Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fundamental Information System Teaching
Fundamental Information System Teaching
system
Teaching material for
Accounting
4/5/2022
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Information Systems
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Understand the parts of an information system;
Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
Dear Learners! The general aim of this chapter is to introduce you to the basic concepts needed
to gaina thorough understanding of business information systems (BIS). However, before
looking at BIS, it is important to understand something of the nature of information. For BIS to
be effective, the quality of information provided is vital. In this chapter, we look at how we can
assess and improve the quality of data and information. The topics covered are intended to give
you an understanding of:
Information systems are the combination of people, information technology, and business
processes to accomplish a business objective. Every information system (IS) has people,
processes, and information technology. In fact, many IS professionals add most of their value
working with people and processes. They manage the programmers but typically avoid
programming themselves. We can represent an information system as a triangle with people,
The three parts of the information systems triangle must interact in concert to realize business
objectives. The job of the IS professional is to ensure that a balance is maintained and enhanced
for the good of all the actors and the business as a whole.
‘Information technology and business are becoming inextricably interwoven. I don’t think
anybody can talk meaningfully about one without talking about the other.’
Bill Gates (2001)
Russell Ackoff’s ‘DIKW’ model (Rowley, 2007: 176) provides a good framework for helping to
understand the relationships between data, information, knowledge and wisdom. As can be seen
in Figure 1.2, these concepts can be shown as a hierarchy. The hierarchy suggests three
important ideas. The first is that data becomes information, information becomes knowledge and
knowledge ultimately becomes wisdom. In other words, there is a progression from one level to
the next. The second idea is that knowledge and wisdom are somehow more valuable, desirable
or important than data and information. This is because wisdom and knowledge sit at the top of
the triangle. In turn, this leads to the third idea, that data are relatively common while
knowledge and wisdomare less so.
There are several definitions for data that are in common use:
• today’s date;
• measurements taken on a production line;
• records of a business transaction, such as a sale or purchase.
Data can exist naturally or can be created artificially. Naturally occurring data need only to be
recorded. In business, organizations often establish procedures to make sure data are recorded
properly. When a customer makes a telephone enquiry, for example, staff maybe instructed to
ask for up-to-date contact details and make sure they are recorded in the company’s database.
What is information?
As with the concept of data, there are several definitions of information that are in common use:
• data that have been processed so that they are meaningful;
• data that have been processed for a purpose;
• data that have been interpreted and understood by the recipient.
Three important points can be drawn from these definitions.
• a bank statement;
• a sales forecast;
• a telephone directory;
• graphs of trends in visitor numbers to a web site.
Creating Information
Fundamentals of Information Systems, 5
processing data is necessary to place them into a meaningful context so that they can be easily
understood by the recipient. Figure 1.3 illustrates the conversion of data into information. A number of
different data processes can be used to transform data into information. Data processesare sometimes
also known as transformation processes
Data Information
Data processes
Some examples of data processes are include the following:
• Classification – this involves placing data into categories, for example categorizing an
expense as either a fixed or a variable cost.
• Rearranging/sorting – this involves organizing data so that items are grouped together or
placed into a particular order. Employee data, for example, might be sorted according to
surname or payroll number.
• Aggregating – this involves summarizing data, for example by calculating averages, totals or
subtotals.
• Performing calculations – an example might be calculating an employee’s gross pay
By multiplying the number of hours worked by the hourly rate of pay.
Value of information
It is often possible to measure the value of information directly. The tangible value of
information is often measured in terms of financial value. An example might be the use of
inventory information to improve stock control procedures. A simple calculation can be used to
determine the value of a given item or collection of information:
Although it is certain that the information is of benefit to the owner, it is difficult – or even
impossible – to quantify its value. In such cases, the information is said to have intangible value.
A good example might involve attempting to measure the extent to which information can
improve decision behavior. Such a calculation might appear as shown below:
Improvements in decision behavior – Cost of gathering information
However, formal communication also has several disadvantages. The structure imposed on
information is often inflexible, sometimes limiting its type, form, and content. In addition, formal
communications often overlook information obtained by informal means. This can affect the
decision-making process, reducing the quality and accuracy of any decisions made.
Finally, formal communications often ignore group and social mechanisms. A formal report, for
example, might marginalize or ignore staff opinions, causing offence and leading to reduced
morale.
Informal communication
Informal communication tends to offer a high degree of flexibility since there is more freedom to
choose how information is structured and presented. Information obtained in this way also tends
to be highly detailed, although it may often contain inaccuracies and may not be entirely
relevant.
Perhaps a more serious disadvantage is that informal communication is often ignored in favor of
formal communication.
The time dimension describes the time period that the information deals with and the frequency
at which the information is received.
Form Dimension
The form dimension describes how the information is presented to the recipient.
• Clarity – the information should be presented in a form that is appropriate to the intended
recipient. The recipient should be able to locate specific items quickly and should be able to
understand the information easily.
• Detail – the information should contain the correct level of detail in order to meet the
recipient’s information needs. For example, in some cases highly detailed information will be
required whilst in others only a summary will be necessary.
• Order – information should be provided in the correct order. As an example, management
reports normally contain a brief summary at the beginning. This allows a manager to locate
and understand the most important aspects of the report before examining it at a higher level
of detail.
• Presentation – the information should be presented in a form that is appropriate to the
intended recipient. Different methods can be used to make information clearer and more
accessible to the recipient, for example,e it is common to present numerical information in the form
of a graph or table.
• Media – information should be presented using the correct medium. Formal information, for
example, is often presented in the form of a printed report, whereas a presentation might
makeuse of a video projector.
Additional Characteristics
• Confidence – recipients are more likely to accept and trust the information they obtain if it is
received from a source that has been accurate and reliable in the past.
• Reliability – it can be argued that recipients should be confident that they can rely upon
information being available when required and that the information will be of a consistent
quality in terms of other attributes of information quality, such as accuracy and conciseness.
• Appropriate – the widespread use of computer-based information systems raises a number
of issues related to the security and pure quantity of information that is freely available via
sources such as the Internet.
Knowledge is the full utilization of information and data, coupled with the potential of
people’s skills, competencies, ideas, intuitions, commitments and motivations
Knowledge consists of data and/or information that have been organized and processed
to convey understanding, experience, accumulated learning, and expertise as they apply
to a current business problem.
In general, knowledge can be described as explicit or tacit. It may help to think of explicit
knowledge as ‘know-what’ and tacit knowledge as ‘know-how’.
Explicit knowledge is easily captured and stored within documents and other media. This type of
knowledge tends to be highly detailed, formal and systematic. It is often stored in the form of
manuals, documents, procedures and database files. Examples of explicit knowledge
include minutes of meetings, employee handbooks and user manuals. Since explicit knowledge
tends tobe structured, it is easy to transmit to others.
Tacit knowledge is ‘the intangible, internal, experiential, and intuitive knowledge that is
undocumented and maintained in the human mind. It is a personal knowledge contained in
human experience’ (Waltz, 2003). Tacit knowledge is characterized by factors such as
perceptions, beliefs, values, intuition and experience.
Fundamentals of Information Systems, 12
Since a great deal of tacit knowledge may be held unconsciously, it is difficult to elicit, describe
or record. Examples of tacit knowledge include skills (e.g. riding a bike), knowing how to
respond in social situations and knowing how to respond to management reports.
Knowledge Management
Knowledge management is a fairly new term that describes a range of activities intended to make
sure an organization uses its information resources as effectively as possible. Bergeron (2003),
defines knowledge management like this:
Knowledge Management (KM) is a deliberate, systematic business optimization strategy that
selects, distils, stores, organizes, packages, and communicates information essential to the
business of a company in a manner that improves employee performance and corporate
competitiveness.
Many organizations have been enthusiastic about adopting knowledge management because of
the potential benefits it brings. For example, CIO’s online magazine suggests that an effective
knowledge management program will bring about one or more of the following benefits
(Levinson, 2007):
Wisdom
Wisdom combines the characteristics of knowledge with the ability to apply such knowledge to
new situations and problems. Wang, Hjelmervik and Bremdal (2001: 43), for instance, define
wisdom as ‘sufficiently generalized approaches and values that can be applied in numerous
and varied situations. Spitzer (2007: 106) offers a fairly similar definition:
Wisdom is deep, rich understanding and insight that usually develops through a combination of
extensive knowledge (knowing) and personal experience (doing) over time.’
