqian ( 小金钱 Small Golden Coin)3
Xiao’kaimen ( 小开门 Opening a Small Gate),
Xiao’mofang ( 小磨房 Small Millhouse)
Xiao’ou Tiange ( 小欧天歌 Singing the Sky Song Softly)
Xiao’zhaoyang ( 小朝阳 A Soft Sunny Morning)
Xiaobai’men ( 小拜门 Small Paying Respect)
Xiaoban ( 嚣板 Off Downbeat)
Xiaobei ( 小倍 Small Doubled)
Xiaochang ( 小场 Small Dancing Scene)
Xiaoche ( 小车 Small Rickshaw)
Xiaoche ( 小车 Small Rickshaw)
Xiaoche’wu ( 小车舞 Small Rickshaw Dance)
Xiaochou ( 小丑 Small Clown)
Xiaocuo ( 小搓 )
Xiaodan ( 小旦 Yong Female)
Xiaodiao ( 小调 Ditties)
Xiaodiao Quzi ( 小调曲子 Small tunes)
Xiaoerhei Jiehun ( 小二黑结婚 Xiaoerhei Getting Married)
Xiaoge ( 小歌 Short Song)
Xiaoge’ban ( 小歌班 Little Singing Troupe)
Xiaoge’qiang ( 小歌腔 The Tune of Short Song)
Xiaogong ( 小工 Plagal mode)
Xiaogu Jiazi ( 小鼓架子 Small Drum Rack)
Xiaoguafu Shangfen ( 小寡妇上坟 Young Window Visiting Grave)
Xiaohua’lian or Erhua’lian ( 小花脸 , 二花脸 Small Coloured Face, or Second
Coloured Face)
Xiaojia ( 小加 Adding a little)

Xiaokou Laozi ( 小口落子 Small Gate Lotus Tune)
Xiaoma Yulang ( 小骂玉郎 Gently Scolding the Jade Boy)
Xiaomeng Tiying ( 晓梦啼莺 Awaken from a Dream by Nightingale)
Xiaomian ( 小面 Small Painted Face, or Chou 丑 Clown)
Xiaoqu ( 小曲 Ditties, for folk songs)
Xiaoqu ( 小曲 Small Tunes, for instrumental pieces)
Xiaoqu Zuochang ( 小曲坐唱 Small Narrative Tunes Performed while Seated)
Xiaosheng ( 小生 Young Male Role)
Xiaoshi’diao ( 小石调 Xiaoshi Mode)
Xiaoshu ( 小书 Short Storytelling)
Xiaosi’duan ( 小四段 Short Four Sections)
Xiaotang’er Luandian’bing ( 小唐儿乱点兵 Xiaotanger Committed a Wrong Military
Strategy)
Xiaotao’hong ( 小桃红 A Little Red Peach)
Xiaowu’fan ( 小五番 Small Five Variations)
Xiaoxiang Shuiyun ( 潇湘水云 Mists and Clouds over Dongting Lake)
Xiaoxiang Yeyu ( 潇湘夜雨 Night Rain at Xiaoxiang Guan)
Xiaoyin ( 箫音 Vertical bamboo flute sound)
Xiaoyuan Chunhui ( 晓苑春回 Spring Returning to the Garden)
Xiaozhan ( 小战 Small-scale Battle)
Xiapoli Gunhetao ( 厦坡里滚核桃 Walnuts Rolling Down the Hill)
Xiashan ( 下山 Descending the Mountain)
Xiashou Suona ( 下手唢呐 Lower-hand player)
Xiasi’guan ( 下四管 Low Pipe)
Xiasi’guan ( 下四管 Lower Four Pipes)
Xiawu’yin ( 下五音 Five Lower Notes)
Xiaxi’feng ( 下西风 Wind Blowing from West)
Xiazhun ( 下准 near the ninth and tenth Hui of Qin)
Xiazi Guandeng ( 瞎子观灯 The Blind Watching Lanterns)
Xicheng’diao ( 西城调 Western City Tune)
Xidi ( 锡笛 small Suona)
Xidiao ( 西调 Western Tunes)
Xidiao Huanglidiao Jichao ( 西调黄鹂调集钞 Collection of Yellow Warbler Tunes
from Western Area)
Xidiao’xuan ( 西调选 Selection of Western Tunes)
Xie ( 谐 Dance)
Xiezhi Rushenshan ( 卸职入深山 Retreating into the Mountain after Retirement)
Xifang’zang ( 西方藏 Buddhist works from the West)
Xifu’diao ( 西府调 Tune of Western Prefectory)
Xige’tan ( 西河滩 Bank of West River)
Xihe Dagu ( 西河大鼓 Big Drum Song of Western River)
Xijiang’yue ( 西江月 The Moon of West River)
Xijing Zaji ( 西京杂记 Miscellany of the Western Capital)

Xiju ( 锡剧 Wuxi opera)
Xikai’lian ( 喜开镰 Happy Harvest)
Xikai’lian ( 喜开镰 Starting a New Beat)
Xike’ban ( 戏客班 Group of Local Opera)
Xilang’yin ( 喜浪音 Sound of Happy Waves)
Xiliang’yue Music ( 西凉乐 Music from Xiliang)
Xilou’ji ( 西楼记 Story of West Pavillion)
Xilutang Qintong ( 西蔍堂琴统 Music Scores for the Qin from Xilutang)
Ximen ( 西门 Western Gate)
Xin Fengxia ( 新凤霞 )
Xin Mulanci ( 新木兰辞 The New Mulan Ballad)
Xin’kaiban ( 新开板 New Opening Beat)
Xin’nongcunr ( 新农村儿 New Village)
Xincheng’xi ( 新城戏 Xincheng Opera, popular in Jilin)
Xindiao Bacao ( 新调八操 Eight Variations on New Tunes)
Xinfa Milyu ( 新法密律 New Method of Closely Knitted Pitches, or Theory of Equal
Temperament)
Xinfan Yudiao ( 新翻羽调 New Variations on Yu Mode)
Xing ( 兴 Expression)
Xingan Bosui ( 心肝拨碎 Worries from Heart)
Xingchuan’ge ( 行船歌 Boating Song)
Xinghua’ying ( 杏花营 Xinghuaying Township)
Xingjie ( 行街 Walking on Street)
Xingjie Sihe ( 行街四合 Suite of Four Pieces “Walking on Street”)
Xingli’juanr ( 行李卷儿 Cotton-padded quilt roll)
Xingyue ( 行乐 Procession Music)
Xingzhuang Taiyin Buyi ( 杏庄太音补遗 An Addendum to the Supreme Tone by
Xingzhuang)
Xinjiang Xianzhi ( 绛州县志 Ethnography of Xinjiang County)
Xinkanr ( 心坎儿 Heart)
Xinnian Zhayong Chao ( 新年杂咏抄 Records of Miscellaneous Poems on Spring
Festival)
Xinsheng Ershiba’jie ( 新声二十八解 Twenty-eight Variations of New Sounds)
Xinshui’ling ( 新水令 Fresh Water Song)
Xintian’you ( 信天游 Floating in the Sky)
Xinzhe ( 新浙 )
Xipai ( 细排 Refined ordering )
Xipi ( 西皮 “West Skin”, a melodic type in Beijing Opera)
Xipi Two-Six (Xipi Erliu 西皮二六 Erliu Beat of Xipi)
Xiqi ( 息气 Percussion Instrument)
Xiqiang ( 戏腔 Operatic Melodies)
Xiqin (West Shaanxi) Tune (Xiqin’qiang 西秦腔 )
Xiqin ( 奚琴 two-stringed fiddle)

