MUNI UNIVERTY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
CHM: 1101
Basic Inorganic Chemistry

Instructor: Dr. Hakimu Nsubuga (Email: h.nsubuga@muni.ac.ug)

Mobile no./Whatsup no: 0772620636

Lectures : on (https://timetable.muni.ac.ug)
Extra lecture materials on MUELE blended learning platform.
(https://muele.muni.ac.ug/login/index.php)
References: (http://ebooks.muni.ac.ug/index.php/categories/chemistry.html)
Grading : Presentations/ Assignments 10%
Course Tests (2) 10%
Practical Experiments 20%
Final Exam 60%
Problem Assignments: Distributed periodically Basic
Inorganic
and some might NOT be collected for evaluation. Chemistry
Office Hours: On appointment.
ATTENDANCE POLICY

Regular & ONTIME attendance is compulsory for both

Lectures and Laboratory Experiments.

NO MAKE-UPS FOR MISSED EXPERIMENTS.

Laboratory Details

Laboratory Coordinators: Mr. Baker, Mr. Okello, Mr. Denis

Venue : Chemistry Lab; Healthy Science block

Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
If you want to walk on water you have to get
out of the boat!!
From John Ortberg’s

Think about the amoebas!!!

“ When teachers want students to grow, they don’t give them answers -they
give them problems! … It is only in the process of accepting and solving
problems that our ability to think creatively is enhanced, our persistence is
strengthened, and our self-confidence is deepened.
If someone gives {you} the answers to the test, {you} may get a good score
on the test, but {you} have NOT grown.”
Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
 INTRODUCTION
This course has a code CHM 1101 and it is a 4 CU
If organic chemistry is defined as the chemistry of
hydrocarbon compounds and their derivatives, inorganic
chemistry can be described broadly as the chemistry of
“everything else.” This includes all the remaining
elements in the periodic table, as well as carbon, which
plays a major and growing role in inorganic chemistry.
In this course we shall mainly be concerned with the
following:
Atomic and molecular structure.
Chemical bonding.
Basic
Other principles that allow an understanding of the Chemistry
Inorganic

structures and properties of inorganic substances.

The course will also examine the early development of
the PT.

Periodic trends and periodic physical properties such as

Electronegativity, I.E, E.A, covalent and ionic radii,
polarizability, etc
Theories of chemical bonding ie Molecular Orbital
theory
In the last part of the course, introduction to Solid state
chemistry and applications will be reviewed
Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
 Course Details
Atomic Structure
• Definition of atomic structure and the views of
early workers.
• Classical experiments (Faraday, Millikan,
Rutherford, Crookes, Thomson, Moseley.
• Mass spectrometer.
• Bohr’s model of atom.
• Wave properties of matter.

Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
Shapes of atomic orbitals and electron distribution
• Quantum numbers
• Pauli Exclusion Principle.
• Rule of maximum multiplicity.
Periodic table:
• History of the periodic table, electron configurations,
• Aufbau principle,
• Relationship of the physical properties of the elements
(size, ionization energy, electron affinity, nuclear
shielding, and electronegativity) in comparison to the
position in the periodic table
Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
Lewis structures of covalent molecules
VSEPR,
• Effects of lone pairs, multiple bonding; bond angles, bond
lengths, dipole moments;
Valence Bond theory:
• Hybridisation and
• Resonance
 Molecular Orbital theory for
• Homonuclear
• Diatomics,
• bond order, sigma, pi, and delta bonds,
• multi-center bonding Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
Introduction to Solid state chemistry
• Amorphous vs. crystalline solids, types of bonding
in solids, the crystalline state,
• Crystal Growth Techniques, The Unit Cell,
• Crystal Lattices, Crystal Imperfections, the
amorphous state,
• Sol–Gel Processing, Glasses, Cementitious
Materials,
• Important materials applications i: fuel cells

Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
 Suggested Reading List
1. Greenwood N.N. and Earnshaw A. (1990). Chemistry of
the elements, Pergamon Press, New York.
2. Shriver D.F., Atkins P.W. and Langford C.H. (1991)
Inorganic Chemistry, Longman, London.
3. Cotton F. A. and Wilkinson (1987). Basic Inorganic
Chemistry. John and Wiley Sons, New York .
4. Bodie Douglas, Darl H. Mc Daniel and John J.
Alexander (1983) Concepts and Models of inorganic
chemistry 2nd edition. John and Wiley Sons, New York
5. Strauss S. H (1994) Guide to solutions for Inorganic
Chemistry, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, Tokyo.
6. Any other relevant textbook of inorganic chemistry.Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
 The Scope of Inorganic Chemistry

Basic Inorganic
Chemistry
 An Interdisciplinary Research Field

Basic Inorganic
Chemistry
 Basic
Inorganic
Chemistry
 .

Historical Background to Atomic structure

 Because the technology to measure and see

atoms did not exist, not many serious scientific
experiments could be done to investigate them.

 Little progress was made in atomic theory until

the 19th century, when a number of
experiments were done and their results could
be explained by atomic theory.
 .

Historical Background to Atomic structure

 .

Historical Background to Atomic structure

 .

Historical Background to Atomic structure

Early scientists carried out classical experiments on
particles from which atoms are composed, and how
these particles are arranged inside the atoms.
 What is atomic structure?
• Distribution of electrons around the nucleus

• Energies of electrons

• Magnetic properties of the electrons

• Ionisation energies or potentials

 .

Atomic structure enables us to understand:

 The properties of the elements
 The compounds they form
 The reactions they undergo
 The shapes of the molecules they form

Originally, atoms were regarded as indivisible

particles and devoid of internal structures-John
Dalton’s atomic theory.
 .

According to Dalton,
 All elements were made of tiny indivisible particles
called atoms.
 Atoms could not be created, destroyed or sub-divided.
 Atoms of the same element had the same properties and
the same mass while those of different elements had
different properties and different masses

 When atoms combined to form molecules they did so in

simple whole numbers.
 All molecules of one compound were identical and
different from the molecules of all other compounds.
 .

 An atom was therefore defined as the smallest part

of an element which can take part in a chemical
reaction.

 By 19th century, because of experiments in physics,

it was soon realised that atoms were divisible and
electrical in nature.

 Today, we know that an atom is composed of

electrons, protons and neutrons.
 .

Classical experiments
 These threw light on the existence of particles from
which the atoms are composed and how these particles
are arranged inside the atom.

 Early alone, scientists knew that atoms could be made

to give off tiny electrically charged particles which they
called electrons.
 These were negatively charged and the remainder of the
atom was positively charged.

 Faraday was the first person to give guidelines to the

discovery of atomic structure.
 .

He summarised his investigations in two laws of

electrolysis:
1. The weight of an element liberated during
electrolysis is proportional to the quantity of
electricity passed.
2. The amount of electrolyte liberated during
electrolysis is proportional to equivalent weight of
the element.

 These 2 laws indicate quantitative relationship

between the quantity of electricity and matter
meaning that if electricity is discrete, then matter
too, must be.
 .

The discovery of the electron

It was discovered by William Crookes in 1879.
He observed that when a glass tube containing two
electrodes is partially evacuated, and sufficiently high
voltage is applied, the -ve electrode emitted light called
cathode rays.
 .

when high voltage is applied across the electrodes, a

series of changes occurs in the tube as the pressure
is lowered:
- The gas glows with characteristic colour of the gaseous
element.
- At pressure 0.001mmHg, the glow in the tube disappears.

Explanation
 The neutral element particles in the tube are
dissociated into +ve and -ve particles.
 Positive particles move to the cathode and negative
particles move to the anode.
 .

 These moving particles can collide together & in the

process of collision, some of the K.E is transferred
to neutral particles, causing them to break into +ve
and -ve particles.