A good way of thinking about wisdom involves the journey many people take as they move from
being beginners to experts in many different areas. In engineering, for instance, an apprentice
spends several years learning a wide range of skills before becoming a crafts man. We might
argue that the difference between an apprentice and a craftsman is that the latter has greater
knowledge, experience and understanding.
1.4 Business Information System
What is a business information system?
Having examined concepts related to information, systems theory and decision making, itis
possible to combine these to suggest a basic definition of a business information system:
BIS typically rely on five basic resources: people, hardware, software, communications and data.
The terms ‘information systems’ (IS) and ‘information technology’ (IT) are often used
interchangeably. This is an error, because the scope of the terms is different. The stress in IT is
on the technology while IS not only refers to the technology, but also incorporates how it is
applied and managed to contribute to the business.
E-business
Modern organizations rely heavily upon information and communications technology(ICT) to
manage internal communications with external agencies, such as customers and suppliers. This
reliance upon, particularly the Internet, has given rise to the e-business concept. The European
Commission describes e-business like this:
The term ‘e-business’ covers both e-commerce (buying and selling online) and the
restructuring of business processes to make the best use of digital technologies.
Hence, e-business involves several key activities: improving business processes, enhancing
communications and providing the means to carry out business transactions securely. Three areas
of business are enhanced by adopting an e-business approach.
These are:
Although the terms ‘e-business’ and ‘e-commerce’ are often used synonymously, the distinction
between them lies in the broader range of processes in e-business that incorporates internal
transactions within an organization. These include transactions relating to procurement, logistics,
supply chain management, payments, stock control and order tracking. As Chaffey (2004) notes,
e-commerce can best be conceived as a subset of e-business. Where the two concepts overlap is
inthe buying and selling of products and services.
Types of e-business
E-business varies in scope and type of activities undertaken. The entire supply chain of many
industries has been radically transformed by the development of the internet and related
technologies. Types of e-business include the following:
• Business-to-business (B2B) –transactions take place between companies.
Fundamentals of Information Systems, 16
• Approximately 80% of all e-commerce is of this type.
• Business-to-consumer (B2C) – companies sell products directly to consumers. B2C can involve
activities such as product research (where consumers gather information and compare prices) and
electronic delivery (where information products are delivered to consumers via e-mail or other
means).
Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) – transactions take place between private individuals.
Perhaps the best examples of C2C commerce are online auction sites and peer-to- peer systems.
• Business-to-government (B2G) – transactions take place between companies and public-
sector organizations.
• Mobile commerce (m-commerce) – m-commerce is a relatively new development and
involves selling goods or services via wireless technology, especially mobile phones and
PDAs.
The success of all of the manager’s works (activities) depends upon access to high-quality
information. It is here that BIS have a role, as a means of supporting the manager’s work by
providing the information he or she needs (H. Fayol’s definition).
The ways in which managers make decisions, and the factors that influence those decisions are
often described as decision behavior.
Decisions can be classed as structured or unstructured(sometimes referred to as programmable
and non-programmable decisions). In reality, however, many decisions fall somewhere in between the
two extremes and are known as semi- structured decisions.
Structured decisions tend to involve situations where the rules and constraints governing the
decision are known. They tend to involve routine or repetitive situations where the number of
possible courses of action is relatively small. A good example involves stock control. The
decision to reorder a given item will be governed by a fairly simple set of rules and constraints.
When the amount of stock held falls below a certain point, a fixed quantity of new stock will be
ordered. Structured decisions are often described as programmable, meaning that they are easily
automated.
Unstructured decisions tend to involve more complex situations, where the rules governing the
decision are complicated or unknown. Such decisions tend to be made infrequently and rely
heavily on the experience, judgment and knowledge of the decisionmaker. A good example of an
unstructured decision might be whether or not an organization should open a new branch in a
particular area.
The behavior of a manager will influence the way in which he or she absorbs information and
reaches a decision. This is often referred to as a person’s cognitive style. A manager’s cognitive
style will fall between analytical and intuitive styles.
The characteristics of the decisions taken in an organization vary according to the level at which
they are taken. Figure 1.4 shows the distribution of managerial responsibility within atypical
organization. As can be seen, the largest proportion of managers tends to be located at the
operational level of the organization. The smallest proportion of managers, typically less than
10%, is located at the strategic level.
Summary
Self-assessment exercises
1. What are the three dimensions of information quality?
2. How can the value of information be measured?
3. What are the functions of management?
4. What are the stages involved in making a decision?
5. How will a manager’s cognitive style affect the decisions he or she makes?
6. Explain how the concept of knowledge management relates to data and information.
7. What differences in perspective about managerial decision making are introduced by the
e-business concept?
8. In brief, what is knowledge?
2.1 Introduction
Dear Learners! The aim of this chapter is to provide you with basic issues of the computer
hardware which is part of information systems, and an overview of the common software
packages used in business. The chapter addresses two separate themes: a review of the features
common to a range of modern software applications, and the way in which software can be used
to support the business activities of an organization.
A computer system is a number of interrelated components that work together with the aim of
converting data into information. In a computer system, the processing is carried out
electronically, usually with little or no intervention from a human user. The components of a
computer system include hardware and software.
2.2 Hardware Fundamentals
Hardware describes the physical components of a computer system. The hardware of a computer
system can be said to consist of different elements whose relationship is shown from a systems
theory perspective in Figure 2.1. The physical components of a computer system include: input
devices, memory, central processing unit, output devices and storage devices. Data are input,
and then processed according to software instructions, then output to the screen, for example, as
information. Information that needs to be stored permanently will be placed in storage.
Hardware
• Input Devices
• CPU
• Memory
• Storage Devices
• Output Devices
Input Devices
Input devices are used to enter data or instructions. ‘Device’ is used in this context to refer to an
individual piece of hardware with a specific function. The mouse and the keyboard are examples
of input devices. Before looking at some of the devices available, it is worth making some
observations:
• It should be noted that modern computers make use of a wide variety of input devices since
data flowing in to the organization may take a number of different forms.
• The choice of an input device will often depend upon the quantity of data to be entered.
• A computer-based information system will seldom make use of only a single input device.
Even a typical personal computer will often feature several different methods for data
entry,such as keyboard, mouse, joystick and microphone.
There is a wide variety of types of input device; note the business applications of the following.
Keyboard/keypad
The keyboard remains the most common input device and its basic design has remained largely
unchanged for more than a century. A common criticism of the keyboard is that inexperienced
users find it difficult and uncomfortable to use. In answer to this, new keyboard designs have
appeared that attempt to make them easier to use. Natural (or ergonomic) keyboards have the
keys arranged so that users can locate them more quickly and easily and is shaped to make
prolonged use more comfortable.
Mouse is a pointing device found on most modern personal computers. Computers featuring a
graphical user interface (GUI) often require the use of a mouse or other pointing device.
Although there are many different kinds of mouse, all use the same basic method of operation:
moving the mouse over a flat surface causes a corresponding movement to a small pointer on the
screen. The operating system software translates direction and rate of movement of the mouse to
movement of the on-screen cursor.
Devices with touchscreens, such as smartphones, tablets and some laptop computers, often allow
the use of a stylus. A traditional stylus appears similar to a pen and offers more precision than a
fingertip. A stylus often replaces a mouse where space is limited or a small screen is being used.
Many recent devices have started to include a smart stylus, a stylus that offers more functionality
and features when coupled with the right hardware and software. Samsung’s S Pen, for instance,
offers features like ‘Easy Clip’, where the stylus can be used to draw around part of picture
sothat it can be cut, copied or manipulated in other ways.
Applications involving graphics, such as drawing packages, often involve graphics tablets
(sometimes called drawing tablets or digitizers). With a graphics tablet, a stylus is used to draw
an image onto a pressure-sensitive flat surface, just like using a pencil and paper. The image is
shown on the computer’s screen as the user works. Graphics tablet scan also be used to
replace other pointing devices, like the mouse.