Xiqin’qiang ( 西秦腔 Xiqin Tune Pattern, Melodies from West Qin area)
Xiqing ( 喜庆 Celebrations )
Xiqu ( 西曲 Western Tunes)
Xiqu ( 戏曲 Opera)
Xique Luomei ( 喜鹊落梅 Magpie Landing on a Plum Blossom)
Xishan ( 西山 Western Gate)
Xishan Qinkuang ( 溪山琴况 Artistic Conception of Xishan for the Qin)
Xishang Wanxia Changbieli ( 西山晚霞唱别离 Parting as the Sun Sets on Western
Mountain)
Xisheng ( 希声 Rare sounds)
Xishi ( 西施 Ancient Beauty Xishi)
Xiu Denglong ( 绣灯笼 Embroidering a Lantern)
Xiu Huadeng ( 绣花灯 Embroidering Colourful Lantern)
Xiu Jinbian ( 绣金匾 Making a Golden Inscribed Plate)1
Xiu’hebao ( 绣荷包 Embroidering a Small Pouch)
Xiu’hebao Diao ( 绣荷包调 Embroidering a Small Pouch Melody)
Xiu’hongxie ( 绣红鞋 Embroidering Red Shoes)
Xiucai Guogou ( 秀才过沟 A Scholar Crossing the Ditch)
Xiuji and Yinmei ( 秀吉和银妹 )
Xiuqiu ( 绣球 Embroidered Ball)
Xiuru’ji ( 绣襦记 Story of a Scholar and Geisha)
Xiuying ( 秀英 The Girl Xiuying)
Xixiang’ji ( 西厢记 The West Chamber)
Xixiang’ji Zhugong’diao ( 西厢记诸宫调 Dream of West Chamber Zhugong Diao)
Xixiang’shan ( 西厢扇 The Fan of West Chamber)
Xiyang Xiaogu ( 夕阳箫鼓 Sounds of Vertical Flute and Drum at Moonlit Night)
Xiyue ( 细乐 Small gong, also called Yuezi 乐子 or Diaodangzi 吊铛子 )
Xizou’ma ( 细走马 Running of a Fine Horse)
Xu (Yunzhi 徐云志 ) Style
Xu ( 须 Middle-Aged Male Character)
Xu ( 虚 Empty)
Xu Ce Paocheng ( 徐策跑城 Xu Ce Running Around the City Wall)
Xu Changyu ( 徐常遇 )
Xu Dachun ( 徐大椿 )
Xu Hong ( 徐谼 )
Xu Jichuan ( 许姬传 )
Xu Jinping’mei ( 续金瓶梅 A Sequel to the Plum in the Golden Vase)
Xu Lanyuan ( 徐兰沅 )
Xu Lisun ( 徐立荪 )
Xu Lixian ( 徐丽仙 )
Xu Qi ( 徐祺 )
Xu Shangying ( 徐上瀛 )
Xu Shangzhen ( 徐上珍 )
Xu Shen ( 许慎 )
Xu Sheng ( 续僧 )
Xu Tianhong ( 徐天红 )
Xu Wei ( 徐渭 Ming Dynasty)
Xu Xian ( 许仙 )
Xu Xiaoxiang ( 徐小香 )
Xu Yuezhuang ( 徐悦庄 )
Xu Yulan ( 徐玉兰 )
Xu Zheng ( 徐整 )
Xu Zichang ( 许自昌 )
Xuanjuan ( 宣卷 Reciting Buddhist Scriptures)
Xuanxuan Chugu ( 玄玄锄谷 Hoeing Wrong Land)
Xuanzi ( 旋子 or Daidai 呆呆 )
Xuanzi’wu ( 弦子舞 String Dance)
Xue Jinyan ( 薛近兖 )
Xue Li’s Expedition to the East (Xue Li Zhengdong 薛礼征东 )
Xue Li’s Expedition to the West (Xue Li Zhengxi 薛礼征西 )
Xue Xiaoqing ( 薛筱卿 )
Xue Yijian ( 薛易简 active in Tang Period of mid-Tianbao)
Xuelei’chou ( 血泪仇 Blood and Tears)
Xueyong Languan ( 雪拥蓝关 Falling Snow in the Pass)
Xueyong Nanguan ( 雪拥蓝关 Snowstorm at Languan Pass)
Xugun ( 序滚 Prelude Piling Phrases)
Xujie ( 虚介 )
Xulai ( 虚籁 Unreal Eternity)
Xumu Macao ( 徐母骂曹 Xu Shu’s Mother Condemning Cao Cao)
Xun ( 埙 Clay flute)
Xun Huisheng ( 荀慧生 )
Xunma’shou ( 驯马手 Horse Trainer)
Xunmeng ( 寻梦 Finding the Lover in a Dream)
Xunqin ( 寻亲 Looking for Relatives)
Xunyang Pipa ( 浔阳琵琶 Pipa of Xunyang)
Xunzi Daohui ( 训子 - 刀会 “Addressing a Son” in Meeting of Martial Personnel)
Xuxian’zhuan ( 续仙传 A Sequel to the Story of Eight Immortals)
Y
Yabu ( 雅部 Refined Section of Music Bureau, for Kunqu Opera)
Yaci ( 涯词 Elegant Words)
Yaer’yo ( 呀儿呦 Nonsense syllables)3
Yage’ji ( 雅歌集 Refined Music Society)
Yuelin Guoyue’she ( 乐林国乐社 National Music Organization)
Yan ( 言 Wind instrument)
Yan ( 艳 overture or introduction)

Yan Changming ( 严长明 )4
Yan Cheng ( 严澂 )
Yan Gefan ( 严箇凡）
Yan Haideng ( 阎海登 )
Yan Nanzhi’an ( 燕南芝庵 )
Yan Qingxu ( 严庆绪 )
Yan Qiuxia ( 阎秋霞 )
Yan Shaoyi ( 阎绍一 )
Yan/Qian ( 言前 )
Yaner’luo ( 雁儿落 The Wild Geese Alighting)
Yang Dajun ( 杨大钧 )
Yang Fanghong( 杨芳红 )
Yang Guangwen ( 杨广文 )
Yang Guozhong ( 杨国忠 )
Yang Jiaming ( 杨加明 )
Yang Juwu ( 杨继武 )
Yang Maoguo ( 杨懋过 )
Yang Nailin ( 杨乃林 )
Yang Naiwu and Xiao Baicai ( 杨乃武与小白菜 )
Yang Paifeng ( 杨排风 The Girl Yang Paifeng)
Yang Renlin ( 杨仁麟 )
Yang Sanjie Filing a Lawsuit (Yang Sanjie Gaozhuang 杨三姐告状 )
Yang Shen ( 杨慎 )
Yang Tune (Yangdiao 阳调 )
Yang Wanli ( 杨万里 )
Yang Weizhen ( 杨维桢 )
Yang Xiaoduo ( 杨小朵 )
Yang Xiaolou ( 杨小楼 )
Yang Xiaoting ( 杨小亭 )
Yang Xingcha ( 杨星槎 )
Yang Xinlun ( 杨新伦 )
Yang Yinliu ( 杨荫浏 )
Yang Yuanheng ( 杨元亨 )
Yang Yuecha ( 杨月槎 )
Yang Yuhuan ( 杨玉环 )
Yang Zhengxuan Pipa’pu ( 养正轩琵琶谱 The Musical Score for Pipa by Yang
Zhengxuan)
Yang Zhenxiong ( 杨振雄 )
Yang Zhilie ( 杨志烈 )
Yang Zongji ( 杨宗稷 )
Yang Zuan’s ( 杨缵 )
Yang’haozi ( 秧号子 Field Working Songs in Anhui, Jiangsu)
Yangban ( 让板 Advance Beat)