 When +ve and -ve particles collide they release

energy in form of light.

 These changes occur at relatively high pressure

when particles are close to one another.
 .

When the pressure is completely low, the number of

particles colliding and combining is also low & :.
collisions are much less probable & the energy released
is much less to cause the glow.
This means that:
 The particles will have a great deal of K.E when they
strike the cathode causing it to emit particles called
cathode rays.

 These cathode rays travel away from the cathode in

straight lines because they are influenced by the electric
field.
Assignment - read about properties of cathode rays
 .

Velocity, charge and mass of electrons

 Most scientists had differing views about the nature
of cathode rays.
 Experiments showed that they were deflected by
electric or magnetic fields suggesting that they were
charged.
 Others thought that they were a new form of
radiation with some properties similar to those of
light (waves).
 Others believed that cathode rays might be
composed of particles.
 .

In 1897, J.J Thomson observed many properties of

the rays including the fact that the nature of the rays
was the same regardless of the cathode material.

 He summarised his observations and concluded that

the cathode rays were not waves but particles with
mass.

 His findings are generally accepted as the discovery

of what later became the electron.
 He constructed a cathode ray tube such as the
following:
 .

 With his tube, he could quantitatively measure the

effects of electric and magnetic fields on a thin stream
of electrons passing through the positively charged
electrode.
 .

 His measurements made it possible to calculate value of

1.76 x 108 coulombs/gram as the charge : mass ratio for
the electron.
Read more about Thomson’s expt & derive the
expression for calculating e/m.

 Once the e/m ratio of the electron was known, anybody

who could measure either the e- or m of the electron
could easily calculate the other quantity.

 In1909 Robert Millikan succeeded in measuring the

charge of an electron by performing an experiment
commonly known as “Millikan’s oil drop
experiment”
 .

Setup of the experiment

The procedure of this expt goes through 2 stages;

1. when electricity is off
2. when electricity is switched on.
 .

1. In the absence of electricity

- Naturally the oil drop falls under gravity.

- X-rays knock off electrons from air molecules.

- Ionised air molecules then collide with oil drops,

but only one drop is followed.

- The oil drop picks up a charge & the rate of drop

fall is observed through a distance d. From this its
velocity is determined as d/t.
 .

2. When electricity is switched on

- The oil drop is attracted to the -ve plate because it
is +vely charged.

- The force of attraction is adjusted so that the drop

remains suspended in one place or the charged drop
is made to move up and down.

Calculation
Stage one
• Consider the forces acting on an oil drop moving
down wards in air
 .

 As the drop accelerates down wards, a resisting force,

Fr, is set up in the medium (air) which acts in opposite
direction to the net downward force.
 .

 After a short time, the resisting force becomes equal to

the downward force, & when this happens the drop no
longer accelerates downwards.
 By Newton’s first law of motion;

But a = 0

:.
But,
 .

From;
 .

 The Velocity, V can be determined by noting the time

t, it takes the drop to fall through distance d i.e. v = d/t

 the radius of the oil drop is very small & .: can be

determined from:
 .

 Stage two:
• The oil drop takes up charges from ionised air
molecules. It may pick one or more +ve charges i.e.
 .

 When an electric field is applied across the plates,

the drop will have a columbic force, Fc , acting on it

Fc = E.q where E = electric field intensity

q = total charge on the drop

 The charged drop could be made to move in an

upward direction by choosing the collect electric
field strength.
 .

 Consider a case where the drop is rising but with a constant

velocity u,

:.
 .

 By definition, E = V/x
where V = potential difference between the plates.
x = distance between the plates

:.
By rearrangement,
 .

 The expt was repeated so many times but the same drop
was used throughout.

 In repeated expts, the oil drop is subjected to different

amounts of x-rays so that different charges are provided
on it’s surface.