Fundamentals of Information Systems, 26
Tablets are often used instead of drawing directly onto a touch sensitive screen because they
usually offer greater precision and flexibility. As an example, a graphics tablet makes it easy to
trace drawings or diagrams. Graphics tablets are also useful for entering text in languages where
characters are often drawn, e.g. Chinese.
Trackball
A trackball is a pointing device that is controlled by rotating a small ball with the fingertips or
the palm of the hand. Moving the ball causes corresponding movement to a small pointer on the
screen. Buttons are used to select items in the same way as with the mouse. Trackballs are often
used when space is limited; in portable equipment they are often used to replace a mouse.
Joystick
The joystick is one of the most common input devices available and is primarily used for leisure
activities, such as playing computer games. There are, however, a number of more serious
applications for joysticks, in areas such as medicine and engineering. The joystick can be moved
in all four directions. The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Optical scanners can also be used to perform data entry by converting printed documents into
text files that can be used by word processing packages and other programs. Optical character
recognition (OCR) involves using software that attempts to recognize individual characters. As a
scanned image is processed, the program creates a text file containing all of the characters
recognized. This file can then be edited further using a word processor, text editor or some other
suitable program since recognition is not always 100 per cent accurate.
Optical scanners often form the basis for document image processing (DIP) systems. A DIP
system allows users to convert paper documents into their electronic equivalents. This makes it
easier to organize, store and process large numbers of documents. Typical applications for DIP
systems are found in areas such as medicine, insurance and law. For instance, hospital records
are often stored electronically, allowing medical staff to access them via a network from
anywhere in the hospital. A variation on optical character recognition is optical mark recognition
(OMR), which involves detecting and recognizing simple marks made on a document.
A bar code is a means of displaying a unique identification number as a series of thick and thin
lines. The sequence and width of the lines in the bar code can be translated into a sequence of
digits. Bar code numbers are normally produced according to a specific method. The Universal
Product Code, for example, is a standard method for creating and using bar codes.
A bar code reader measures the intensity of a light beam reflected from the printed bar code to
identify the digits making up the unique identification number. The digits making up the
identification number are also printed at the foot of the bar code.
The most common example of the use of the bar code reader in industry is the supermarket
checkout.
Many industry experts believe that bar codes will eventually be replaced by RFID(Radio-
Frequency Identification) tags. These are often called smart bar codes and are small, fairly
inexpensive tags that can be attached to a wide variety of objects. The information stored on each
tag is transmitted when a request is received from an electronic reader. Depending on the power
source used by the tag, the reader can be located from a few meters to a few hundred meters
away. RFID has many applications, ranging from monitoring components as they move through
a production process, to locating lost livestock. As an example, supermarkets have been
experimenting with RFID for a number of years with the aim of eliminating the need for
customers to pack and unpack their groceries at the checkout. Using RFID tags, as a customer
walks past a special scanner, every item in the basket or trolley can be automatically identified
and the total cost calculated. While such technology is likely to bring significant benefits to the
retailing industry, there remain many problems to resolve.
The video capture card records and stores video sequences (motion video) when connected to a
digital video camera or other device. Video capture devices are often used for security
applications. The device can be connected to multiple cameras, automatically capturing,
combining and storing video on a digital video recorder. This reduces the storage space needed
to keep large amounts of video and makes it easier to review the data quickly.
Microphone/sound card
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone
is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music. A sound card can be used to capture sound, music and speech from a variety of sources.
Sound can be captured at a very high quality; even the most inexpensive sound cards are capable
of producing results at CD quality. A business application is the use of voice recognitionsoftware
to dictate text directly into a word processing document.
Advances in Voice over IP (VoIP) technology now allow users to make and receive telephone
calls via the Internet. Services such as Skype allow users to make free or low-cost calls using a
microphone or headset connected to a PC. It is also possible to buy special telephone handsets
that connect directly to a computer. The very latest handsets connect directly to a hub, allowing
users to make and receive calls without needing the computer to be switched on. VoIP is a
technology that enables users to make and receive telephone calls via the Internet.
In many cases, a special microphone is required in order to ensure that the user’s voice is not
obscured by background noise. In addition, the software used normally requires ‘training so that
it can adapt to a user’s accent or the way in which they pronounce particular words.
Web cameras (webcams) allow the real-time capture of images and sound. The information
captured by a webcam is usually compressed so that it can be transmitted via the Internet. This
enables three basic applications: video e-mail, video conferencing and webcam monitoring.
Video e-mail (v-mail) involves sending an e-mail message to which a video clip has been
attached. The video clip is usually accompanied by a viewer program that runs when the user
clicks on a button or link in the e-mail message.
Video conferencing allows a group of users to communicate with each other simultaneously.
Each person taking part in the conversation is able to see and hear the other participants in real-
time. Many applications provide a range of additional features that support collaborative
working, such as shared whiteboards.
Webcam monitoring involves setting up one or more webcams to watch a given person or place.
The images captured by the camera can be viewed at a web site using a normal browser.
MICR involves capturing data that have been printed using a special magnetic ink. This
technology is normally associated with the banking industry, especially cheque processing. Some
of the details on a cheque, such as the cheque number, are printed in a special typeface using
magnetic ink. The shape of each character means that it can be recognized by its magnetic field.
The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink
that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is
called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantage of MICR is that it is
Output Devices
Output devices display the results of computer processing. Before looking at some of the devices
available, it is worth making some observations:
• The output produced by some devices is temporary in nature. A display shown on a
monitor, for example, is lost when a new image is shown or the computer system is
switched off. On the other hand, a report produced on a printer is more permanent and
may last for many years.
• Some forms of output may be used as the input for another process. Photographs, sounds
and video sequences, for example, might be combined during the production of a training
package or demonstration program.
• Business organizations have a wide range of requirements in terms of the form of the
information they produce. These requirements mean that there are a large variety of
specialized output devices available.
• A computer-based information system will seldom make use of only a single output
device. Even a typical personal computer will often feature several different output
devices, such as monitor, sound card and printer.
Display devices
The most common output device is almost certainly the monitor that is attached to all personal
computer systems. Most modern monitors feature a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), making them
more reliable and energy efficient than their predecessors. Better energy efficiency can be
obtained if LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are used to provide the backlight needed
The monitor has several advantages over other forms of output device:
• Information can be shown instantly with only a negligible delay between the information
becoming available and its being displayed. In addition, the monitor is one of only as mall
number of devices that allows users to view the progress of an activity as it occurs.
• As standard components of a computer system, monitors are relatively inexpensive to
purchase, repair or replace.
• The monitor is particularly suited to displaying certain kinds of information, for example
charts and graphics.
• The cost of using the monitor as an output device is very low. Unlike printers,
• For example, a monitor does not require consumables, such as paper. In turn, this means
that wastage doesnot occur.
Another way of producing a large display for presentations is by making use of a data or video
projector. A computer system can be connected directly to a projector so that output is directed
toa projection screen.
A plotter uses a number of different colored pens to draw lines upon the paper as it moves
through the machine. Although capable of producing characters, the quality of the text created is
often very poor. Plotters are primarily used to create technical drawings, such as engineering
diagrams and to record the progress of continuous monitoring.
A printer is a device used to output text and images from the computer onto a paper. Therefore
unlike monitors, printers produce hardcopy.
In addition to the items described above, a wide variety of other output devices arealso available.
Some examples include the following:
• Sound – in addition to music and sound output via speakers, a sound card can be used to
output information in a variety of other forms. Two common examples are voice annotations
and speech synthesis.
• MIDI devices – the ability to link devices to a personal computer via MIDI (musical
instrument digital interface) connections allows users to send information directly to one or
more musical instruments.
• Microfilm – Computer Output to Microfilm (COM), also known as ‘computer output
microform’, is often used to archive large quantities of information for future reference.
Information is processed via a personal computer and sent directly to a device that produces
microfilm negatives. COM has largely been replaced by more modern document image
processing systems, which tend to be less expensive to operate and offer more flexibility in
terms of how information can be used.
