DIKAR Model
CHAPTER 1
Information Management - Choo (1995) defined
information management (IM) as the management of
processes and systems responsible for acquiring,
creating, organizing, distributing, and using
information.
The five keys to IM:
 Leadership
 Operation
 Process
 Data
 Technology
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION
MANAGEMENT AND DATABASES
DATA - Data is defined as a collection of individual
facts or statistics. (While “datum” is technically the
singular form of “data,” it’s not commonly used in
everyday language.)
Data can come in the form of text, observations,
figures, images, numbers, graphs, or symbols.
- Data is a raw form of knowledge and, on its own,
doesn’t carry any significance or purpose. In other
words, you have to interpret data for it to have
meaning. Data can be simple—and may even seem
useless until it is analyzed, organized, and interpreted.
There are two main types of data:
 Quantitative data is provided in numerical form,
like the weight, volume, or cost of an item.
 Qualitative data is descriptive, but non-numerical,
like the name, sex, or eye color of a person.
Information is defined as knowledge gained through
study, communication, research, or instruction.
Essentially, information is the result of analyzing and
interpreting pieces of data.
- Whereas data is the individual figures, numbers, or
graphs, information is the perception of those pieces
of knowledge.
 INFORMATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE
INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Choo (1995) defined information management (IM) as
the management of processes and systems
responsible for acquiring, creating, organizing,
distributing, and using information.
One of the associated models in information
management is the DIKAR model. This model shows
the transition of raw facts into information; then,
from information, knowledge can be derived.
- Knowing this model helps organizations identify the
technology needs to assist in the efficient
transformation of data for their business needs.
Data
Information
Knowledge
Action
Result
Two systems can be utilized in Information
Management:
file systems and Database systems
Knowing file systems can be helpful to understand
the complexities of databases and the conversion to
database systems.
File systems can either manual or computerized.
The manual file system is the traditional pen paper-
folder file management. It is composed of a
collection of file folders, categorized and stored in
cabinets
The computerized file system uses computers and
storage devices to acquire, organize, and store data.
It also facilitates faster data tracking and report
generation as compared to the manual method.
Data processing - occurs when data is collected and
translated into usable information. Usually
performed by a data scientist or team of data
scientists, it is important for data processing to be
done correctly as not to negatively affect the end
product, or data output.
Data processing starts with data in its raw form and
converts it into a more readable format (graphs,
documents, etc.),
Six stages of Data processing
1.Data collection - Collecting data is the first step in
data processing. Data is pulled from available
sources, including data lakes and data warehouses.
1 2.Data preparation - Once the data is collected, it
then enters the data preparation stage.
Data preparation, often referred to as “pre processing”
is the stage at which raw data is cleaned up and
organized for the following stage of data processing.
3.Data input - The clean data is then entered into its
destination (data warehouse). and translated into a
language that it can understand.
-Data input is the first stage in which raw data begins to
take the form of usable information.
4.Processing - During this stage, the data inputted to
the computer in the previous stage is actually
processed for interpretation
-Processing is done using machine learning algorithms,
though the process itself may vary slightly depending
on the source of data being processed.
5.Data output/interpretation- The
output/interpretation stage is the stage at which data is
finally usable to non data scientists.It is translated,
readable, and often in the form of graphs, videos,
images, plain text, etc.).
6. Data storage - The final stage of data processing is
storage. After all of the data is processed, it is then
stored for future use. While some information may be
put to use immediately, much of it will serve a purpose
later on.
File System Problems
1.Dependence in structural and data changes
Data dependence happens when data structure
changes affect data access.
Data independence is when these changes do not affect
the data nor the related programs.
Data structure changes include: change in keys, change
in data types.
2. Data Redundancy
File systems are prone to data redundancy due to
having data from multiple resources and do not have
automatic measures to avoid multiple data copies.
If redundancy exists, it can result in having:
 Poor data security
As multiple copies exist, it is difficult to track changes
and ensure user roles. Thus, unauthorized access will be
challenging to manage and most likely to happen.
 Data inconsistency
This happens when multiple copies of the data have
conflicting versions. This is usually a result of a
particular update done in one document but failed
to update other existing copies.
 Lack of data integrity
The existence of data redundancies might
compromise data integrity. Integrity is defined as
the consistency and accuracy of data.
3. Lack of design structure and models
File systems usually lack design and data models as
compared to database systems.
- Data models contribute to the overall structure
and logic flow that enable databases to be more
organized in managing data.
4. Exposure to various data anomalies
Anomaly means inconsistency in the pattern from
the normal form.
In Database Management System (DBMS), anomaly
means the inconsistency occurred in the relational
table during the operations performed on the
relational table.
The other reason for the database anomalies is that
all the data is stored in a single table
So, to remove the anomalies of the database,
normalization is the process which is done where
the splitting of the table and joining of the table
(different types of join) occurs