Yangchun ( 阳春 Early Spring)
Yangchun Baixue ( 阳春白雪 Snow in Early Spring)
Yangchun Guqu ( 阳春古曲 Ancient Song of Early Spring)
Yanggao ( 阳告 Complaining to the God of underworld at Sea God Temple)
Yangge ( 秧歌 Field Dance)
Yangge ( 秧歌 Field Songs in Anhui, used in Chapter I)
Yangge’wu ( 秧歌舞 Field Dance)
Yangge’xi ( 秧歌戏 Field Dance Drama)
Yanggu’diao ( 秧鼓调 Harvest Drum Tune)
Yangguan Sandie ( 阳关三叠 Three Variations on Yangguan Gate)
Yanglao’qu ( 秧佬曲 Male Harvest Song)
Yangping’guan ( 阳平关 Yangping Pass)
Yangqin ( 扬琴 Dulcimer)
Yanguo Nanlou ( 雁过南楼 Geese Flying Over Southern Tower)
Yangxie ( 羊獬 , a village）
Yangzhengxuan Pipa’pu ( 养正轩琵琶谱 The Score for Pipa by Yangzhengxuan)
Yangzhou Huafang’lu ( 扬州画舫录 Collection of Painted Leisure Boats in Yangzhou)
Yangzhou Qingqu ( 扬州清曲 Pure Songs from Yangzhou)
Yangzhou Tanci ( 扬州弹词 Plucking Words from Yangzhou)
Yangzhou Xiaodiao ( 扬州小调 Yangzhou Ditties)
Yanhe’wu ( 烟盒舞 Tobacco Box Dance)
Yanjiu Zhuzhi’ci ( 燕九竹枝词 Yanjiu Bamboo Branch Verses)
Yanlan Xiaopu ( 燕兰小谱 Yanlan Music Scores)
Yanli ( 燕礼 Dining Ceremony)
Yanyang’lou ( 艳阳楼 The Sunny Mansion)
Yanyue Daqu ( 燕乐大曲 Composite Court Entertaining Music)
Yanyue Kaoyuan ( 燕乐考源 Research on the Origin of the Yanyue Music)
Yanyue mode ( 燕乐 also known as ancient scale, with the fourth degree raised)
Yanyue Music ( 燕乐 Ancient Court Entertaining Music)
Yanzhao Beige ( 燕赵悲歌 Sad Song of Yan and Zhao States)
Yanzi’jian ( 燕子笺 Love Story of Huo Duliang and a Prostitute Hua Xingyun)
Yao Daifu ( 药大夫 Doctor of Medicine)
Yao drum ( 腰鼓 Waist Drum)
Yao Long-drum Dance (Yaozu Changgu’wu 瑶族长鼓舞 )
Yao Shizhang ( 姚士章 )
Yao Shuijuan ( 姚水娟 )4
Yao Xian ( 曜仙）
Yao Xie ( 姚燮 1805–1864)
Yao Yuzhang ( 姚豫章 )
Yaoban ( 腰板 Waist Beat)
Yaoban ( 摇板 Rocking Beat 1/4)
Yaodan ( 摇旦 Vicious Female Role)
Yaojie ( 腰截 Waist Sections)

Yaomen’shuan ( 摇门栓 Rolling the Door Latch)
Yaoqu ( 谣曲 Ballad)
Yaotiao ( 窈窕 Beautiful Body)
Yaozi Fanshen ( 鹞子翻身 Harrier Turning Its Body)
Yaqiang ( 丫腔 )
Yashan’ai ( 崖山哀 Sorrows of Yashan Mountain)
Yashang ( 压上 Pressing one pitch)
Yaya’you ( 呀呀呦 Onomatopoeia)
Yayue ( 雅乐 Ceremonial Music)
Yazheng ( 轧筝 zither)
Yazi Banzui ( 鸭子拌嘴 Quarrels between Two Ducks)
Yazi Pushui ( 鸭子扑水 Ducks Playing with Water)
Ye Shengyang ( 叶声扬 )
Yeben ( 夜奔 Escaping at Night)
Yeh ( 耶 )
Yehanzuo and Maonongyang ( 叶罕佐与冒弄央 )
Yehu ( 椰胡 a type of Banhu)
Yelu Xianhua ( 野鹿衔花 Wild Deer Biting Flowers)
Yeqiao’xian ( 椰壳弦 )
Yequ ( 野曲 Wild Tune)
Yezhu’lin ( 野猪林 The Rescue in Wild Boar Forest)
Yi ( 宜 )
Yi Jianquan ( 易剑泉 )
Yi Jiayi ( 易加义 )
Yi Kaixian ( 伊开先 )
Yi Ke ( 易柯 )
Yi’guren ( 忆故人 Memories of an Old Friend)
Yiban Sanyan ( 一板三眼 One downbeat and three upbeats)
Yichuan’ling ( 一串铃 A Cluster of Bells)
Yicuo’qiang ( 一撮腔 A Group of Melodies)
Yidiao ( 移调 Transpositions)
Yidiao Zhifa Bianzou ( 移调指法变奏 Variations through change of fingering)
Yiding Yaoba Huihe Xiuhao ( 一定要把淮河修好 We Must Harness the Huaihe River)
Yifanxian mode ( 乙反线 fa is played as ↑ fa, and si as ↓ si)
Yifeng’shu ( 一封书 A letter)
Yigong Dingxing ( 依宫定性 Character Accoding to Mode)
Yihe’ru ( 咿嗬茹 )
Yihuang ( 宜黄 )
Yijian’chou ( 一箭仇 Revenge)
Yijian’mei ( 一剪梅 A Blue Blossom)
Yilahui ( 依拉恢 a kind Dai people’s folk dance popular in Xishuang Banna)
Yili Guchui’yue ( 伊犁鼓吹乐 Wind-and-Drum Music in Yili, in Xinjiang)
Yimakan ( 依玛堪 )
Yin ( 吟 recital)
Yin ( 吟 Small scale vibrato, used in Chapter V)
Yin Erwen ( 尹二文 )
Yin Guifang ( 尹桂芳 )
Yin Zichong ( 尹自重 )
Yin’duozi ( 阴垛子 Feminine Duozi)
Yin’e Beixiang’diao ( 吟哦北乡调 Northern Reciting Style Tune)
Yin’e Diao ( 吟哦调 Reciting)
Yin’e Nanxiang’diao ( 吟哦南乡调 Southern Reciting Style Tune)
Yinchang’diao ( 吟唱调 Chanting Tune)
Yindie Duanqiao ( 阴叠断桥 Feminine Overlapping Broken Bridges)
Ying Gu ( 应鼓 Answering Drum)
Ying Sandi’shui ( 硬三滴水 Hard Version of “Three Drops of Water”)
Yingdelema ( 英德勒玛 )
Yingdiao Tune Pattern ( 影调 Shadow Puppetry Tune)
Yingge’liu ( 莺歌柳 Willow with Birds Singing, a popular tune during the 19th
century)
Yinggong ( 硬弓 Hard bow)
Yinggu ( 营鼓 Camp Drum)
Yingma’xi ( 硬码戏 Hard Opera)
Yingshao ( 应劭）
Yingxian ( 硬线 Hard strings)
Yingying Baiyue ( 莺莺拜月 Cui Yingying Worshipping the Moon)
Yingzhong ( 应钟 )
Yingzhou Gudiao ( 赢州古调 Ancient Tunes from Yingzhou)
Yinhe’hui ( 银河会 Meeting at Galaxy)
Yinjiao’si ( 银绞丝 same meaning as “Silver Thread”)
Yinling ( 引令 Song of Introduction)
Yinluo gong ( 开口叫 Kaikou’jiao)
Yinniu’si ( 银纽丝 Silver Thread)
Yinniu’si ( 银钮丝 Threading the Silver String)
Yinniu’si Diao ( 银纽丝调 Silver Thread Melody)
Yinsong’diao ( 吟诵调 Speech Songs)
Yinyang Bagua ( 阴阳八卦 Yin and Yang Hexagrams)
Yinyue Chuanxi’suo ( 音乐传习所 Music Institute of Beijing University)
Yinyue Zazhi ( 音乐杂志 Music Magazine)
Yinzhong’niao ( 荫中鸟 Birds in Woods)
Yinzi Bili ( 银子荜篥 Silver Bili)
Yinzi’er ( 银子儿 Silver Money)
Yipeng’xue ( 一捧雪 A Handful of Snow)
Yipin’zhong ( 一品忠 The Story of Fang Xiaoru)
Yisuzi Pipa’pu ( 一素子琵琶谱 Pipa Score edited by Yisuzi, 1762)
Yisuzi Pipa’pu ( 一素子琵琶谱 Pipa Score of Yisuzi)

