Introduction Each book in this series ‘+ draws on the knowledge and skills from international secondary geography syllabuses * includes international geography and the geography of Pakistan + presents a student-friendly approach with a conversational tone to engage students’ interest * builds on students’ learning from earlier work in geography + uses clear language at an appropriate level + encourages students to use higher-order thinking skills ‘+ includes environmental education * is illustrated with photographs, drawings, charts, and maps ‘+ provides interesting and important facts about the topics in fact boxes + includes questions and discussion points to consolidate learning + tests key points at the end of each unit * summarizes the main concepts at the end of each unit Key features of Student's Book 1 + Student's Book 1 develops the students’ knowledge of the Earth’s place in the universe, including the formation of the stars and planets. it encourages the students to observe the sky and helps them to understand and question their observations. * This book explains the connection between the seasons, the calendar, and the measurement of time, based on the Earth’s orbit and rotation. It develops an understanding of the use of longitude in measuring time. + Itintroduces the development of maps and presents different types of maps for different purposes, and focuses on the key elements of maps and scale drawings, including the use of grid lines and lines of latitude and longitude. The use of aerial photographs and bird's eye views develops an understanding of maps and scale drawings. + From this book the students learn about political, physical, and thematic maps and use them to find information about different places. + The book describes different types of climates, explains the factors that affect climate, and distinguishes between weather and climate. It focuses on how people adapt to extreme cold and extreme heat. + It introduces different types of forests and explains how people live and work in the forest and the importance of forests to the environment. * There is also a focus on the physical features of the Earth and their formation: mountains, plateaus, vallleys, and plains. The course of a river is explained through a trip along the Indus from its source to its delta. * The various landscapes of Pakistan are explored and the people of those landscapes are brought to life—illustrating their differences and similarities, and different languages, traditions, and types of work. * Also in focus are population distribution and migration within Pakistan and internationally. The reasons for human migration are explored.GM CONTENTS UNIT DESCRIPTION The universe Students should be able to: ‘describe how the stars and planets were formed and explain their movements + differentiate between different types of heavenly bodies + explain how eclipses occur Satellite Earth Students should be able to: + explain how the year and day and night are related to the Earth's orbit and rotation * explain how time is measured and the need for time zones to be linked to longitude + explain how the Earth's tilt causes the seasons Mapping the world Students should be able to: * relate how maps developed * read and draw scale plans and maps * use grid references and lines of latitude and longitude to locate places Types of maps Students should be able to: + use maps to find information about places : different types of maps maps that provide data on themes such as population or average temperatures Living with the climate Students should be able to: * identify the factors that affect the climate of a place + give examples of how people adapt their lives to live in extreme climates + explain how climate affects the way buildings, roads, and other parts of the infrastructure are built Forests of the world Students should be able to: * explain how climate and physical features affect a forest *+ describe how people live in tropical rainforests + explain how forests and woodland improve the environmentDESCRIPTION inaaaae plateaus, and ealleyen Seas should be able to: + explain how the movement of tectonic plates has changed the landscape + explain how different types of mountains, plateaus, and valleys are formed * use contours to find out about the elevation and shape of landscape Plains and rivers Students should be able to: ‘+ recognize and describe different types of plain + explain how physical features and climate affect the plants and animals of a plain + identify and describe the features of different parts ‘of the course of a river Landscapes of Pakistan Students should be able to: ‘+ describe the various landscapes of Pakistan + explain how the physical features of the land affect people's lives + explore and discuss how and why settlements developed in particular places The people of Pakistan ‘Siadent elo be aba ct * discuss how Pakistan’s rich history