 From a series of expts done by Millikan he observed

that when the drop was given different charges, the total
charge was always an exact integral multiple of the
smallest charge.
 .

 For example the results obtained in one series of

experiments were:

:. The charges are exact integral multiples of a

fundamental charge & the accepted value for the
fundamental electronic charge is 4.8 x 10-10 e.s.u
(electrostatic units).
 .

 This value is equivalent to 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs and is now

generally accepted as the basic charge of an electron.

 Hence by using the charge on an electron determined by

Millikan and the e/m ratio by Thomson, the mass of an
electron can be calculated;
e/m
 .

Discovery of the Nucleus

 In 1910 Rutherford designed an expt to examine the
interior body of atoms & he was able to see how the
mass of the atom was distributed.

 Rutherford bombarded thin foils of various metals

(Au, Pt, and Cu) with α-particles and studied angles
at which they where scattered as they pass through
a thin foil.
 .

Deflection of α-particles as accounted for by

Rutherford model
 .

Observations
 Almost all α-particles passed through the foil without
deflection.
 A small % age of α-particles was found to be slightly
deflected through about 1˚.
 A few of the α-particles were scattered through large angles
& some were reflected back in the direction from which
they had come.
Explanation (1911)
 He postulated that most of the mass of an atom and all of its
positive charge reside in a very small but extremely dense
region which he called the nucleus.
 Most of the total volume of the atom is empty space in
which electrons move around the nucleus.
 .

 In the α-scattering expts most alpha particles pass

through because they don’t encounter the minute
nucleus.
 The deflections were because of repulsion between
the α-particles and the highly charged nucleus.

 Subsequent exptal studies led to the discovery of the

+ve particles (protons) and the neutral particles
(neutrons).
 The protons were discovered in 1919 by Rutherford
while the neutrons were discovered by James
Chadwick in 1932.
 .

Atomic Number
 In 1913 H.G.J Moseley was able to measure the
energies of X-rays emitted by various elements using
the following setup:
 .

Note:
 X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons
strike a solid target & their λ s are characteristic of
the element in the target.
 Using a series of solid elements as the target,
Moseley was able to resolve and photograph their
X-rays.
 For a number of elements, he could show that the
square roots of the freq of the X-rays were directly
proportional to integers which he could allocate to
the different elements.
 These intergers are now called atomic numbers.
 .

 Mosley’s plots were as follows:

 The atomic number (Z), a fundamental property of the

atom was identified as the number of protons in the
nucleus.
 The discovery of Z helped to sort out certain anomalies
in the P.T, e.g. the positions of the pairs of elements,
Ar = Ar 39.95 (Atomic mass) & K = 39.10, Te =127.60
& I= 126.90
 .

 Hence Mosley's work changed the belief / concept

that atomic mass was most decisive in fixing atomic
properties therefore atomic mass is not a
fundamental property.

 In summary, an atom comprises of a central

massive, +vely charged nucleus surrounded by -ve
electrons.

 The nucleus is composed of neutrons & protons of

approximately equal mass tightly bound.
 .

 The number of protons (Z) is called the atomic

number and this, together with the number of
neutrons give the atomic mass.

 An element consists of atoms all of which have the

same number of protons (Z) & this determines the
position of the element in the P.T.

 However, isotopes of elements also do exist where

an element can have the same value of Z for
different atoms but different number of neutrons in
their nuclei.
 .

ANALYSIS OF ISOTOPES
 This is done using a mass spectrometer
 A mass spectrometer is a device which separates a
stream of gaseous ions depending on their
mass/charge (m/z) ratio.

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having similar

chemical properties, same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.

 Isotopes of an element have chemical similarity and

therefore cannot be separated by chemical means.
 .

 Since the masses of isotopes of an element differ, then

one must resort to physical properties related to mass
to separate them.
 Isotopes therefore can easily be separated using a mass
spectrometer.