 Types of data anomalies are as follow:
 Update anomaly - happens when an update
done results in data inconsistency or
discrepancy.
 Insertion anomaly - happens when inserting a
new record might result in incomplete
information or failure to insert due to
dependence on other attributes.
 Deletion anomaly - happens when deleting a
record might result in loss of data or
information
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THE ROLE OF A DATABASE
As the data collected evolves and the transactions
being done in businesses, innovation and
improvement in storage have been a continuous
necessity for a business.
- Hence, apart from file systems, database systems
are often the more viable option for organizations.
A database is a centralized collection of end-user
data and metadata. End-user data are facts derived
from the system users, such as the ones retrieved
from transactions.
- A database helps in transforming retrieved data
into useful information.
- Through a database management system,
databases can facilitate adding, updating, retrieving,
and deleting data.
Metadata is often described as data about data or
information about the database and tables' structure
and components.
What is Metadata?
Metadata is defined as the information that
describes and explains data. It provides context with
details such as the source, type, owner, and
relationships to other data sets.
The Database System Environment A database
system environment is comprised of five
components:
Hardware –the physical devices
Software – the applications necessary to run a
database. This includes the operating system,
database management system, among others.
People –includes all the system stakeholders: end-
users, designers, administrators, programmers, and
analysts.
Procedures – the policies or system rules.
Data – raw facts collected.
What is DBMS?
A Database Management System (DBMS) is a well-
known term in data analysis.
3
- It refers to a collection of programs that enable
users to access databases and manipulate, maintain,
report, and relate data.
- A DBMS is often used to reduce data redundancy,
share data in a controlled way, and reduce data
integrity problems. DBMS is not an information
system but is simply software.
according to…
Database Management System Coronel et al. (2015)
defined database management system (DBMS) as a
system used to create and manage databases and
facilitates the organization, manipulation, and
retrieval of data.
Role of DBMS Advantages
1. Improved data sharing DBMS is capable of
providing a platform for the users to access more
organized data.
2. Improved data security DBMS is capable of
improving data security and privacy by providing
facilities for managing access levels and
implementing security policies.
3. Better data integration Since data sharing and
access are enhanced, DBMS can help the
management have a clearer view of how their
business segments are doing.
4. Minimized data inconsistency Well designed
databases can minimize the occurrence of having
multiple copies of data that results in
inconsistencies. DBMS can help in the
implementation of primary and foreign keys that
enforce integrity.
5. Improved data access DBMS can facilitate quick
responses for data retrieval requests making it easier
to search and find what you need.
6. Improved decision making It is easier to study the
data and make strategic reports through a more
organized and faster retrieval of data.
7. Increased end-user productivity By providing ease
of access and data availability, DBMS can help users
do their work faster and more efficiently
DBMS Functions
1. Data dictionary management A data dictionary
holds the metadata about the database structures.
DBMS offers features that help manage and generate
data dictionaries for reference and documentation
purposes.
2. Data storage management Database performance
can be fine-tuned to be more efficient in the storage
and retrieval of information.
3. Data presentation DBMS can aid in the acquisition,
storage, and transformation of data presented in a
structured way to satisfy logical expectations.
4. Security management and multi-access control
Access roles and levels can be configured through an
Access Control List (ACL), which allows the limited
rights and privileges per user type.
5. Back-up and recovery management Back-up and
recovery options are available to avoid database
outages and data loss.
6. Data integrity management Integrity is the
consistency and accuracy of data. Through the
enforcement of the integrity rules, DBMS is capable
of ensuring data integrity.
7. Database application and communication
interfaces DBMS can handle the Structured Query
Language (SQL) and its connection with other
programming languages and applications. Also, it
supports communication with other databases.
 Types of Databases
3. Based on the number of users:
Single user database supports one user at a given
time.
Workgroup database is intended for a group of users.
Enterprise database supports multiple groups of
users working together and accessing files
simultaneously, such as organizations and
corporations.
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1. Based on location
 Centralized database is located and maintained
at a single site.
 Distributed database is distributed across
several different sites and servers.
2. Based on data stored:
General-purpose database usually includes a wide
range of topics and/or types of documents.
Discipline-specific database focuses on a single
academic discipline or a group of related fields.
4.Based on the how it will be used and the time
sensitivity of information:
 Operational database stores and supports real-
time business data.
 Analytical database contains historical data that
can be used for business intelligence.
5.Based on the degree which the data are
structured:
 Relational database is used to handle structured
data.
Structured data – are easily searchable by
algorithms.
 Non-relational database (NoSQL) is for handling
unstructured data.
Unstructured data – have no predefined structure.
CHAPTER 2
Data Model and data modeling
Database - design focuses on how the database
structure will be used to store and manage end user
data.
- Data Modeling and Data Models Database design
primarily focuses on the processing and handling of
end-user data using the database structure.