Yitiao’long ( 一条龙 A Dragon)
Yiwo’lang ( 忆我郎 Missing My Lover)
Yiwu Daoqing ( 义乌 )
Yixia’ji ( 义侠记 Chivalry Story)
Yixian Zhifa Bianzou ( 移弦指法变奏 Variations through change of string)
Yiyang’qiang ( 弋阳腔 Melodic Type of Yiyang)
Yiyin ( 倚音 Appogiatura)
Yiyue ( 夷乐 foreign music)
Yiyun Busheng ( 以韵补声 Using rhyme to supplement pitches)
Yize ( 夷则 )
Yizheng Suishi’ji ( 仪征岁时记 Seasonal Records of Yizheng)
Yizhi ( 一纸 A Piece of Paper)
Yizhi’hua ( 一枝花 A Flower)
Yizhou’ling ( 伊州令 Yizhou Song)
Yizi ( 一字 One Word, one strong beat and three weak beats or 4/4 metre)
Yizi’yu ( 一字狱 Execution for One Character)
Yizu Wuqu ( 彝族舞曲 Dance of the Yi People)
Yong Hehua ( 咏荷花 Ode to Lotus Blossoms)
Yong Maba ( 咏喇叭 Praising the Laba Horn)
Yongjia Zaju ( 永嘉杂剧 Miscellaneous Performances of Yongjia)
Yongju ( 甬剧 Ningbo Yongju Opera, Zhejiang)
Yongyuan Huozai Renxin ( 永远活在人心 Living Forever in the Hearts of the
People)3
You ( 优 Performer)
Youcheng ( 游城 Tour of City)3
Yougui’ji ( 幽闺记 Story of Fair Maiden)
Youhui Jidi ( 游回基地 Swimming Back to the Base)
Youju ( 幽居 A Secluded Life)
Younong ( 游弄 middle registers of Qin zither)
Youth Tune (Qingnian’diao 青年调 )
Youvhun ( 游春 Spring Outing)
Youye ( 优叶 )
Youyi ( 游移 Wobble)
Youyuan Jingmeng ( 游园·惊梦 “Romantic Dream in Garden” in “Walking the
Garden”)
Youyushi ( 有虞氏 )
Yu ( 敔 wooden tiger with 27 indentions on back)
Yu Boya Shuaiqin ( 俞伯牙摔琴 Yu Boya Smashing the Zither)3
Yu Huai ( 余怀 )
Yu Sansheng ( 余三胜 )
Yu Sulu ( 俞粟庐 )
Yu Xiushan ( 俞秀山 )
Yu Xunfa ( 俞逊发 )
Yu Zhenfei ( 俞振飞 )
Yu Ziyun ( 余紫云 )
Yu’elang ( 玉娥郎 A Handsome Man)
Yu’lianhuan ( 玉连环 A Jade Chain)
Yu’qingting ( 玉蜻蜓 Jade Dragonflies)
Yuan ( 圆 mellow)
Yuan Jingfang ( 袁静芳 )
Yuan Weiizhi Cui Yingying Shangdiao Dielian’hua ( 元微之崔莺莺商调蝶恋花 Story
of Cui Yingying sung with melody “Butterfly Loves Flower” in Shang mode)
Yuan Xuefen ( 袁雪芬 )
Yuan Ye ( 原野 )
Yuan Yuling ( 袁于令 )
Yuan Zaju ( 元杂剧 Miscellaneous Plays of Yuan Dynasty)
Yuan Ziwen ( 袁子文 )
Yuanban ( 原板 Original Metrical Pattern)
Yuanfang’de Keren Qingni Tingxialai ( 远方的客人请你停下来 Guests Coming afar
Please Stay
Yuanlin’hao ( 园林好 Beautiful Garden)
Yuanmen Zhanzi ( 辕门斩子 General Yang Liulang Executes His Son)
Yuantao ( 园桃 Peach Garden)
Yubao’du ( 玉抱肚 Jade Around Belly)
Yubao’tou ( 雨包头 Rain Beating Head)
Yuboya Tanqin ( 俞伯牙弹琴 Yu Boya Playing the Zither)
Yuchang’jian ( 鱼肠剑 Sword of Fish Intestine)
Yuda Bajiao ( 雨打芭蕉 Rain Beating on the Plantain Leaves)
Yudiao ( 羽调 Yu Mode)4
Yudiao ( 豫调 The Tune of Henan)
Yudong ( 豫东 East Henan)
Yudong’diao ( 豫东调 Tune of East Shandong)
Yue ( 籥 Ancient flute)
Yue Fei ( 岳飞 )
Yue gong ( 月锣）
Yue Meiti ( 岳美缇 )
Yue Mingzhu ( 月明珠 )
Yue’ergao ( 月儿高 The Moon on High)
Yue’ou ( 粤讴 Guangdong Songs)3
Yueban ( 悦般 an old state located in current Kazakstan)
Yuediao ( 月调 Moon Tune)
Yuediao mode（越调 intoxicating and lyrical）
Yuediao Tune Pattern (Yuediao’qiang 越调腔 )
Yuefu ( 乐府 Music Bureau)
Yuefu Chuansheng ( 乐府传声 Legacy of Music Bureau)
Yuefu Shiji ( 乐府诗集 Poetry Collection of the Music Bureau)