OPERATION OF A MASS SPECTROMETER

 An ionization source is used in production of ions, it’s
basic task is to atomize the sample and then ionize the
atoms.
 All charged particles are accelerated in a circular path
by a magnetic field acting perpendicular to their
direction of travel.
 .

A schematic representation of one kind of mass

spectrometer
 .

 Positive ions of the substance being studied are formed

in a discharge tube and are collimated.
 After leaving S2, the thin beam of ions enters an
evacuated region containing a uniform magnetic field &
a uniform electric field set-up perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
 For the ion to traverse the path to the collector, the
magnitude of the fields should be adjusted so that the
electrical and magnetic forces just balance each other,
thus,
E. q = B1 q v
Where; E=electric field intensity v=velocity
B1=Magnetic field intensity q=charge
 .

:. E = B1v, therefore v = E/B1

 Thus, only those ions with velocities, v = E/B1 will
pass through slit S3.
 These ions with this velocity have different masses and
enter into a second uniform magnetic field B2 whose
direction is parallel to B1.
 The ions which enter B2 are accelerated in a circular
path.
 Note that the magnetic force, Fm must balance the
centripetal force if the ions have to move up to
detection.
Fc = Fm
 .

Summary of the Process

1. The sample is ionized and collimated. Usually the
ions are produced in several ways:
- By using heated filaments.
- By application of strong electrostatic field.
- By reaction with an ionized reagent.
- By direct emission of ions from solid sample that is
deposited on the heated filament.
2. After acceleration of the collimated ions, the small
beam of ions is focused & separated according to their
masses. This is done by a magnetic field which causes
the ions to follow curved paths of radii proportional to
their masses.
 .

3. If a photographic plate was used as a detecting device

in the mass spectrophotometer , black lines would
appear on the plate (mass spectrum ).

-The position of the lines indicate the mass of the

isotope, while the intensities of the lines are
proportional to the relative abundance of the isotopes
in the mixture.
 .

Calculation of m/ze ratio

From; F magnetic = F centripetal
But, F magnetic = B2Zev
F centripetal = mv2/r
where; Ze – total charge v- velocity of the ion
Z- atomic number r – radius of semicircular path
Therefore,
B2Zev = mv2/r
B2Ze = mv/r
v = B2Zer/m
But K.E of the ion is given by,
= ZeV V- potential difference
 .

By substituting for the velocity v,

 .

Interpretation of results from mass spectrometry

 Consider CCl4, if put in the machine, then the
molecule break down into several ions e.g. +CCl3,
+CCl +CCl, etc.
2
 Usually, the ions formed in a mass spectrometer, are
singly charged.
 The molecule CCl4, considered contains several
isotopic forms, i.e 35Cl, 37Cl, 12C, and 14C.

 The spectrum from a particle like +CCl2 would

indicate the following isotopic masses; 82, 84, 86,
88, etc
 .

 The above masses could be represented in form of a

stick diagram or as a spectrum.
 .

Uses of Isotopes
 As tracers in biological and medical experiments.
 Dating samples, i.e determining how old a sample is
especially the geological samples.
 .

Dating samples
 In dating a sample the isotopic species, 14C, is normally
used.
 14C is produced when cosmic rays in the atmosphere
collide with other atoms to produce neutrons.
 The neutrons produced then react with 14N in the
atmosphere.

 14C
exists in the atmosphere as CO2 gas & this CO2 is
taken in by plants for photosynthesis.
 2 processes usually happen, the plant can be eaten by
animals and 146C is incorporated in living tissues, or the
plant can die.
 .

 In short, plants are constantly taking in 146C as CO2 and

the animals taking in 146C by eating the plants.

 14
6C
is continuously disintegrating whether in the
atmosphere, plant or animal but because there is
replenishment by photosynthesis in plants and by
eating plants in animals, the levels of 146C in animals
and plants remain constant.
 .

 As long as the plant/animal remains alive, the activity

of 146C remains constant, upon death the replenishment
stops and the activity decreases as shown in the Figure
below.
 .