- Data modeling, the first step in designing a
database, refers to the process of creating a specific
data model for a determined problem domain.
In developing a database, the first phase is data
modeling, which refers to creating a data model for a
given problem domain.
Problem Domain
It is a defined collection of scope and boundaries
based on a real-world area or situation projected to
be solved.
Data Model
A data model is a visual representation of a real-world
data structure. It displays data representation and
how the data can be accessed.
- A data model is a relatively simple representation,
usually, graphical in nature, of more complex real-
world data structures. In general terms, a model is an
abstraction of a more complex real world object or
event.
Data Modeling
- Data modeling is the process of creating a visual
representation of either a whole information system
or parts of it to communicate connections between
data points and structures.
- The goal is to illustrate the types of data used and
stored within the system, the relationships among
these data types, the ways the data can be grouped
and organized and its formats and attributes.
- Data modeling reduces the complexities of database
design. It is an iterative and progressive process that
begins with a simple understanding of the problem
domain, and as your understanding increases, so does
the level of detail in the data model.
Ideally…
Ideally, data models are living documents that evolve
along with changing business needs.
- They play an important role in supporting business
processes and planning IT architecture and strategy.
Data models can be shared with vendors, partners,
and/or industry peers.
IMPORTANCE OF DATA MODEL
1. Data modeling help establish standard data
definitions and internal data standards, often in
connection with governance.
2. Data models are a vital data architecture
component, along with flow diagrams, architectural
blueprints, a unified vocabulary, and other artifacts.
3. It facilitates interaction between the designer, the
application programmer, and the end-user.
4. It allows a better understanding of a particular
organization for which the database is intended to be
built.
5. Simply. It serves as the database’s blueprint.
TYPES OF DATABASE MODELS
1. Flat File Model
It is a database model that utilizes a single table
design. It may have many fields that are prone to data
inconsistency, redundancy, and corruption.
2. Hierarchical Model
The data is stored organized in a tree-like structure,
and records are interconnected through links. The data
can be retrieved by traversing the whole tree starting
from the root.
3. Network Model
Network Model in DBMS is a hierarchical model that is
used to represent the many-to-many relationship
among the database constraints.
The network model is known for its flexible way of
representing data. The structure follows a graph
format where objects are nodes and relationships are
arcs.
4. Object-Oriented Model
The object-oriented model envisions entities as
objects. Each object has attributes (state) and methods
(behavior). An object belongs to a single class only and
as its instance.
The “objects” involved are abstractions of real-world
entities. Objects are grouped in class hierarchies, and
have associated features.
Object-oriented databases can incorporate tables, but
can also support more complex data relationships. This
approach is employed in multimedia and hypertext
5 databases as well as other use cases
5. Relational Model
The relational model views a database as a set of tables
with columns and rows. Each table represents an entity
or a data source. Each row is an instance of that entity.
Keys uniquely identify such rows. And each column is
the attribute or property of the entity.
ACID
Atomicity
- Atomic transactions in a database setting mean the
entire process must finish, or else the file, document,
transaction or database reverts to its prior state.
- This can help protect the data, especially if there's a
network error when a document, file or group of data
transfers or saves.
Consistency
- Consistency means any transaction you complete in
the database follows the rules you or others gave to
the database.
- If a transaction bypasses one or more rules, the
database cancels the transaction to maintain data
integrity.
Isolation
- Isolation with a database structure means
transactions happen separately from one another.
Durability
- Durability in an ACID database means the database
stores all information on permanent storage.
- A database completing actions using temporary
storage or virtual memory, such as RAM, doesn't
maintain that information if an unexpected event, like
power loss, occurs.
Data Models Basic Building Blocks
Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)
-Entity Relationship Diagram is a modeling technique to
represent the database components and the
6
relationships between entities
People also call these types of diagrams ER diagrams
and Entity Relationship Models. An ERD visualizes the
relationships between entities like people, things, or
concepts in a database.
ERD Components
1. Entity
 Person, Place, Thing, or event that we want to
store information about.
 Denoted by a NOUN.
 Represented by a rectangle shape in the ERD.
2. Relationship
 describes the relationship between two entities.
 denoted by a VERB (passive or active)
 represented by a diamond shape In the ERD.
3. Attribute
 data collected about the entities.
 represented by an oval shape in the ERD
4. Cardinalities
 The number of times an instance of an entity can
relate to instances of other entities.
 Often symbolized by the crow's foot notation.
 BASIC CARDINALITIES AND RELATIONSHIP
One-to-one relationship
A one-to-one (1:1) relationship describes a situation
where one occurrence of an entity relates to exactly
one occurrence of another entity.
Most database administrators agree that this is the
least common type of relationship that occurs in
databases.
One-to-many relationship
A one-to-many (1:N) relationship describes a
situation where one occurrence in an entity relates
to many occurrences in another entity.
The one-to-many relationship is the most common
type of relationship, as you can use it to store data in
any relational database.
Many-to-many relationship
A many-to-many (M:N) relationship describes a
situation where multiple occurrences -