Yuefu Zalu ( 乐府杂录 Miscellaneous Records from Music Bureau)
Yuehe Yinyue’hui ( 云和音乐会 Clouds and Harmonic Music Society)
Yuehu ( 粤胡 Two-stringed fiddle used in Guangdong)
Yuehu Fiddle ( 越胡 )
Yuehu System ( 乐户 Music Family, a system of registering musicians)
Yueji ( 乐记 Music Records)
Yuejia’zhuang ( 岳家庄 Yue Village)
Yuejin Weifeng Luogu ( 跃进威风锣鼓 Leap Forward Weifeng Luogu)
Yueju ( 越剧 Yue Opera in Zhejiang and Shanghai)
Yueju ( 粤剧 Cantonese Opera)
Yuelyu ( 乐律 Music Principles)
Yuelyu Quanshu ( 乐律全书 A Comprehensive Book on Musical Temperament)
Yueqin ( 月琴 Two- or Four-stringed Moon Lute)
Yuequ’xi 乐曲系 (Vocal Category)
Yueshu ( 乐书 Book of Music)
Yuesu Saomu ( 越俗扫墓 Yue People’s Customs of Visiting Grave)
Yuezhong ( 乐种 Music Genre)
Yuezhong in Sunan Chuida ( 苏南吹打 Wind and Percussion Ensemble in South
Jiangsu)
Yufei’yin ( 玉妃引 The Song of a Jade Lady)
Yufu ( 渔夫 Old Fisherman)
Yuge ( 渔歌 Fishing Song)
Yugong Yishan ( 愚公移山 The Foolish Old Man Removing the Mountains) 3
Yugu ( 渔鼓 Fish Drum)
Yugu Daoqing ( 渔鼓道情 Taoist Expressions Accompanied by Fish Drum)3
Yugu’ci ( 渔鼓词 Fish Drum Songs)
Yugu’zhui ( 渔鼓坠 Zhuizi with Fish Drum)
Yuhe’ba ( 鱼合八 Equals to Eight)
Yuhou Longpao ( 遇后龙袍 Encountering the Empress and Beating the Imperial
Robe) 4
Yujia’le ( 渔家乐 Happiness of a Fishing Family)
Yujia’xue ( 雨夹雪 Rain Mixed with Snow)
Yuju ( 豫剧 Yu Opera, or Henan Opera, or Clapper Opera of Henan)
Yule Shengping ( 娱乐昇平 Happiness in Peace and Tranquility)
Yulin (Guangxi) Tea-picking Songs and Dances (Yulin Caicha 玉林采茶 )
Yulin Xiaoqu ( 榆林小曲 Ditties of Yulin, Shaanxi)
Yulin Yehua ( 雨林夜话 Evening Talks in Rainy Woods)
Yumei’ren ( 虞美人 Beautiful Lady Yu)
Yun Zhigao ( 云志高 )
Yunao ( 云敖 Set of Gongs)
Yunbai ( 韵白 Rhymed Speech)
Yunli’mo ( 云里摸 Touching Clouds)
Yunmen Dajuan ( 云门大卷 Extended Suite of Sky Gate)

Yunnan Dongjing ( 云南洞经 Dongjing Ritual Performance of Yunnan)
Yunqing ( 云庆 Coming to Celebrate)
Yunshao Faqu ( 云韶法曲 Clouding Buddhist Music)
Yunsu’diao ( 云苏调 Yunsu Tune)
Yunyang’ban ( 云阳板 Clouds Beat)
Yunzhong Yinsong ( 云中音诵 Recitation in the Clouds)
Yuqiao Wenda ( 渔樵问答 Conversation between a Fisherman and Woodcutter)
Yuqiao’ji ( 渔樵记 Story of a Fisherman and Forrester)
Yuqing ( 玉磬 Jade Stone)
Yusan’zhe ( 雨伞遮 Taking Shelter Under an Umbrella)
Yushan Branch, or Yushan School ( 虞山派 )
Yushu Houting’hua ( 玉树后庭花 Jade Tree and Backside Garden)
Yutang’chun ( 玉堂春 The Story of Su San)
Yutian ( 玉田 )
Yuyan’chai ( 玉燕钗 The Jade Swallow Hairpin)
Yuyao Yangke’ban ( 余姚秧歌班 Planting Song Troupe of Yuyao)
Yuyao’qiang ( 余姚腔 Yuyao Melodic Type)
Yuyao’wei ( 鱼咬尾 Fish Biting its Tail, that is, the last note of a phrase becomes the
beginning of the next)
Yuyou Chunshui ( 鱼游春水 Fish Swimming in Spring Water)
Yuzan’ji ( 玉簪记 The Tale of a Jade Hairpin)
Yuzhen Xunfu ( 玉贞寻夫 Yuzhen Looking for Her Husband)
Yuzhou Changwan ( 渔舟唱晚 Singing of Fishing Boat at Night)
Yuzhou’feng ( 宇宙锋 The Sword)
Yuzi ( 玉兹 blood tribe alliance)
Z
Za ( 杂 Miscellaneous)
Za’paizi ( 杂牌子 Miscellaneous Labelled Pieces)
Zadan ( 杂旦 Female Supporting Role)
Zage Huadiao ( 杂歌花调 Miscellaneous Flower Tunes)
Zahang ( 杂行 Mixed Role)
Zaibeng ( 宰蹦 a kind of folk tune of Pulang people that can also be used for dance)
Zaisheng’yuan ( 再生缘 Story of Next Life)
Zaiyang Haozi ( 栽秧号子 Transplanting Work Songs)
Zaizhong ( 宰种 a kind of Pulang people’s folk tune)
Zaju ( 杂剧 miscellaneous dramatic performances)
Zang Jinshu ( 臧晋叔 )
Zangchun’wu Qinpu ( 芷春坞琴谱 Music Scores for the Qin from Zangchunwu)
Zanha ( 赞哈 )
Zanian’zai ( 杂念仔 Varied Recitals)
Zanmen Xinjiang Haodifang ( 咱们新疆好地方 Xinjiang is a good place)
Zaobang ( 枣梆 Zaobang Clapper Opera, Shandong)

Zaochen ( 早晨 )
Zaqu ( 杂曲 Miscellaneous Songs)
Zasui’zai ( 杂碎仔 Varied Scattered Recitals)
Zemin ( 箦民 )
Zengshan ( 赠扇 A Gift Fan)
Zengti’pao ( 赠绨袍 The Robe of Peace)
Zha Fuxi ( 查阜西 )
Zhaicha ( 摘茶 Tea Picking)
Zhamei’an ( 铡美案 The Case of Chen Shimei)
Zhamnie ( 札木聂 Six-stringed Lute)
Zhan Jinshan ( 战金山 Battle at Jinshan)
Zhan Machao ( 战马超 Battle of Two Generals)
Zhan Wancheng ( 战宛城 Battle at Wancheng)
Zhan’changsha ( 战长沙 The Battle of Changsha)
Zhang (Jianting 张鉴庭 ) Style
Zhang Bowang ( 张博望 )
Zhang Changcheng ( 张长城 )
Zhang Chunhua ( 张纯华 )
Zhang Dafu（张大复）
Zhang Dai ( 张岱 )
Zhang Daoling ( 张道陵 )
Zhang Erkui ( 张二奎 )
Zhang Futian ( 张福田 )
Zhang Geng ( 张庚 )
Zhang Guifeng ( 张桂凤 )
Zhang Hu ( 张祜 )
Zhang Jianling ( 张健玲 )
Zhang Jianying ( 张剑颖 )
Zhang Jiongruo ( 张炯若 )
Zhang Jiqing ( 张继青 )
Zhang Kongshan ( 张孔山 )
Zhang Lun ( 张伦 )
Zhang Niansheng ( 张念胜 )
Zhang Qian ( 张骞 )
Zhang Tingxiu Taking the Imperial Examination (Zhang Tingsiu Gankao 张廷秀赶考 )
Zhang Weizhao ( 张为昭 )
Zhang Xiaoxuan ( 张晓轩 )
Zhang Xiong ( 张雄 )
Zhang Yan ( 张炎 )
Zhang Yan ( 张燕 )
Zhang Yichao Bianwen ( 张义潮变文 Story of Buddhist Text on Zhang Yichao)
Zhang Yingyi ( 张应易 )
Zhang Yubai ( 张玉柏 )