Radioactive decay curve

 From known half-life the age of a dead plant/animal
may be determined, Half-life of 146C = 5570 years

 Consider an animal which died when the number of

14 C atoms present were N and number of 14 C atoms
6 o 6
remaining after time, t, are Nt.

 The rate of disintegration is proportional to the number

of atoms present.
.
 .

• By considering a situation where the material has

decreased to a half, i.e Nt = No/2, t = t 1/2 and
substituting for Nt,

Example
A 1.00g sample of carbon made from wood found in an
archaeological site gave 7900 carbon - 14 - disintegrations
in 20 hour period. In the same period (20h) 1.00g of carbon
from a modern source (from a living tree) underwent 18,400
disintegrations. Calculate the age of the sample.
.
.
.
.
 .

ATOMIC SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN AND THE

BOHR THEORY
 Niels Bohr (1885-1962) attempted to account for the
spectrum of hydrogen and hydrogen-like spp (such as He+,
Li2+, etc.) by proposing what is now called ‘the Bohr’s
Model of the atom’
 He did this by accepting past postulates, rejecting others and
by assuming new ones
- Rutherford’s nuclear model that the hydrogen atom
contains a nucleus, proton, electron and a radius r.
- Theories of Planck and Einstein that E = hʋ were
accepted.
The electrodynamic theory (that a moving electron emits
energy) was rejected.
 .

- The electron was assumed to travel in circular orbits.

- Angular momentum of the electron was quantized.
- He proposed that energy is emitted or absorbed when an
electron moves from one orbit to another.
 Prior to 1913, several experiments had been done to
measure the frequency of various types of light that could
be absorbed or emitted by atoms.

 It was already known that atoms characteristically absorbed

or emitted light at defined frequencies.

 Efforts to explain these observations centred mainly on the

hydrogen atom which was the simplest and had the simplest
spectra.
 .

 In 1885, Balmer showed that the wavelength  of any line

in the visible region of the spectrum of atomic hydrogen
could be given by a simple empirical expression:

 Where RH is Rydberg’s constant and n has values 3, 4, 5 etc.

The lines observed in the visible region are called the
Balmer series but several other lines may be observed in
different regions of the spectrum i.e
.
 .

 Similar equations were found to hold for the lines in the

other series in the hydrogen spectrum. i.e

PFUND
 .

 Earlier on, attempts had been made to obtain a physical

picture of the atom.
 JJ Thomson shown that application of high electrical
potential across a gas gave electrons, suggesting that
these were present in atoms.

 Rutherford had suggested that an atom consisted of a

heavy +vely charged nucleus with a sufficient number
of electrons around it to make the atom electrically
neutral.
 Niels Bohr combined all the above ideas and suggested
that the atomic nucleus was surrounded by electrons
moving in orbits just like planets around the sun.
 .

Several problems arise with Bohr’s concept:

1. The electrons might be expected to slow down
gradually and why should they move in an orbit
around the nucleus?
2. The nucleus and the electrons have opposite charges
and should therefore attract each other, so the electrons
would be expected to spiral inwards until they hit the
nucleus.
 In an effort to explain the atomic spectrum of H and
H-like species (H, He+, Li2+, Be3+, Na10+, Mg11+ etc),
Bohr proposed what is now called the Bohr Model of
the atom.
 This model was a very important stepping stone in the
development of modern description of atoms.
 .

The Bohr Model of the atom

 The model was developed based upon the quantum theory.
He made four postulates described as follows:
Postulate 1
The H atom consists of a nucleus containing a proton &
there4 having a charge of +1, & an electron with a charge of
-1 moving round the nucleus in a circular orbit of radius r.

 According to Coulomb's law of electrostatic attraction, the

force of attraction between the electron of -ve charge -e, and
the nucleus of the +ve charge +Ze, is given by
 .