has affected. people's lives today * explore the distribution of the population of Pakistan * describe the cultures of the people of different regions of Pakistan Migration Students should be able to: * explain what makes people migrate + identify the places to which Pakistanis migrate, and give reasons for this * explore the reasons why people migrate to Pakistan PAGE Pe OXFORDniverse Constellations Have you ever looked up at the stars dotting the sky on a dark, cloudless night? You might know the names of some of the patterns made by the stars. These patterns are called constellations. The stars in a constellation look close together, but there are enormous distances between them. Even if you live in a city where there are bright lights, you should be able to see the constellations in these pictures. Can you name any others? Where did stars come from? For thousands of years, it remained a mystery as to where stars came from. Since ancient times, astronomers have proposed different theories about the formation of stars. Scientists now believe that stars are formed from massive clouds of gases (mostly hydrogen and helium), dust, and cosmic rays in the universe called OXF DUNIT 4 nebulae (singular: nebula). These clouds are very different from the clouds of water droplets you see on a rainy day. For many years, scientists have observed star-forming regions in space, e.g. the Orion nebula, which is one of the largest in the sky, to understand how the nebulae and the stars within them are formed. A nebula is huge and does not have a uniform shape. The nebula collapses and breaks into smaller fragments. The centre of the nebula becomes very dense and hot as these fragments fall into it. The high temperature and pressure trigger chemical reactions between the gases, and when the temperature reaches about 10 million degrees Celsius, the centre of the nebula begins to burn, and forms a star. Stars can burn and emit radiation for millions of years. The sky has looked the same for thousands of years and the stars are known as the markers in the sky. We assume that the stars’ places in the sky are fixed. However, the stars do move, but they are so far away from the Earth that we do not notice their movements. The ancient astronomers marked the Earth’s position against the same background of stars, and it would probably take millions of years for the stars to change their positions noticeably. A galaxy is a collection of stars, nebulae, and other materials held together by the galaxy’s gtavity. There are billions of galaxies. Our galaxy is the Milky Way and the Sun is one of its stars. ‘Small galaxies move in an orbit around bigger galaxies. There are small galaxies orbiting our galaxy; the nearest is the Large Magellanic Cloud which was discovered by a Persian astronomer, Abd-Al-Rahman-Sufi,MM UNIT 1 1 THE UNIVERSE | erates ynesacgy IT’S A FACT! =. + Nebulae are clouds of dust, hydrogen, helium, and other gases. + A galaxy is also a cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium, other gases, and stars, but it has a centre of gravity. How did our solar system form? Photographs of new stars forming help scientists to understand ‘our Sun. Like many other stars, when the Sun was formed it had masses of other material from its nebula around it. This material became flat, like a plate. Bits of rock and other material broke off, but they carried on moving. Gravity pulled material towards the rocks until some of them grew large enough to become planets. Our solar system began to form about 4.6 billion years ago. The nebula where it formed was spinning. The gases in the nebula became the Sun. The planets were formed from rocks and ‘This photograph of the Orion nebula came from the Hubble telescope. ‘The Orion nebula shows discs that can grow into planets. Scientists other solid material that kept on Sree en omy nies spinning around the centre. . What makes the planets orbit the Sun? You know that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun. So, what keeps them going? Well—the real question is this: what can stop them? Once an object starts moving, it just keeps on going in the same direction and at the same speed. ‘So why do things stop moving? For example, if you throw a ball, it falls to the ground and after a while it stops moving. That's because of a force that pushes against it in the opposite direction. That force is called air resistance and is produced by the air the ball travels through. Gravity pulls the ball to the ground 4 OXFORDUNIT 4 It is the same for planets, but because there is no air in space, there is nothing to slow the planets down. Every object has gravity—the force that pulls other objects towards it. Objects with a very large mass have very strong gravity. Because the Sun is massive, the pull of its gravity is strong enough to pull the planets ‘The Hubble telescope was named aiter the American astronomer Edwin