Storage Devices
Storage devices are used to store programs, data waiting processing and the information resulting
from computer processing. Storage devices are categorized as primary storage when the data are
loaded into computer memory or secondary storage when the data are stored on a separate
devicewhere the information will be retained even if the machine is switched off. This distinction
is similar to that between human short-term and long-term memory.
The capacity of a storage device is often measured in terms of kilobytes, megabytes and
gigabytes. The following may help you to understand these units.
• A bit is a single binary digit and represents a 0 (zero) or a 1. The bit is the smallest unit of
measurement.
• A byte is made up of eight bits and represents a value between 0 and 255. A byte can be thought
of as the amount of space required to hold a single character.
Hard disk drives are a standard feature of a modern personal computer. They are used to store the
computer’s operating system, application software and data. These are usually referred to as the
‘C: drive’ on PCs. On servers, network drives based on hard disks are typically denoted by a
letter in the range F to Z.A hard disk drive stores data upon a number of rigid platters that are
rotated at very high speeds.
• Hard disk drives tend to have large storage capacities, with typical capacities varying
from 160 GB to more than 3TB, easily capable of holding billions of pages of text.
• A hard disk drive is considered a fast means of storing and retrieving data,
• for example, a modern drive can be hundreds of times faster than a DVD drive. New
hybrid drives have a
relatively small amount of flash memory that can be used to speed up operations such
as loading the operating system.
• The hard disk drive is a standard component of a personal computer system. As such
theyare relatively inexpensive to purchase or replace.
The major disadvantages of the hard disk drive are as follow:
• Hard disk drives are seen as delicate devices that are easily damaged. They are
particularly susceptible to damage from sudden shocks and excessive vibration.
• In general, a hard disk drive is considered to be a fixed part of a computer system and is
not portable. However, it should be noted that portable hard disk drives exist and are
relatively inexpensive.
Secondary storage – flash memory
Data are stored in flash memory, in an EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory) chip that can retain its contents for as long as ten years before it begins to degrade.
Since the flash drive appears to the operating system as a removable drive, users can copy, move
or delete files just as if they are working with a hard disk. Like a rewritable disc, data can be
written or erased many times and the drive can be locked to prevent files from being erased
accidentally.
A flash drive is a portable storage device that connects to a computer via a standard USB port.
Flash drives have no moving parts, so are reliable and robust.
The data on an optical disc are encoded as a series of dips and raised areas. These two states
represent binary data – the same number system used by microprocessors. Optical discs come in
two main formats. Compact discs (CD) typically store 700 MB of data. Digital versatile discs
(DVD) offer higher storage capacities, typically 4.7 GB per side.
Examples
• A digital camera is just one device that makes use of non-volatile memory.
• The memory found in a personal computer is considered volatile, that is, anything held in
memory is lost once the power to the computer system is switched off.
• Random access memory (RAM) is used as volatile, working storage by a computer,
holding instructions and data that are waiting to be processed.
o A typical computer system will feature 4 GB, 8 GB or more of RAM. In general,
the more RAM a computer system is equipped with, the faster it will operate and
the more powerful it will be in terms of the complexity of the programs it can run.
• The contents of read-only memory (ROM) are fixed and cannot be altered. ROM is non-
volatile, making it ideal as a means of storing the information needed for a device to
function properly.
Fundamentals of Information Systems, 37
Central Processing Unit or Processor
The central processing unit (CPU) or processor found within a computer consists of two
components: a control unit and an arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
The control unit fetches instructions from software that has been loaded into memory, decodes
them and then executes them. The control unit controls the operation of all hardware, including
all input/output operations. The ALU carries out arithmetical calculations, for example addition,
and can also make comparisons between values. An often-used analogy is to compare the
processor to the human brain – which has a similar control function over the other parts of the
body. The brain controls bodily function according to stimuli monitored by different sensory
organs of the body.
The analogy is not entirely appropriate since the human brain is of course a very complex part of
the human system, also containing permanent and volatile memory functions for example!
Thereare two major categories of software: systems software and applications software.
Operating System
The operating system (OS) interacts with the hardware of the computer by monitoring and
sending instructions to manage and direct the computer’s resources.
The basic functions of the operating system include: allocating and managing system resources,
scheduling the use of resources, and monitoring the activities of the computer system.
Examples of these functions include the following:
• controlling access to storage devices, for example, disk drives;
• coordinating and controlling peripheral devices, for example, printers;
• allowing users to input data and issue instructions, for example by allowing data to be
entered via the keyboard;
• coordinating and controlling the operation of programs, for example by scheduling
processor time;
• managing the computer’s memory;
• performing file management and access control, for example by allowing certain users to
create, view or delete files;
• dealing with errors, for example by displaying a message to the user if a fault is detected
within a hardware component.
Operating systems can be controlled by either a text-based or a graphical interface. A text based
interface uses a command-line interpreter (CLI) to accept instructions from the user.MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating System) and some versions of Linux are examples of operating
systems that use a CLI to pass instructions from a user to a computer program in the form ofbrief
statements entered via the keyboard.
A graphical user interface (GUI) allows users to enter instructions using a mouse.
The mouse is used to issue instructions using menus and icons. The term WIMP (windows,
icons, mouse, and pull-down menus) is often used to describe this kind of environment.
Utility programs provide a range of tools that support the operation and management of a
computer system. Programs that monitor system performance or provide security controls are
examples of utility programs.
Development programs
Development programs allow users to develop their own software in order to carry out
processing tasks using programming languages. Programming languages can be described in
terms of their historical position in the development of computer programming systems. Table
2.1 shows how programming languages have become more accessible to business users over
time.
General-purpose applications
General-purpose applications are programs that can be used to carry out a wide range of
common tasks. A word processor, for example, is capable of producing a variety of
documents that are suitable for many different purposes. This type of application is often
referred to as productivity software since it helps improve the efficiency of an individual.
Productivity software describes category of computer software that aims including text to
support user in performing a variety of common tasks.
The following are some general-purpose applications software in business that is carried
out in anoffice:
Application-specific software
Materials requirements planning (MRP) software – is used to plan the production of goods
in a manufacturing organization by obtaining components, scheduling operations and
controlling production.
The Microsoft Word program will load, and a blank document will appear on your
screen.
When you need help
At the top right corner of your MS Word screen, you’ll see a small blue
circle containing a question mark; just click on the question mark to open
the MS Word Help window.
You can also access the Help window by pressing the [F1] key on your keyboard.
To get help on a specific topic, type a word or phrase in the blank area at the top
of the window and then click the Search button; alternatively, you can click on
any of the Help topics listed in the window. Click the X in the top right corner to
close the Help window.
The Office button contains a menu of file-related commands. Click the Office
Button to see the available commands. Select a command by clicking on it.
The Quick access toolbar provides a set of frequently used commands. The
default options are to save a file, to undo the last action, and to repeat your most
recent action.
The Ribbon tabs provide you with a set of tools that are relevant to what you are
currently doing. In the example above, the Home tab contains formatting and
editing options.
The Title bar displays the name of the program and the name of the current
document. If you haven’t named the document yet, then it will be called
something like Document1.
Window controls are used to change the size of a window, or to close it.
The Vertical scrollbar is used to scroll up and down the page. You can also click
on the little down arrow below the scrollbar to move down the page. If your page
is wider than the screen display, then you will also see a Horizontal scrollbar
across the bottom of the window.
The Status and information bar displays useful information about your
document, such as the page count and number of words.
Options for viewing a document in Word
Word offers you five different views of your “virtual
piece of paper”: Print layout
Full screen reading
Web layout Outline
view
Draft view
For our purposes, Print layout is the best document view to work with. In Print
layout, the piece of paper on your screen looks almost exactly as it will appear
when printed. You’ll be able to see precisely where the page breaks and the
edges of the paper fall.
It’s easy to switch between the different page views:
Fundamentals of Information Systems 51
1. Look at the right end of the status and information bar at the bottom of
the window. Here you’ll find a set of five miniature buttons.