 This force just balances the centrifugal force on the

electron, F = mv2/r
where m is the mass of electron and v is its velocity i.e.

where,
+Ze = charge on the nucleus
+e = charge on each proton
-e = charge on the electron
r = Bohr’s radius
 .

When the 2 forces are balancing, then

(The two forces are acting in opposite direction)

By rearrangement,

Postulate 2
 Not all circular orbits are permitted for the electron. Only
the orbits which have angular momentum of the electron,
mvr, equal to integral multiples of h/2 are allowed.
 .

Therefore,
 .

 For n = 3,

 This there4 gives a picture of the H atom where the electron

moves in circular orbits of radius proportional to 12, 22, 32,
etc & radiates energy only when it jumps from one orbit to
another.

Problem
Calculate the radius of Bohr's first orbit for hydrogen atom.
Solution
The general expression for Bohr radius is given as:
 .

By substituting in the respective values,

From the equation above, the size of an orbit can be easily evaluated.
 .

Postulate 3
 As a result of the restrictions on the angular momentum of
an orbit, the energy of an electron in a given orbit is fixed.
 As long as the electron stays in that orbit, it neither absorbs
nor radiates energy.
 The total energy, E, of an electron is the sum of its potential
energy (-ze2/r) and its kinetic energy (mv2/2).
But
 .

By substituting for mv2 in the K.E expression above,

P.E = the work done in separating the charges +ze and e by

distance r.
By Coulumbs law, force
 .

But, Total energy = K.E + P.E

Substituting for r

Hence the energy of an electron in a given orbit can be

measured. For H atom, Z =1

 As the value of n increases, the energy of the electron

becomes less -ve, i.e. the energy of the electron increases as
one moves away from the nucleus.
 .

Postulate 4
 To change from one orbit to another the electron must
absorb or emit a quantity of energy exactly equal to the
difference in energy between the two orbits.
 In making such a transition a quantum of energy equal to h
would be emitted or absorbed.
Consider an example when an electron jumps from an
energy level Ei to another energy level Ef in a H-atom
 .

Substitution of the corresponding energy expression yields

 .

 If the known values for m, e, h, and c are inserted in the

above expression, the quantity gives the value
RH = 109,678 cm-1.
 For the atoms other than hydrogen, the factor Z2 is
introduced so that the expression becomes;

In summary, the Bohr Theory accounts for the hydrogen

spectrum in the following ways.
 When hydrogen atoms are excited, their electrons occupy
orbits having higher energies.
 When an electron returns to a more stable orbit, it emits
photon of energy corresponding to the energy difference
between the orbits.
 .

 The transition back to the ground state can occur directly or

stepwise, one photon or several.
 When an electron is excited to an orbit with higher energy
level (n > 1) and then drops back to an orbit with n = 1, then
UV series (Lyman series) is obtained.
 When an electron is excited to orbits with higher energies
and drops back to an orbit with n = 2, visible series (Balmer
series) is obtained.
 When the electron is excited to upper orbits with higher
energies and drops back to orbits with n = 3, infrared series
(Paschen series) is obtained.
 Bohr’s model was there4 important in explaining the
spectra of hydrogen and other hydrogen-like atoms and the
arrangement of electrons in an atom.
 .

In summary,
 .

Bohr’s model achieved considerable success in

interpreting experimental results. The model however,
had shortcomings too;
1. The model could not deal with atoms more
complicated than H and H-like ions.

2. His model regarded an electron as discrete with

defined positions and velocity.

As a consequence of these two shortcomings, his

model was almost abandoned.
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THE DUAL NATURE OF ELECTRONS-

PARTICLES OR WAVES
 The theory of atomic structure put forward by
Rutherford and Bohr describes the atom as a central
nucleus surrounded by electrons in certain orbits.

 The electron is therefore considered as a particle. In

the 1920’s it was shown that moving particles such
as electrons behaved in some ways as waves.