Hubble, into orbit around it. So ‘who died in 1983, The American space agency, NASA, launched the telescope in 1960 It orbits the Earth above the atmosphere. Its view ofthe universe is much the planets just kept clearer than that from telescopes on Earth. moving, but the Sun changed their direction Planets in our solar system (IT's A FACT — The planets in our solar system revolve around the © Gieviyile the force thet pulls Sun in their respective orbits. The gravitational pull of objects towards another body the Sun is strong enough to keep the planets revolving having mass. around it. Some planets have smaller orbits and are + A large mass has a stronger force closer to the Sun, while others have longer orbits and or erat ren ASIA Maes + Gravity keeps planets and stars in are farther from the Sun. The speed at which each theldarbies'Intspacet planet orbits the Sun also differs. Poa The solar system OXFORD 5MEUNIT 1 1 THE UNIVERSE There are eight planets and about two hundred dwarf planets: in our solar system. The names of most of the planets were T'S A FACT! we derived from Roman/Greek mythology, except that of planet. = Earth. The names of the planets of our solar system are: | Number of 1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth 4. Mars eee — 5. Jupiter 6. Saturn 7. Uranus 8. Neptune Mercury lo Venus: 10 Dwarf planets are much bigger than asteroids and smaller } earth [a 6 than the smallest planet, Mercury. The best-known dwarf | [Mars 2 planet is Pluto. The diagram on page 5 shows the main Jupiter 50 planets of our solar system and their orbits. | [Saturn 53 | [Uranus 27 Have you seen a planet? You probably have! Jupiter, Saturn, \ [Neptune [13 Mars, Venus, and Mercury can be seen without a telescope. Have a look online or in a newspaper to find out which planets can be seen on any given day. MOONS Now you know how the planets were formed, can you guess how the moons of the planets were formed? Scientists think that the leftover clouds of dust and gases from the flattened disc around the Sun which did not become planets, were pulled by the gravity of the planets. So they began to orbit the planets and became their moons. Planet Earth has one moon while planet Mars has two moons. Refer to ‘It's a fact!’ on this page to find out about the number of moons of other planets. ECLIPSES A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves between the Sun and the Earth. In a total eclipse, the Moon blocks out all the Sun's rays, resulting in complete darkness, even during the day. However, this only lasts for a few minutes. The longest eclipse so far, has been T minutes 3 seconds. An eclipse can be seen from across a large area of the Earth at slightly different times. In a partial eclipse, part of the Sun is still visible. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes behind the Earth and into the Earth's shadow. This can only happen when the Sun, the Earth, and the Moon are lined up, with the Earth in the middle. A lunar eclipse can only happen on the night of a full moon. Its eclipse can be seen from anywhere on the side of the Earth where it is night. It lasts for a few hours. It is safe to look at a lunar eclipse. {otal solar eclipse OXFORDUNIT 1.1 THE UNIVERSE There would be a total solar eclipse every month if the Moon Never look directly at had a perfectiy circular orbit, level with Earth’s orbit and a the Sun. To look at an little closer to Earth. The Moon's orbit is tilted at more than eclipse, you need special 5° to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This usually causes eye protection NOT its shadow at the new moon to miss the Earth. sunglasses. area of total eclipse night ay Total eclipse of the Sun ight sunrays area of, partial eclipse Partial eclipse of the Sun Earth Moon (in Earth's shadow) ‘sunrays Lunar eclipse OXFORD 7MUNIT 1 1 THE UNIVERSE The universe: Assessment A1. Name the telescope that orbits the Earth 2 a) Which planet has the longest orbit? 4 a) and takes photographs of the parts of ‘space we cannot see from Earth. 2. Match the definitions to the words on the left. Write them like glossary entries. 3. b) Which planet has the shortest orbit? Which planets do you think have: a) the longest year? b) the shortest year? Constellation | [@ mass of burn eS ian lsvescreny canes mica 4 a) How do scientists think the planet | S formed? ~ =a b) What made the planets move through nebula a pattem of stars anata? star stars and other materials 0) What keeps the planets mounee |___] | held together by gravity d) What makes the planets stay in their a) Name a nebula that can be seen orbits around the Sun? from Earth, Find out more about this nebula. Write a report about it What makes a star shine brightly? b) Draw some pictures and add notes to explain how a star is born. How is a star different from a planet? bj ° ci D1 Look at the photo of the orrery. a) Name the planets you can see. b) Name the