Zhang Yue ( 张越 )
Zhang Zi ( 张梓 )
Zhang Ziqian ( 张子谦
Zhang Zuolin ( 张作霖 )
Zhangfei Chuang’yuanmen ( 张飞闯辕门 Zhang Fei Fighting at the Military Gate)
Zhangfei Leigu ( 张飞擂鼓 Zhang Fei Playing Drum)
Zhanghui ( 章回 Chaptered)3’
Zhangqiu Bangzi ( 章丘梆子 Clapper Opera of Zhangqiu)4’
Zhangsan Guonian ( 张三过年 Zhangsan Celebrating the New Year)
Zhangzi’tou ( 杖子头 Stick Head Holder)
Zhao Bi ( 赵壁 )
Zhao Boping ( 赵伯平 )
Zhao Changyin ( 赵长印 )
Zhao Chunfeng ( 赵春峰 )
Zhao Chunting ( 赵春庭 )
Zhao Delin ( 赵德麟 )
Zhao Kuangyin Diaobing ( 赵匡胤调兵 Zhao Kuangyin Deploying Forces)
Zhao Ruquan ( 赵如泉 )
Zhao Songting ( 赵松庭 ),
Zhao Wuniang ( 赵五娘 )
Zhao Xiangzhou ( 赵湘舟 )
Zhao Yeli ( 赵耶利 )
Zhao Yuzhai ( 赵玉斋 )
Zhao Zhenxiao ( 赵震霄 )
Zhao’huatai ( 照花台 Shining on the Flower Bed)
Zhaojun Chusai ( 昭君出塞 Zhaojun Dispatching to the Frontier)
Zhaojun Hefan ( 昭君和番 Zhaojun Marrying a Foreign Prince to Make Peace)
Zhaojun’bian ( 昭君变 Bianwen of Zhaojun Story)
Zhaojun’yuan ( 昭君怨 Zhaojun’s Resentment)
Zhaoshutun ( 召树屯 )
Zhaoshutun and Nanmuruona ( 召树屯与喃诺娜 )
Zhaowuda ( 昭乌达盟 )
Zhaoyun Jiejiang ( 赵云截江 Zhao Yun Recovering Liu Shan in the River)
Zhe School, or Zhe Branch ( 浙派 )
Zhedong Luogu ( 浙东锣鼓 Wind-and-Percussion Music of Eastern Zhejiang
Province)
Zheduan’yao （折断腰 Breaking the Waist)
Zhefen ( 摺分 Index finger and thumb of right hand plucking strings together)
Zhega ( 折嘎 )
Zhegu’fei ( 鹧鸪飞 Partridge Flying)
Zhegu’qu ( 折鼓曲 Drum Music)
Zhegui’ling ( 折桂令 Song for Picking Scented Osmanthus)
Zhejiang Daoqing ( 浙江道情 Zhejiang Taoist Expressions)

Zhelimu ( 哲里木盟 )
Zhen’e Cihu ( 贞娥刺虎 Fei Zhen’e Assassinating Luo Hu)
Zheng Banqiao ( 郑板桥 ), or Zheng Kun ( 郑鹍 )
Zheng drum ( 正鼓 a kind of ancient drum)
Zheng Qidian ( 正七点 Original Seven-Beat Pattern)
Zheng Sheng ( 正生 Honourable Male Role)
Zhengban ( 正板 Authentic Beat) 4
Zhengcha Shili’hua ( 正茶十里花 Good Tea with Ten Li Flower)
Zhengdan or Qingyi ( 正旦 , 青衣 Principal Female Role, or Blue Cloth Female Role,
a character from a poor family)
Zhengdiao ( 正调 Authentic tuning)
Zhengdiao Tune ( 正调 or Beidiao Tune 北调 )
Zhengdiao Tune Pattern (Zhengdiao’qiang, 正调腔 , Principal Tune Pattern)
Zhenggong ( 正宫 Gong Mode)
Zhenggong ( 正宫 Authentic mode)
Zhenggong Biandiao ( 正宫变调 Altered authentic mode)
Zhenggong’qu ( 正宫曲 Music in Zhenggong Mode)
Zhengjing’hong ( 挣颈红 Red in Faces)
Zhengjing 正净 Authentic Jing Make-up)
Zhengnong ( 正调 Principal Mode)
Zhengpu County Annals (Zhengpu Xianzhi 蒸浦县志 )
Zhengyue Shiwu Huadeng’le ( 正月十五花灯乐 Music of Colourful Lantern Festival
in First Month)
Zhenyan ( 真言 Incarnation)
Zhenzhu Daojuan’lian ( 珍珠倒卷帘 Pearls Curtain Upside-Down)
Zhenzhu Ta ( 珍珠塔 The Pearl Pagoda)
Zhezhi’wu dance ( 柘枝舞 )
Zhi ( 指 Fingers)
Zhichao’fei ( 雉朝飞 The Bird Flying)
Zhihua Temple ( 智化寺 )
Zhijiu ( 置酒 Offering Wine)
Zhili Bangzi ( 直隶梆子 Bangzi Melody from Northeast)
Zhili Jiangzhou’zhi ( 直隶绛州志 Ethnography of Jiangzhou)
Zhitao ( 指套 Finger Suites)
Zhiwei’sheng ( 雉尾生 Young male character with two pleasant tails on his head, an
honourable man)
Zhong ( 钟 Bells)
Zhong Yi ( 钟仪 )
Zhong Ziqi ( 钟子期 )
Zhong’baota ( 重宝塔 Heavy Blessed Pagoda)
Zhong’liuban ( 中六板 Middle Speed “Six Beats”)
Zhong’sanliu ( 重三六 Pressed Three and Six)
Zhong’sanliu Diao ( 重三六 Pressed Three-six Mode, with fa and si in scale)