2. The Print layout button is the first button on the left.
3. You can click on any of the other buttons to change to the corresponding view.
Showing non-printing characters
Non-printing characters are characters that are used to format your document, but
that aren’t displayed as text on your screen. For example, when you press the
[TAB] or [ENTER] key, a formatting character is stored at the corresponding
point in your document.
Here’s how to display the non-printing characters in your document:
1. Click the Show/Hide button on the Home ribbon.
2. Now the non-printing characters will appear in your
document. Each time you press [ENTER], you’ll see the
3. Click the Show/Hide button again to hide the non-printing characters from
view.
Try it and see for yourself!
These symbols can be very useful when you are looking for formatting errors
inyour document. Deactivate them if you want to see what your document will
look like when printed.
Writing right away – some important buttons and guidelines
When you start Word, you effectively roll a new, empty page into your Word
“typewriter”. In addition, the cursor (the writing-mark) blinks contentedly and
waits for your text. So what are you waiting for then? Start typing! Write down
whatever comes into your head!
Typing upper-case letters
You want to type UPPER-CASE letters? Just hold down the [SHIFT] key, and
type the letters that you’d like in upper case. You’ll find the [SHIFT] key in two
places on your keyboard.
Are you typing only upper-case letters? Then you probably pressed the [CAPS LOCK]
key by mistake. It’s usually located just above the [SHIFT] key on the left-hand side. To
deactivate this function, simply press [CAPS LOCK] again.
This is a short note to tell you briefly about my experiences on my first day at
university. I was very excited but I was also a bit scared and wasn’t sure whether I
was going to find my way around. In fact it all went very well. There were lots of
people I could ask, and all the other new students were just as confused. I am still
having a problem finding all my lecture venues though.
You’ll notice that in Word, line breaks occur automatically. You should only
press [ENTER] if you really want to start a new paragraph. You’ll also press the
[ENTER] key if you want to move on to a new line after writing only a few
words. For example, you might want to do this if you’re making a list or typing a
short passage of text. Whatever you do, don’t press [ENTER] after each line of
continuous text! That makes it very difficult to edit your writing. But do leave a
space after every punctuation mark – that is, after full stops, commas, or
exclamation marks.
Correcting mistakes
You made a mistake? That’s not so bad! There is a wonderful key that helps you
correct your mistakes, called the [BACKSPACE] key. You’ll find it directly
above the [ENTER] key. Each press of the [BACKSPACE] key deletes one
character to the left of the cursor.
Undoing steps
Instead of erasing one word, you’d like to undo several steps at once? No problem!
1. Each press of the Undo button (on the Quick Access toolbar)
takes you one step backwards.
2. If you click the little down arrow next to the Undo button, you’ll see a
list of all the steps you’ve taken so far. Using this list, you can select the
specific step(s) that you want to undo.
3. Double-click the folder you saved your document in, to see the files that it
contains.
4. Double-click the required file name, or else select it and press [ENTER].
The file will open in Word.
Only if you save the file again will you notice a difference:
If you want to keep the same file name and location, then the Save icon
and the Save menu option will both save the file with no further comment.
WARNING: you should never save your documents only on a diskette or flash drive. These can
be easily corrupted and your data may be lost. It’s safer to store your work on the network drive.
We are assuming that you want to save a document that’s already been saved
to the network drive, and so it already has a file name. Here’s what to do:
1. Click the Office button and select the Save As command.
2. In the dialog box, click the down arrow next to the Save In field.
3. From the list, select the device on which you want to save
your file. oStiffly disk drives are typically drive A:.
o Flash drives have a letter allocated by the operating system,
and may be labeled by the device name or as a Removable
Disk.
4. Click the Save button.
Closing a document
You’d like to close the current document without quitting Word?
Just click the Office button and select the Close command
You’ll see the Word screen without any document.
Closing Word
There are several methods you can use to end Word:
Click the Office button, and then click the Exit Word
button in the bottom right corner.
Alternatively, close the window by clicking on the X at the far right
edge of the title bar.
If you’ve made any changes since you last saved your document, then you’ll be
asked whether you want to save your changes. You can return to your document
by pressing [ESC] or clicking the Cancel button.
2. You don’t have to click anywhere; the cursor will be waiting for you in the
Enter PageNumber field. Just type the number of the page that you’d like
to jump to.
3. Click on the Go To button or press [ENTER], and you’ll
find yourself transported to the page you wanted to see.
There’s another way that you can jump to a particular page, which uses the
mouse and the vertical scroll bar.
1. Click the box on the vertical scroll bar and hold the left mouse button down.
2. Now drag the scroll box in the desired direction. You’ll see the actual page
location in an information box on the left of the scroll bar.
3. When you’ve reached the page you want to see, release the mouse button!
1. You’d like to find out what the zoom factor is? Just look on the Zoom
button, which is located towards the right end of the status and
information bar at the bottom of the Word window.
1. The picture is too big or too small? Then drag the slider at the right
2. The dialog box lets you choose a preset zoom factor, or else you can type
your own value in the Percent field.
4. Click OK, and the screen will immediately appear as you want it.
Viewing a document with Print Preview
Word has a cool feature that you’ll definitely want to know about. I’m
talking about print Preview. To call it up:
1. Click the Office button, select Print and then Print Preview. The Print
Preview icon shows a dog-eared page with a magnifying glass.
2. Now you’re in Print Preview mode. You see the document exactly as
it will look when printed.
3. Once again, you can adjust the zoom factor to suit yourself. There is a
Zoom button on the Print Preview ribbon, as well as the usual zoom
controls on the status bar. Note that the Many Pages option in the Zoom
dialogue box allows you to display several pages at once, depending on
the resolution of your screen.
4. To close Print Preview, click the Close Print Preview button on the
right of the ribbon.
Selecting text
Before you can do anything to your text, you need to select the parts you
want to act on. Selected text passages are easy to manipulate. You can cut
them out and paste them in elsewhere in your document. You’ll find out
more about this on the next few pages.
Selecting a word
You want to select just one word? No problem!
1. Position the mouse pointer directly over the word.
2. Double-click the left mouse button. It’s that easy!
If you want to de-select text that you’ve selected, just click anywhere outside
the selected text.
Overtype mode
While you’re working, you may notice that your previous text is being deleted
character by character as you type. This happens if you’ve accidentally turned
on Overtype Mode. Press the [INSERT] key to turn this mode off and return to
Insert mode.
If Insert / Overtype mode isn’t visible on your status bar, then you can do a
right click in the blank area of the status bar, and check the Overtype option.
Text that has been cut or copied to the clipboard can be inserted as many times as
you want to. Only when you cut or copy again will the contents of the clipboard
be erased.
Some keyboard shortcuts
There are also some easy-to-remember key combinations to cut, copy and paste!
Just hold down the first key [CTRL] while you type the second one.
[CTRL] + [X] : Cut
[CTRL] + [C] : Copy
[CTRL] + [V] : Paste
Character formatting
Word provides an amazing range of tools to help you create professional-looking
documents! Characteristics that affect the appearance of one or more characters
are called character formats.
5. Word will inform you that you’re about to change the default font,
which will update the NORMAL template. Go ahead and click Yes.
forBold
forItalic
forUnderline
The arrow next to the underline button offers you a choice of underlining styles.
2. You’ll see a palette containing all the text colors available to you.
3. Choose the text color that you’d like by clicking on it.
5. Confirm your settings with OK when you’ve finished making your selection.
Paragraph formatting
Paragraph formatting applies to a complete paragraph - that is, all the text between two
occurrences of [ENTER]. And you don’t even need to select the text first, unless you want
to format more than one paragraph. Just position your cursor anywhere insidethe paragraph
that you want to format. It’s as simple as that!
Right, left, or in the middle? Please arrange!
By default, paragraphs are usually left-aligned: the left margin is straight, but the right margin is
jagged (like in this manual).
Word provides you with a number of other
options though. Just position your cursor anywhere in the paragraph, and
click one of the text alignment buttonson the Home ribbon.
Fundamentals of Information Systems
Align left: text is aligned at the left margin but jagged on the right.
Center: text is centred within each line, with jagged margins on both left and right.