planets that are missing, ) Explain why these planets are missing. a) Why does it become dark during a solar eclipse? B41. a) Which planet do you think is the hottest? __b) What happens in a lunar eclipse? Why? ©) Why is it safe to look at a lunar eclipse bb) Which planet do you think is the coldest? but not a solar eclipse? Why? ¢) Use books or the Internet to check your answers to the last two questions. An orrery is a modal that shows the orbits of the planets. This one is in the British Museum. It was. made in the early 18% century. See if you can spot all the planets and their ‘moons—and figure out ‘which planets and moons are missing, and why.VvUy VUE Anebula is a mass of dust, rock, and gases. UNIT 1 1 THE UNIVERSE When a nebula collapses, pulled inwards by its own gravity, a star begins to form. A star is a mass of burning gases (mainly hydrogen and helium). Dust and rock from the nebula collect around the buing star in a disc shape. When our star, the Sun, was formed, bits of the diso flew off and formed planets, which kept moving around the centre. The Sun’s gravity keeps the planets in their orbits. Other pieces of material formed smaller bodies that orbit the planets as moons. A solar eclipse is when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth and blocks out the sunlight. Alunar eclipse is when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are in a line, with the Earth in the middle. The Moon is in the Earth’s shadow. Stars The universe Nebulae + These are starorming regions. Galaxies = The Orion Nebula is one of the largest nebulae in the universe. od The Milky Way The Large Magellanic Galaxy * Stars burn and emit radiation for millions of years. + The Sun is a star. ' The solar system The planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars Asteroids Dwarf planets eee Pluto is the best known. Saturn Uranus Ree MoonsSatellite Earth What is a year? How long is a year? It is the time the Earth takes to travel all the way around the Sun (complete its orbit). Some planets have longer years than others. If you look at the diagram of the planets on page 5, you will see that some planets have longer orbits than others. Also, some planets move more Imagine you could look slowly than others. down on all the planets orbiting the Sun. What We can count 365 sunrises in the time it takes for the Earth |_| would you see? The 1 ne ne planets move inan to complete one orbit around the Sun. After 365 days, the a fa Earth is back at its starting point—well, almost. Its orbit takes about 6 hours longer than 365 days, so we have to adjust the solar calendar. We add an extra day (29" February in the universal calendar) to every fourth year to make a leap year. But how can we tell when the Earth is back where it started? Since ancient times, the stars in the sky have been used to measure the time taken by the Earth to orbit around the Sun. What is a day? A whole day includes day and night. When does night become day? Yes—when the Sun rises. Similarly, the day ‘turns to night when the Sun sets. But the Sun does not move! It is the Earth that moves. The Earth spins on its own axis as it orbits the Sun. It takes twenty-four hours. Direction of Direction of to make one complete Earth's rotation Earth's rotation rotation on its axis. Different parts of the Earth's rotation. The left picture shows Earth from above the North Pole, ‘The right picture shows Earth from the side. Earth face the Sun in E OXFORDUNIT 2 1 SATELLITE EARTH rotation. The parts facing the Sun have day, while those away from the Sun have night. Earth rotates (spins) anticlockwise. IT'S A FACT! \ Aleap year has to have a number that can be divided by four, for example: 2012 or 2016, However, a leap year at the end of a century has to be divisible by 400, for ‘example: 1600 or 2000. So 1600, 2000, and 2400 are endofcentury leap years, but 1900, 21100, 2200, and 2300 are not. The calculations for this ere very complicated: ‘An obelisk at the Temple of Luxor. Egypt from around 1400 BCE. (Obelisks were used for telling the time. How is time measured? All objects produce shadows when in light. As the Sun rises in the East, it creates long shadows that gradually become smaller through the morning. The shadows are at their shortest at noon. The direction and length of the shadows reverse in the afternoon: they continue to become longer until the Sun sets, when it disappears from sight. People in ancient times split the day into daytime and night time—that was all they needed. Then they began to measure time by the length and direction of shadows. Later, they began to divide the day into smaller sections. The ancient Sumerians and Egyptians split the day into two sections of twelve hours. They also developed timekeeping devices like sundials and shadow clocks. An obelisk is the oldest shadow clock, developed by the Egyptians. It's amazing how timekeeping devices evolved over