Zhongban ( 中板 Middle Beat or Original Beat 原板 )
Zhongbei ( 中倍 Middle Doubled)
Zhongduan ( 中段 Middle Section )
Zhong-Gu ( 钟鼓 Bells and Drums)
Zhonggun ( 中滚 Middle Piling Phrases)
Zhongguo Yayue’ji ( 中国雅乐集 Aggregates of Chinese Elegant Music)
Zhonghan Rhyme (Zhonghan’yun 中寒韵 a kind of local language tone)
Zhonghua Liuban ( 中花六板 Moderately Ornamented Six Beats)
Zhonghua Liuban ( 中六板 Medium Six Beats)
Zhongjun Guili ( 众军归里 All Soldiers Returning Home)
Zhongjun Zoukai ( 众军奏凯 Soldiers Celebrating Victory)
Zhongke ( 仲克 )3
Zhongli ( 重黎 )
Zhonglu ( 中吕 )
Zhonglu’gong ( 中吕宫 as Principal Degree)
Zhonglu’gong （中吕宫）
Zhongming ( 中鸣 Middle length horn）
Zhongmo ( 中末 Middle-aged Male)
Zhongni ( 仲尼 Confucius)
Zhongpan’gu ( 中盘鼓 Middle Drum)
Zhongqingnian Weifeng Luogu’dui ( 中青年威风锣鼓队 Young and Middle Aged
Weifeng Luogu Term)
Zhongsheng Cishan’she ( 钟声慈善社 Bell Sound Charity Organization)
Zhongxian ( 中弦 Middle string)
Zhongxu ( 中序 fast song and dance) 2
Zhongyuan Yinyun ( 中原音韵 Central China Phonology)
Zhongzhou Accents (Zhongzhou Yinyun 中州音韵 Central China Phonology)
Zhongzhou Gudiao ( 中州古调 Ancient tunes of Henan Province in Central China)
Zhongzhou School ( 中州派 School of Zhongzhou Zheng Zither)
Zhongzhun ( 中准 Near the seventh Hui of Qin)
Zhou Baocai ( 周宝才 )
Zhou Jiang Style ( 周蒋调 )
Zhou Mi ( 周密 )
Zhou Qingqing ( 周青青 )
Zhou Ren Sacrifying His Sister-in-Law (Zhouren Xiansao 周仁献嫂 )
Zhou Shaomei ( 周少梅）
Zhou Yibai ( 周贻白 )
Zhou Yuanding ( 周元鼎 )
Zhou Yunrui ( 周云瑞 )
Zhou Yuquan’s ( 周玉泉 )
Zhoujin’tang ( 昼锦堂 Brocaded Hall, Buddhist music)
Zhu ( 竹 Bamboo)
Zhu ( 柷 Ancient salter)

Zhu Huizhen ( 朱慧珍 )
Zhu Jianer ( 朱践耳 )
Zhu Jiesheng ( 朱介生 )
Zhu Qinfu ( 朱勤甫）
Zhu Quan ( 朱权 )
Zhu Quan ( 朱权 )
Zhu Shenglin ( 诸圣邻 )
Zhu Shuizhao ( 竺水招 )
Zhu Suchen ( 朱素臣 )
Zhu Xingqing ( 朱荇青 )
Zhu Xueqin ( 朱雪琴 )3
Zhu Yaosheng ( 朱耀笙 )
Zhu Yi ( 朱毅 )
Zhu Zaiyu ( 朱载堉 )
Zhu zither ( 筑 )
Zhu Zuochao ( 朱佐朝 )
Zhuan ( 赚 )
Zhuanchang ( 转场 interlude)
Zhuang ( 撞 Beating effect)
Zhuang Bee-drum Dance (Zhuangzu Fenggu’wu 壮族蜂鼓舞 )
Zhuangzi Tankulou Nanbei Ciqu ( 庄子叹骷髅南北词曲 Zhuangzi Exclaiming Over
a Skeleton in Southern and Northern Ci-Poetry)
Zhuban Pindiao（诸般品调 , Various Kinds of Tune Modes)
Zhuban’shu ( 竹板书 Storytelling with Clappers)
Zhucheng ( 诸城 )
Zhufu ( 祝福 Blessing)
Zhugan’zi ( 竹竿子 Bamboo Holder)
Zhuge Liang ( 诸葛亮 )
Zhugong’diao ( 诸宫调 Tunes in Multiple Modes)
Zhui Han Xin ( 追韩信 Chasing Han Xin)
Zhuiqin ( 坠琴 two-stringed fiddle)3
Zhuizi ( 坠子 Narrative Singing Accompanied by Zhuihu Fiddle)
Zhujiang Zhenggong ( 诸将争功 Generals Competing for Credits)
Zhulang Liangmei ( 珠郎良美 )
Zhuma ( 竹马 Bamboo Horse)
Zhumating ( 驻马听 Halting the Horse to Listen)
Zhuo dance ( 卓舞 )
Zhuofang’cao ( 捉放曹 Capture and Release of Cao Cao)
Zhuren Dianzhenbanjiu ( 竺仁·颠真班久 )
Zhuyin Huqin ( 主音胡琴 one kind of tuning for Erhu fiddle)
Zhuying Yaohong ( 烛影摇红 Swing of the Shadows of Candle Light)
Zhuyun’fei ( 驻云飞 Stopping the Clouds Flying)
Zhuzi ( 竹子 Bamboo)
Zichai’ji ( 紫钗记 Story of Purple Hairpin)
Zidi’shu ( 子弟书 Big Drum Singing Scripts Among Brothers)
Ziduo’qu（自度曲 self-composed song)
Zijuan Yetan ( 紫鹃夜探 Zijuan’s Night Visit)
Zilai ( 自来 Coming by Itself)
Zixia’gong 紫霞宫 (The Zixia Palace)
Zixian ( 子弦 high pitched string used for Pipa lute)
Ziye’ge ( 子夜歌 Midnight Song)
Ziyuantang Qinpu ( 自远堂琴谱 Music Scores for the Qin from Ziyuantang)
Zou Zhongxin ( 邹忠新 )
Zou’xikou ( 走西口 Going to West Mountain Pass)
Zouban ( 走板 Walking Beat, Scattered Rhythm)
Zouchang ( 走唱 Walking and Singing )
Zuiweng Tanlu ( 醉翁谈录 Verbal Records of Drunkard)
Zoudui ( 走队 Marching)
Zouhui ( 走会 Folk Festival)
Zouma ( 走马 Running Horse)
Zouyin ( 走音 Glissando)
Zouyu ( 驺虞 Ancient poetry)
Zuanju ( 钻句 Inserted Phrases)
Zuanqiang ( 钻腔 Inserting Melody)
Zui’taiping ( 醉太平 Enjoying the Peaceful Time)
Zuilong’he ( 醉龙喝 Drunken Dragon)
Zuiweng Laoyue ( 醉翁捞月 A Drunkard Dragging for the Moon from Water)
Zuiweng’cao ( 醉翁操 Song of Drunken Man)
Zuo ( 卓 , a type of Tibetan dance)
Zuo Qiuming ( 左丘明 )
Zuo’tongluo ( 作铜锣 Making a Metal Gong)
Zuobai ( 做摆 Feasts)
Zuobu’ji ( 坐部伎 Seated Performing Section)
Zuochang ( 坐唱 Seated Singing)
Zuochou ( 坐愁 Distressed while Sitting)
Zuoci Wu’yaosu ( 作词五要素 Five Elements for Ci Creation)
Zuodan ( 作旦 Young Female Role, or Wawadan 娃娃旦 Role of Young Girl)
Zuopeng ( 坐棚 Sitting under tent, or indoor performance)
Zuoqiang Meihu of Guanzhong ( 陕西关中的坐腔眉户 Seated Singing of Meihu
Opera of Shaanxi)
Zuoyue ( 坐乐 Sitting Music)
Zuozhang ( 坐帐 Sitting in Camp)
Zuozhuan ( 左传 Historic Records by Master Zuo)
Zuozi ( 座子 Base)
ABOUT AUTHORS AND TRANSLATORS
Yuan Jingfang (editor-in chief for Chinese version, and author of Introduction
and Chapter V) Professor and Head of Musicology Department before she took up
Deanship of Distance Learning at Beijing Central Conservatory of Music (CCOM),
a position she has held for thirteen years. A renowned ethnomusicologist, Yuan is
a board member of Chinese Musicians’ Association. Having founded the Research
Centre of Buddhist Music in 1995, she has organized many research projects and
conferences on the subject. Since 2003, she has been Chief Editor for a series of
publications on Chinese Buddhist music culture.
Yuan’s other achievement is her assiduous effort in promoting music education
throughout Mainland China, and the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and
Macau. In 1999, on behalf of the CCOM, she established the country’s first Distance
Learning College, bestowed with the authority to grant undergraguate degrees
recognized by the Education Ministry of China. Her contribution at this capacity
was recognized officially in 2009, when she was presented “Contrubution Award of
Distance Learning”. In recent years, she has been Chief Investigator of a number
of State-Level research projects, including “Database of Qin Music”, “Database of
Uygur Makam Music”, “Meta-Data for Music and Classification Standard of Digital
Music”. Her books include Chinese Traditional Instrumental Music, Instrumental
Genre Studies, Beijing Buddhist Music, as well as several dozen journal articles.
Boyu Zhang (translator) PhD, is professor of Ethnomusicology at Department of