 This became an important concept in explaining the

electronic structure of atoms.
 .

 For some time light has been considered either as

particles or as waves. Certain materials such as
potassium emit electrons when irradiated by visible
light.

 This is called photo-electric effect and is explained

by light travelling as particles called photons.

 If a photon collides with an electron, it can transfer

its energy to the electron. If the energy of the
photon is sufficiently large it can remove the
electron from the surface of a metal.
 .

 The phenomena of diffraction and interference of

light however, can only be explained by assuming
that light behaves as waves.

 In 1924, De Broglie, suggested that all particles

(matter) had an associated wave character.

 Light, for example, was best considered as a wave

during propagation, but as particulate (made up of
quanta or photons) during emission and absorption.
 .

 De Broglie put forward an important expression by

combining both Eistein & Plank’s equations;
1. Eistein's equation:
E =mc2
Where; E = energy, m = mass of particle,
c = velocity of light
2. Planck's equation:
E=hv
Where;
E = energy, h = Planck's constant,
ν = frequency.
 .

:.

Where;  = wavelength of associated wave

v = velocity of particle
h = Planck's constant
m = mass of particle
 .

 de Broglie proposal was confirmed by two

Americans, Davisson and Germer who showed that
a beam of electrons or neutrons passed through
powdered crystals produced a diffraction pattern
characteristic of X-rays (electromagnetic waves).

 This is a typical wave property.

 The diffraction of electromagnetic radiation when it

is incident upon a crystal is explained by
considering it to act as a wave.
 .

 Thus when we are trying to explain the properties of

electrons in atoms we must take their wave like and
particle like character into account, i.e. they have a
dual nature.

 i.e in some experiments they behave like particles

and in others their wave properties will be most
obvious.
 .

 Later on, Schrödinger derived a wave equation for

an electron associated with the hydrogen nucleus.

Schrodinger’s equation is given as:

Where; ψ = wave function

m= mass of electron
E = total energy of electron
h = planks constant
V = P.E of the system
x, y & z = Cartesian coordinates
 Solution of the wave equation, therefore, gives the
'probability distribution' for the electron.

 Each solution of the equation is characterized by

four quantum numbers as we shall see later.
 Schroedinger equation provided the basis for wave
mechanics
 In wave mechanics one basic idea is that the
position of an electron and its momentum cannot be
specified at the same time.

 This is called Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

 .

 Heisenberg showed that the product of the

uncertainty in the position of a body, x, and the
uncertainty in the momentum, p, is related to
Planks constant by the expression.
(x)(p) = h/4

 The uncertainty principle implies that

1. Bohr’s picture of an electron travelling in a precise

orbit cannot be valid because an electron in a
definite orbit would have a definite position and
velocity at every instant.
 .

 Bohr Theory was inaccurate because an electron

cannot possess position and momentum
simultaneously, i.e. the electron does not behave like
a planet around the sun.

 To see how the electron behaves in an atom, we

have to invoke a deeper understanding of quantum
mechanics

 In quantum mechanics we talk of probability that

the particle will be at a certain location.
.
 .

 For example, if the probability is 0.01, it means that in

100 observations, the electron will be found near a
nucleus on one occasion.

 The mathematical way of expressing this idea is by

means of wave function whose use was proposed by
Max Born, and accordingly it is called Born
Interpretation.
 It simply puts it that the probability of finding an
electron at a given location is proportional to the square
of the wave function, ,
1 = 0.1,  2 = 0.01 at location 1
2 = 0.2,  2 = 0.04 at location 2
 .

 There is a fourfold greater chance of finding the

electron at the second location than at the first
location.

 If we know the wave function of an electron in an

atom, then we can use the Born interpretation to
predict where the electron is most likely to be found.
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 ABIT OF HISTORY
 .

 ABIT OF HISTORY cont…

 Pioneered
research on
radioactivity
 .

 ABIT OF HISTORY cont…