in one entity relate to multiple occurrences in another
entity.
Many-to many relationships can be confusing to study,
so some database administrators can opt to divide a
many-to-many relationship into several one-to-many
relationships.
 Degree of Relationship - Is based on the enitities
that are related to each other. Three types of
degree:
Unary relationship - when the relationship that exists is
within the same entity.
Binary relationship - when a relationship exists between
two different entities.
Ternary relationship - when three entities share a
relationship.
Chapter 3
Relational Model Characteristic
LOGICAL VIEW OF DATA RELATIONAL DATABASE
Designer focuses on logical representation rather than
physical.
Use of table advantageous
• Structural and data independence
• Related records stored in independent tables
• Logical simplicity.
A Logical View of Data Relational database model’s Click
to edit Master title style structural and data
independence
-allow us to ignore the structure’s physical complexity.
-enables us to view data logically rather than physically.
• The logical view allows a simpler file concept of data
storage.
• The use of logically independent tables is easier to
understand.
Relational Database Model (RDM) – is presented as data
tables that collect groups of elements into relations.
These models work based on the idea that each table
setup will include a primary key or identifier. Relations
are represented by tables.
LOGICAL VIEW OF DATA
A "Logical View of Data" refers to how data is
structured and organized from a conceptual or
logical perspective, independent of the physical
implementation or storage mechanisms.
Entities - These are the basic building blocks of data,
representing real-world objects or concepts such as
customers, products, orders, etc.
attributes - Each entity has attributes that describe
its characteristics or properties.
relationships - Entities are often related to each
other in various ways, such as one-to-one, one-to-
many, or many-to many relationships. These
relationships define how data from different entities
are associated with each other
constraints - Constraints define rules or conditions
that must be satisfied by the data. This can include
things like uniqueness constraints, referential
integrity constraints, and business rules
 KEYS
Key it consists of a group of attributes that can be
used as a basis for getting other attributes in the
row.
primary - Primary key is a column of a table or a set
of columns that helps to identify every record
present in that table uniquely.
super - Super key is the set of all the keys which help
to identify rows in a table uniquely.
candidate key - Candidate keys are those attributes
that uniquely identify rows of a table.
alternate key - All the keys which did not become the
primary Key are called alternate keys
foreign key - Foreign Key is used to establish
relationships between two tables.
composite key - a composite key is a set of two or
more attributes that help identify each tuple in a
table uniquely.
unique key - Unique Key is a column or set of
columns that uniquely identify each record in a table.
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1. Primary Key
• It is the attribute that is used to differentiate each row
in a table.
• Responsible for entity integrity.
• Requirements:
• the value must be different from all other values for
that attribute; unique
• the value null cannot be used for an attribute to be
used as a key
2. Foreign Key
• It forms a relationship by placing a primary from one
table to another table.
• It enforces referential integrity.
• It is safeguards the tables from actions that would
discredit links between tables.
• It ensures that the values being entered in the foreign
key column is valid and exists in the table it points to.
Relational Schema
A schema is a logical grouping of database objects
related to one another and becomes a guide on how the
database is constructed.
DATA DICTIONARY
A data dictionary is a centralized repository of
metadata about the data in a database. It contains
information about the structure of the database,
such as the names and descriptions of tables,
columns, data types, constraints, relationships, and
other relevant attributes.
SYSTEM CATALOG
A system catalog, also known as a system catalog
table or data dictionary table, is a special set of
tables within a database that stores metadata about
the database itself.
- It contains information about the database objects
such as tables, indexes, views, users, privileges, and
other system-related details.
DATA REDUNDANCY REVISITED
Update anomalies – inconsistencies that might
happen when we do an update in a record.

 INTEGRITY RULES Insertion anomalies – inconsistencies or action

failure when adding a record
Integrity rules - are guidelines or constraints
implemented in a database to ensure the accuracy, Deletion anomalies – inconsistencies that might
consistency, and reliability of data. occur when removing a record.

There are several kinds of integrity rules, described

OHHH BASAHIN ULIT
below:

ENTITY INTEGRITY - Usually implemented by creating Best of luck!

primary keys for each row in the table that is unique heart: heart:
from all other rows.

REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY -
• requires that a foreign key must have a matching
primary key or it must be null. This constraint is specified
between two tables (parent and child); it maintains the
correspondence between rows in these tables.

• the condition in which every reference to an entity's

instance by another instance is valid.

THE DATA DICTIONARY AND THE SYSTEM CATALOG

A data dictionary and a system catalog are both

important components in database management
systems (DBMS), but they serve slightly different
purposes. 8