Musicology, Central Conservatory of Music; director of the Central Conservatory of
Music Press; vice-Chairman of Chinese Traditional Music Association; member of
Academic Advisory Board of Humanities Faculty of Helsinki University (2011–2014).
He authored three research books, co-authored six books, seven book chapters, edited
seven books, translated six books, together with over 100 articles published in both
Chinese and English. His research interest is cross-cultural and interdisciplinary,
focusing mainly on the meanings of traditional musics in their societies. In 2014–
2019, he acted as the director of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Research Centre
affiliated to the Central Conservatory of Music Press.
Ching-Wah Lam (proofreader) holds degrees from Chinese University of

Hong Kong (B.A., Music), Oxford University (M. Litt., Musicology) and Durham
University (Ph.D., Ethnomusicology). He was Music Critic of leading music
magazines and newspapers in Hong Kong, before taking on academic positions at
Lingnan College and Hong Kong Baptist University (where he was Head of Music
Department from 1995 to 1998). His publications include over 200 sets of programme
notes and many articles on Chinese music. His book The Idea of Chinese Music in
Europe up to the Year 1800 has been published by the Central Conservatory Press
bilingually.
ABOUT AUTHORS AND TRANSLATORS 647
Other authors for Chinese version

Zhou Qingqing (deputy editor-in-chief, and author of Chapter I), professor at
Central Conservatory of Music.
Yang Minkang, professor at Central Conservatory of Music, and author of Chapter II.
Zhang Hongyi, professor at China Conservatory of Music, and author of Chapter III.
Qian Rong, professor at Central Conservatory of Music, and author of Chapter IV.
Comprehensive Introduction to Chinese Traditional Music offers a detailed survey of
Chinese traditional music in five chapters, each dealing with a different genre.
The five genres are folk songs, dance music, narrative singing, music from
Chinese opera, and instrumental music.
The book begins with an introduction providing an overview of Chinese
traditional music history, its connotations and main musical features, an
indispensable context for readers unfamiliar with the subject.
Within the main text, the authors discuss not only the local music genres,
focusing on instruments, music analysis, and tonal theories, but also the historical
evolution, performance, and social contexts associated with the music.
A glossary of Chinese musical terms is listed in the appendix.
Authors: Yuan Jingfang, Zhou Qingqing, Yang Minkang,

Zhang Hongyi, and Qianrong.
ISBN 978-3-99094-097-6

Yuan Jingfang - Comprehensive Introduction To Chinese Traditional Music-Hollitzer Wissenschaftsverlag (2023)

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Yuan Jingfang, editor

Translated by Boyu Zhang and Lam Ching-Wah

Comprehensive Introduction to Chinese

Translated by Boyu Zhang and

Central Conservatory of Music Press

All rights reserved

Printed and bound in the EU

ISBN 978-3-99094-097-6 (e-book)

Example 3-13. Shuchang (Rapping Tune) used in Danxian Paiziqu

Illustration 1-1. The structure of A Man is Singing a Mountain Song Outdoors

Notes from the translator and proofreader V

I. Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture 1

CHAPTER I FOLK SONGS

I. Definition of Folk Songs 17

● SECTION 2 TYPES OF FOLK SONGS AND THEIR

I. Folk Songs of Han People 29

CHAPTER II DANCE MUSIC

I. Definition of Dance Music 85

II. Historical Evolution of Chinese Dance Music 85

● SECTION 2 DANCE MUSIC AND ITS ARTISTIC FEATURES 98

I. Vocal Dance Music 98

CHAPTER III NARRATIVE SINGING

● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 151

I. Definition of Narrative Singing 151

● SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND ARTISTIC CHARACTERISTICS

I. Labeled Piece-based Narrative Singing 170

CHAPTER IV MUSIC OF CHINESE OPERA (XIQU )

● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 269

I. Definition of Music of Chinese Opera (Xiqu) 269

● SECTION 2 CATEGORIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

I. Classification of Xiqu Music 282

CHAPTER V INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

● SECTION 1 OVERVIEW 377

I. Definition of Instrumental Music and the Concept of Yuezhong

● SECTION 2 SOLO AND ENSEMBLE GENRES AND THEIR

I. Types of Solo Music and Their Music Characteristics 395

● CONTINUING READING MATERIALS 527

● SOUND RECORDINGS FOR LISTENING AND ANALYSES

● GLOSSARY OF CHINESE TERMS 533

● ABOUT AUTHORS AND TRANSLATORS 646

I. Long History of Traditional Chinese Music Culture

(Changing Scriptures) and Jiangchang (Storytelling and Singing) in the temples.

of course, the leader of miscellaneous performances, and it can be considered as an

II. Rich Connotation of Traditional Chinese Music Culture

First, it is easiest to explore the five-category theory of traditional music,

The fourth classification is founded on the idea of cultural transformation. This

7 See People’s Music, 1988 no 1: 19-21.

III. Main Features of Traditional Chinese Music Culture

can still achieve spontaneous renewal, change and development by continuously

I. Definition of Folk Songs

II. Historical Evolution of Folk Songs

Xianghe’ge (literally translated as “Harmonious Song”, a type of song in the Han

III. Status of Folk Songs in Lives of the Chinese

Cradle, swing softly.

B. Songs on the Origins of Ethnic Minorities

A chick shall be born in twenty days;

system, in a succinct manner.

brother Mawu”; its popularity can never challenged.

I. Folk Songs of Han People

Translation of the Lyrics:

Translation of the Lyrics:

This song is distinguished by its asymmetry. First, it is the asymmetry of metres,

(3) Farming Work Songs

12 Northern History-Biography of Turks ( 北史· 突厥等传 ): “In mid-May, people gathered to worship the