Align right: Text is aligned at the right margin but jagged on the left.
Justify: text is aligned at both the left and right margins (Word does this by adjusting the
amount of space between words).
Using bullets
Here’s how you can create a nifty bulleted list!
1. First, type the points that you want to bullet, one under another. Make sure you
create them as individual paragraphs bypressing [ENTER] after typing each
point.
2. Select the paragraphs that you’d like to bullet.
3. Click the Bullets button in the Paragraph section of the Home ribbon.
4. Look! The selected paragraphs have been formatted as bullet points.
The drop-down arrow on the right of the Bullets button allows you to choose from different bullet
styles.
Creating a numbered list
In much the same way, you can create a neatly numbered list. Instead of clicking the Bullets button,
you should click the
Numbering button just next to it.
The best thing about Word numbering is that the numbers adjust themselves
automatically when you edit the text!To end a bulleted or numbered list, just
press [ENTER] twice.
Borders and shading
You want to place a border around an entire paragraph? That’s no problem either!
1. Place the cursor anywhere in the paragraph that you’d like to frame.
2. Click the Outside Borders button in the Paragraph section of the Home ribbon. (Note: if the
Outside Border button
doesn’t show a “frame” icon, then click the drop-down arrow to select it.)
For more complex borders and shading, select the Borders and
Fundamentals
Shading optionof at
Information Systems
the bottom of the Outside Borders drop-down
list.This will open the Borders and Shading dialogue box. Effects can
be applied to the whole paragraph, or to selected words.
Using the Borders tab, you can select a border setting, style, colour and width. The Apply To field
lets you specify whether this should be applied to the whole paragraph or to selected text. Click OK
to see the effect. (And then Undo if you don’t like it!)
Using the Shading tab, you can select a background colour and/or pattern. The Apply To
field lets you specify whether this shouldbe applied to the whole paragraphor to selected
Hanging Indent
1. Select the paragraph in which you want to indent all but the first line of the paragraph
2. On the Page Layout tab, click Paragraph, and then Indents and Spacing
3. In the Special list under Indentation, click Hanging, and then in the By box, set the
amount of space that you want for thehanging indent.
Setting left and right indents
1. Select the paragraph that you want to change.
2. On the Page Layout tab, click Paragraph, and then Indents and Spacing
3. Click the arrows next to Indent Left / Right to increase / decrease the left / right indentation of
the paragraph.
Working with line spacing
Change the spacing before and after selected paragraphs
By default, paragraphs are followed by a blank line, and headings have extra space above them.
1. Select the paragraph before or after which you want to change the spacing.
2. On the Page Layout tab, in Paragraph, click arrow next to Spacing Before
or Spacing
Fundamentals After and enter
of Information the amountof space required.
Systems
Line spacing options
Using tabs
Use tabs to align text in your documents. It’s great for aligning columns of
text! By default, Word has tab stops sertevery 0.5” on the ruler.
Tab stop types:
There are five types of tab
stops available
which do the
following:Left-
aligned Text flows to the right
Centered The
text centers on this position
as you typeRight-alighned
Text
flows to the left
Decimal-aligned Text aligns on
the decimal point when using
Fundamentals of Information Systems
numbersBar Inserts a
vertical line at tab stop
Setting tabs using the ruler
This is the easiest way to set tabs!
If you can’t see the ruler, click View Ruler at the top of the vertical scroll bar. Click
anywhere on the ruler, and you will have set atab stop.
1. As soon as you click on a graphic, a Format ribbon tab appears at the top of the screen.
2. Click the Format ribbon tab.
3. Click on the Text Wrapping button.
4. Select a position for the graphic relative to the text around it. For example, if you’d like
the text of
Fundamentals toInformation
flow around the
Systems
contours of the graphic, select Through.)
Controlling Page Layout
You’d like to add page numbers, or perhaps a header or footer, to your document? That’s not hard!
(Headers and footers are
elements of a document that are repeated on every page.)
Adding page numbers
Let’s start by adding page numbers to your document:
1. Select the Insert ribbon tab, and click on the Page Number button.
2. From the drop-down menu, select the position you’d like for your
page numbers, and one of the built-informats. It’s as simple as that!
3. Page numbers will be inserted into your document, and the Design ribbon will replace
the Insert ribbon above the documentwindow.
4. If you want to adjust the page numbering style or sequence then click the PageNumber
button again, and select
Format Page Numbers.
5. Finally, click Close Header & Footer to return to your document text.
Adding a header
Headers and footers aren’t automatically included in a new document. But that’s easily remedied!
Let’s start with a header:
1. On the Insert ribbon, click the Header button.
2. The Header menu will drop down, offering you a choice of built-in header
layouts. Select a layout by clicking onit.
3. The header area will appear above your document text (which will be greyed
out). The Design ribbon will replace theInsert ribbon above the document
window.
4. You’ll see a text placeholder in the header area. Click on it and then type the text that you want
to appear in the header.
5. When you’ve finished creating your header, you can either
Click the Close Header and Footer button, or
If you’d like to add a footer as well, then click the Footer button.
To edit an existing header, justSystems
Fundamentals of Information double-click anywhere in the header area. To remove
a header, click the Header button andthen select Remove Header from the bottom of
the drop-down menu.
Adding a footer
Adding, editing or removing a footer follows the same steps as described above for
a header. Just click the Footer buttoninstead of the Header button!
Setting page orientation
You can decide on the orientation of your page ie. portrait or landscape by
selecting PageLayout, then Orientation.Setting page margins
To change the margins of your document, select Page Layout, then Margins . The most common
margin width to use is the
Normal option. You are also welcome to select your own margin settings by selecting Margins,
Custom Margins.
Inserting a manual page break
You will often need to insert a manual page break to add a blank page to your document. You
do this by clicking on Insert and thenselecting the Blank Page option.
Deleting a page break
1. Select Print Layout.
2. Click on the page break in Print Layout view and hit the delete key
Spelling and grammar checking
Have you sometimes noticed a wavy red line appearing beneath your typing? This indicates a typo,
or a word that Word doesn’t recognize. Note that Word also regards a missing space after a comma
or a period, or the doubling of a word (the the), as a mistake!Proofing while you type
Now I’ll show you how to use the nifty spell checker!
1. Mistype a word so that the wavy red line appears.
2. Click the right mouse button on the underlined word. A context-sensitive menu will open up.
3. Click with the left mouse button on the correct suggestion, and the mistyped word will
automatically be replaced.
What if Word doesn’t make any suggestions? Then check whether maybe you left out a space after a
period or comma.
Fundamentals of Information Systems
Please note that there are many proper nouns and specialist terms that Word doesn’t recognize. A
wavy red line doesn’t always mean thatyou’ve made a mistake!
If you want Word to proof grammar as well as spelling, then make sure that the Check
Grammar option in the Spelling andGrammar dialog box is ticked.
Automatic error correction
Did you know that Word is already looking for errors while you are still typing a word? Try it – for
example, type adn instead of
and, or teh instead of the. You can’t do it! The force behind this is an intelligent function called Auto-
Correct.
Printing a document
Now it’s finally time to see your words on paper!
The Print dialog box
This is the approach that I recommend:
1. Click the Office button and select the Print command.
2. The Print dialog box will appear.
3. If you have more than one printer to choose from, they will be available in the
Printer area. Click the drop-down arrownext to the Name field to select your
preferred printer.
4. Would you
Fundamentals like to print
of Information selected pages only? Find the Page Range area, and type the page
Systems
numbers that you’d like printed
in the Pages field.
5. If you’d like more than one copy of the document, then enter the required number of copies in
the Number of Copies field.
6. If you’d like to print more than one page per sheet (compressed printing), then select
the required number in the Pages perSheet field.
7. Click OK when you’re satisfied with your settings. The specified document pages will be sent
to the printer.
Word tips and tricks
Now we’re almost at the end of this manual. Almost – but I still have a few tricks for you hidden up
my sleeve!
Beginning on a new page
You’d like to begin a piece of text on a new page? Perhaps you’ve tried to do this by
repeatedly pressing [ENTER] until you reachthe right position? And then when you changed
something on the previous page, the entire line count became scrambled! Here’s a trick to
ensure this will never happen to you again.
1. Click just before the text that you’d like to place on a new page.
2. Hold down the [CTRL] key and press [ENTER].
3. Word will automatically add a hard page break to your document.
Text following a hard page break will always start on a new page, even if you insert or delete other
text before it.
Searching for text
You’re working on a long document, and looking for a particular item of text?
4. Click the Find button at the left end of the Home ribbon.
5. The Find and Replace dialog box will appear. Click the Find tab.
6. Type in the word or phrase you’re searching for and click Find Next.
7. Word will display and highlight the next occurrence of the specified word or phrase.
8. You can continue pressing Find Next to locate all occurrences of the specified word
or phrase, or click Cancel to close thewindow.
9. Word will tell you when all occurrences of the word or phrase have been displayed.
That’s all for now! Have fun using the skills that you’ve learned. And remember that Word
has hundreds of other exciting features, so don’t be afraid to experiment with the options that
you see on the various ribbons. You can always call on that great standby, theUndo button!
Insert Tab
This tab allows you to insert a variety of items into a document from pictures, clip art, and headers and
footers.
Page Layout Tab
This tab has commands to adjust page such as margins, orientation and themes
This tab has commands to use when creating Formulas. This tab holds an immense function
library which can assist when creatingany formula or function in your spreadsheet.
Data Tab
This tab allows you to modifying worksheets with large amounts of data by sorting and filtering as
View Tab
This tab allows you to change the view of your document including freezing or splitting panes,
viewing gridlines and hide cells.
In order to complete more advanced processes in Excel you need to be able to highlight or select
cells, rows and columns. There are a variety of ways to do this, see the table below to understand
the options.
To select Do this
A single cell Click the cell, or press the arrow keys to move to the cell.
A range of cells Click the first cell in the range, and then drag to the last cell, or hold down
NOTE: To cancel a selection of cells, click any cell on the worksheet. This is not applicable to
cells with formulas in it.
Modifying Spreadsheets
In order to create an understandable and professional document you will need to make
adjustments to the cells, rows, columns and text. Use the following processes to assist when
creating a spreadsheet.
Cut, Copy, and Paste Data
You can use the Cut, Copy, and Paste commands in Microsoft Office Excel to move or copy entire
cells or their contents. NOTE: Excel displays an animated moving border around cells that have
been cut or copied. To cancel a moving border, press ESC.
Move/Copy Cells
When you move or copy a cell, Excel moves or copies the entire cell,
including formulas and their resulting values, cell formats, and
comments.
1. Select the cells that you want to move or copy.
2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, do one of the following:
a. To move cells, click Cut .
b. To copy cells, click Copy .
3. Click in the center of the cell you would like to Paste the information too.
4. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Paste .
NOTES: Excel replaces existing data in the paste area when you cut and paste cells to move them.
When you copy cells, cell references are automatically adjusted. If the selected copy or pastearea
includes hidden cells, Excel also copies the hidden cells. You may need to temporarily unhidecells
that you don't want to include when you copy information.
1. Select the cells or a range of cells that you want to move or copy.
2. To move a cell or range of cells, point to the border of the selection. When the pointer
becomes a move pointer , drag the cell or range of cells to another location.
NOTE: At times, a cell might display #####. This can occur when the cell contains a number or a
date that exceeds the width of the cell so it cannot display all the characters that its format requires.
To see the entire contents of the cell with its current format, you must increase the width of the
column.
Set Column/Row Width/Height with Mouse
To change the width of one column/row
1. Place you cursor on the line between two rows or columns.
2. A symbol that looks like a lower case t with arrows on the
horizontal line will appear
3. Drag the boundary on the right side of the column/row heading
until the column/row is the width that you want.
To change the width of multiple columns/rows
1. Select the columns/rows that you want to change
2. Drag a boundary to the right of a selected column/row heading.
3. All selected columns/rows will become a different size.
To change the width of columns/rows to fit the contents in the cells
1. Select the column(s) or row(s) that you want to change
2. Double-click the boundary to the right of a selected column/row heading.
3. The Column/Row will automatically be size to the length/height of the longest/tallest text.
Merge or Split Cells
To merge cells only, click the arrow next to Merge and Center, and then click
Merge Across or Merge Cells.
Split Cells
1. Select the merged cell you want to split
2. To split the merged cell, click Merge and Center .
The cells will split and the contents of the merged cell will appear in the upper-left cell of the range of
split cells.
To further enhance your spreadsheet you can format a number of elements such as text,
numbers, coloring, and table styles. Spreadsheets can become professional documents used for
company meetings or can even be published.
Wrap Text
You can display multiple lines of text inside a cell by wrapping the text. Wrapping text in a cell
does not affect other cells.
NOTE: If the text is a long word, the characters won't wrap (the word won't be split); instead, you can
Cell Borders
By using predefined border styles, you can quickly add a border around cells or ranges of
cells. If predefined cell borders do not meet your needs, you can create a custom border.
NOTE: Cell borders that you apply appear on printed pages. If you do not use cell borders but want
worksheet gridline borders for all cells to be visible on printed pages, you can display the gridlines.
Cell Styles
You can create a cell style that includes a custom border, colors and accounting formatting.
1. On the Sheet tab bar, right-click the sheet tab that you want to customize
2. Click Rename to rename the sheet or Tab Color to select a tab color.
3. Type in the name or select a color you would like for your spreadsheet.
4. The information will be added to the tab at the bottom of the spreadsheet.
Formulas in Excel
Formulas are equations that perform calculations on values in your worksheet. A formula always
starts with an equal sign (=). An example of a simple is =5+2*3 that multiplies two numbers and then
adds a number to the result. Microsoft Office Excel follows the standard order of mathematical
operations. In the preceding example, the multiplication operation (2*3) is performed first, and then 5
is added to its result.
You can also create a formula by using a function which is a prewritten formula that takes a value,
performs an operation and returns a value. For example, the formulas =SUM (A1:A2) and
SUM(A1,A2) both use the SUM function to add the values in cells A1 and A2.
Depending on the type of formula that you create, a formula can contain any or all of the following
parts
1. The first cell reference is B3, the color is blue, and the cell range has a blue border with square
corners.
2. The second cell reference is C3, the color is green, and the cell
range has a green border with square corners.
To create your formula:
1. Click the cell in which you want to enter the formula.
2. In the formula bar, at the top of the Excel window that you use, , type = (equal
sign).
3. Click on the 1st cell you want in the formula.
4. Enter an Operator such as +, or *.
5. Click on the next cell you want in the formula. Continue steps 3 –5 until the formula is
complete
6. Hit the ENTER key on your keyboard.
EXAMPE WHAT IT DOESFORMUA
=A1+A2 Adds the values in cells A1 and A2
=A1-A2 Subtracts the value in cell A2 from the value in A1
=A1/A2 Divides the value in cell A1 by the value in A2
=A1*A2 Multiplies the value in cell A1 times the value in A2
=A1^A2 Raises the value in cell A1 to the exponential value specified in A2
1. Select the cell where you would like your formulas solution to appear.
2. Go to the Home tab, in the Editing group,
3. Click AutoSum, to sum your numbers or click the arrow next to
AutoSum to select a function that you want to apply.
Delete a Formula
When you delete a formula, the resulting values of the formula is also deleted. However, you can
instead remove the formula only and leave the resulting value of the formula displayed in the cell.
To delete formulas along with their resulting values, do the following:
1. Select the cell or range of cells that contains the formula.
2. Press DELETE.
To delete formulas without removing their resulting values, do the
following:
1. Select the cell or range of cells that contains the formula.
2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click Copy .
3. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the arrow below Paste , and then click
Paste Values.
Enclose other sheet If the formula refers to values or cells on other worksheets or
names in single workbooks, and the name of the other workbook or worksheet contains
quotation marks a non-alphabetical character, you must enclose its name within single
quotation marks ( ' ).
Enter numbers
without Do not format numbers as you enter them in formulas. For example,
formatting even if the value that you want to enter is $1,000, enter 1000 in the
formula.
1. The chart area is the entire chart and all its elements
2. The plot area is the area of the chart bounded by the axes.
3. The data points are individual values plotted in a chart represented by bars,
columns, lines, or pies.
4. The horizontal (category) and vertical (value) axis along which the data is
plotted in the chart.
5. The legend identifies the patterns or colors that are assigned to the data series
or categories in the chart.
6. A chart and axis title are descriptive text that for the axis or chart.
7. A data label provides additional information about a data marker that you
can use to identify the details of a data point in a data series.
Select the cells that contain the data that you want to use for the chart.
NOTE: If the cells that you want to plot in a chart are not in a continuous range, you can
select nonadjacent cells or ranges as long as the selection forms a rectangle. You can also
hide the rows or columns that you do not want to plot in the chart.
Click the chart type, and then click a chart subtype from the drop menu that will
appear.
Click anywhere in the embedded chart to activate it. When you click on the chart,
Chart Tools will be displayed which includes the Design, Layout, and Format
tabs.
The chart will automatically be embedded in the worksheet. A chart name will
automatically be assigned.
Press ENTER.
1. In the Axis Title text box that appears in the chart, type the text that you want.
2. To remove an axis title, click Axis Title, click the type of axis title to remove, and
then click None.
Data Labels
1. On a chart, do one of the following:
columns surrounding the hidden rows and columns, and then click Unhide.
Freezing/Splitting Rows and Columns
To keep an area of a worksheet visible while you scroll to another area of the
worksheet, you can either lock specific rows or columns in one area by freezing panes.
Freezing vs. splitting
When you freeze panes, Microsoft Excel keeps
specific rows or columns visible when you scroll in
the worksheet. For example, if the first row in your
spreadsheet contains labels, you might freeze that
row to make sure that the column labels remain
visible as you scroll down in your spreadsheet. A
solid line indicates that the row is frozen to keep
column labels in place when you scroll.
When you split panes, Excel creates either two or four separate worksheet areas that
you can scroll within, while rows or columns in the non-scrolled area remain
NOTE: You cannot split panes and freeze panes at the same time.
Freeze Panes
1. On the worksheet, select the row or column that you want to keep visible when
you scroll.
2. On the View tab, in the Window group, click the arrow below Freeze Panes.
3. Then do one of the following:
To lock one row only, click Freeze Top Row.
To lock one column only, click Freeze First Column.
To lock more than one row or column, or to
lock both rows and columns at the same time,
click Freeze Panes.
1. To split panes, point to the split box at the top of the vertical scroll bar or at the
right end of the horizontal scroll bar.
2. When the pointer changes to a split pointer or , drag the split box down or to
the left to the position that you want.
3. To remove the split, double-click any part of the split bar that divides the panes.
Moving or Copying Worksheets
Sometimes you may need to copy an entire worksheet instead of copying and pasting
the data which may or may not paste properly, you can use the steps below to achieve
a must better result.
Move or Copy Worksheets
1. Select the worksheets that you want to move or copy.
2. On the Home tab, in the Cells group, click Format, and then under Organize
Sheets, click Move or Copy Sheet. You can also right-click a selected sheet tab,
and then click Move or Copy.
3. A Move or Copy dialog box will appear
4. To move a sheet, in the Before sheet list:
Click the sheet that you want to insert the moved or copied
sheets directly in front of.
Click move to end to insert the moved or copied
sheets after the last sheet in the workbook and before
the InsertWorksheet tab.
To copy the sheets, in the Move or Copy dialog box, select the
1. Explain the basic components and terminology of networks, including the Internet;
2. Explain the broad implications of the Internet on the marketplace.
5.1 Introduction
What is the Internet?
The Internet refers to the physical network that links computers across the globe. It
consists of the infrastructure of network servers and communications links between them
that are used to hold and transport information between the client PCs and web servers.
The Internet allows communication between millions of connected computers worldwide.
Information is transmitted from client PCs whose users request services to server
computers that hold information and host business applications that deliver the services in
response to requests.
The relationship between a company and its suppliers and customers can be dramatically
altered by the opportunities afforded by the Internet. This occurs because the Internet
offers a means of by passing some of the channel partners. This process is known as
disintermediation or ‘cutting out the middle man’.
Disintermediation is the removal of intermediaries such as distributors or brokers that
formerly linked a company to it customers.
Intranet isa private network within a single company using Internet standards to enable
employees to share information using e-mail and web publishing.
Figure 5.3 The relationship between intranets, extranets and the Internet
If access is extended to some others, but not everyone beyond the organization, this is an
extranet. Extranet formed by extending the intranet beyond a company to customers,
suppliers and collaborators. The relationship between these terms is illustrated in Figure
above. Extranets can be accessed by authorized people outside the company such as
collaborators, suppliers or major customers, but information is not available to everyone
Intranet applications
Intranets are used extensively for supporting the marketing function. They are also used
to support core supply-chain management activities. A marketing intranet has the
following advantages:
Extranets are used extensively to support supply chain management as resources are
ordered from suppliers and transformed into products and services delivered to
customers. To enable different applications within a company, such as a sales ordering
system and an inventory control system that interoperate with each other and databases in
other companies, requires an internal company intranet to be created that can then
communicate across an extranet with applications on another company intranet.
Firewall is a specialized software application mounted on a server at the point where the
company is connected to the Internet. Its purpose is to prevent unauthorized access into
the company from outsiders.
The World Wide Web provides a standard method for exchanging and publishing
information on the Internet. The medium is based on standard document formats such as
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) which can be thought of as similar toa word-
processing format such as that used for Microsoft Word documents. This standard
hasbeen widely adopted because:
• it offers hyperlinks which allow users to readily move from one document or web
site to another – the process known as ‘surfing’;
o Hyperlink is a method of moving between one web-site page and another,
indicated to the user by an image or text highlighted by underlining and/or a
different color.
• HTML supports a wide range of formatting, making documents easy to read on
different access devices;
• graphics and animations can be integrated into web pages;
• interaction is possible through HTML-based forms that enable customers to
supply their personal details for more information on a product, perform searches,
ask questions or make comments.
It is the combination of web browsers and HTML that has proved so successful in
establishing widespread business use of the Internet.
The use of these tools provides a range of benefits including the following:
A request from the client PC is executed when the user types in a web address, clicks on a
hyperlink or fills in an online form such as a search. This request is then sent to the Internet
Service Providers (ISP) and routed across the Internet to the destination server using the
mechanism described in the section on protocols. The server then returns the requested web
page if it is a static (fixed) page, or if it requires reference to a database, such as a request for
product information, it will pass the query on to a database server and will then return this to the
customer as a dynamically created web page.
TCP/IP
The web pages and graphics transferred in this way are transferred as packets, which is
why web pages do not usually download smoothly, but come in jumps as different groups
of packets arrive.
The inventor of HTTP, Tim Berners Lee, describes its purpose as follows (Berners
Lee,2000):
HTTP rules define things like which computer speaks first, and how they speak in turn.
When two computers agree they can talk, they have to find a common way to represent
their data so they can share it.
Web addresses refer to particular pages on a web server which is hosted by a company or
organization. The technical name for web addresses is uniform or universal resource
locators (URLs). URLs can be thought of as a standard method of addressing similar
topostcodes that make it straightforward to find the name of a site.
Web addresses are usually prefixed by ‘http://’ to denote the http protocol that is
explainedabove. Web addresses always start with ‘http://’, so references to web sites in
this book and in most promotional material from companies omit this part of the URL.
Indeed, whenusing modern versions of web browsers, it is not necessary to type this in as
part ofthe web page location since it is added automatically by the web browser.
Although the vast majority of sites start with ‘www’, this is not universal, so it is
necessary to specify this. Web addresses are structured in a standard way as follows:
http://www.domain-name.extension/filename.html
Self-assessment exercises
1. What is the difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web?
2. Describe the two main functions of an Internet service provider (ISP). How do ISPs
differfrom applications service providers?
3. Distinguish between intranets, extranets and the Internet.
4. Describe the standards involved when a web page is served from a web server to a
user’sweb browser.