the centuries. An hour was further divided into 60 minutes, and a minute was divided into sixty seconds. Have you ever wondered why they chose this number? Well— the number sixty was used in timekeeping because sixty is the smallest OXFORDME UNIT 2 | SATELLITE EARTH 2 number that can be divided by every number from 4 to 6, and by 10 and 12. Try working out the number of minutes in half an hour, a quarter of an hour, a tenth of an hour, and other fractions. Sundials work only during the day. People, particularly navigators, had to figure out a way to measure time at night in order to keep track of the lapse of time, and to track their direction of travel. They have been able to tell the time from the North Star for centuries. It is also called the Pole Star because it is located just above the North Pole. The North Star is in the constellation of Ursa Minor. You can locate it by first finding the Big Dipper in the sky. The two outer stars of the Big Dipper point towards the Pole Star. These two stars are called the Pointer stars. Once you have located the Pole Star, you can make an imaginary clock with the North Star in the centre. This clock is different from the clocks you have seen: first, it moves in an anticlockwise direction and secondly, it is a 24-hour clock. XFORD a North Star 1 19 North Star a7The clock tells the actual time only once in the month of March. For other months, the time has to be adjusted by doing some arithmetic. Let's suppose this imaginary star clock shows the actual time. The hour hand (made by joining the pointer stars and the North Star) shows 41 p.m. Can you tell where the hour hand will move to show 2p.m.? UNIT 2 SATELLITE EARTH How does sunrise move around the Earth? Why is it not the same time in all parts of the world? The Sun rises as our part of the Earth turns to face the Sun. Even places that are not far apart can have sunrise at slightly different times. Countries that are relatively narrow from east to west can have the same time for the whole country. Wide countries, such as Canada, the USA, or Russia, cannot have a national standard time because sunrise and sunset times are very different across the country. Therefore, they split the country into time zones. ®MM uNIT 2 | SATELLITE EARTH What are time zones? In the 19 century, an international group of scientists decided to divide the Earth’s surface into time zones using lines of longitude. These imaginary lines are great circles that pass through the North and South Poles. Each zone uses the time of the line of longitude that passes through its centre. The scientists needed a starting point for numbering the lines of longitude. They chose the line that passes through Greenwich Observatory in London, and numbered it zero. It is called the Prime Meridian. Then they numbered the other lines of longitude, going both ways, east and west, up to 180°. The world is divided into 24 time zones. Each covers an area of 15° of longitude. Time advances by ‘one hour for each 15° of longitude east of the Prime Meridian. it becomes one hour less for each 15° west of the Prime Meridian. As sunrise moves around the world, there has to be a place where sunrise of one day is also It is the International Date Line. When ships cross the International Date Line going east they move the calendar back one day; going west they move it forward one day. sunrise of the next day—halfway round Earth at 180°. This line goes through the Pacific Ocean. Why do we have seasons? 4 OXFORD Imagine that you could push a stick straight through the centre of the Earth from the North Pole to the South Pole. The line of the stick aligns with the Earth’s axis. The Earth rotates around its axis. You can look at the diagrams on this page which show that the Earth is tilted on its axis. Due to this tilt, as the Earth orbits the Sun, either the northern or the southern hemisphere faces the Sun. The hemisphere facing the Sun has summer, with longer hours of daylight and stronger sunlight. The other hemisphere, which is turned away from the Sun, has winter with little sunlight, longer nights, and shorter days.UNIT 2.1 SATELLITE EARTH IT'S A FAC’ + The summer solstice is the day that has the most hours of daylight. In the ee northern hemisphere wee er this is in June; in the aaa southern hemisphere, itis in December. + The ‘shortest day’ i the winter solstice (December in the northern hemisphere; June in the southern hemisphere). ‘summer winter + There are days of autumn equal darkness and = light: the spring 5 : fecealnotenctt et Earth's orbit and the seasons in the northem end southern hemispheres, autumn equinox. ‘ At the Equator (latitude 0°), summer and winter have equal amounts of daylight. The differences between summer and winter are greatest at the North Pole and the South Pole. Lines of latitudes halfway between a Pole and the Equator have longer spring and autumn seasons than those nearer to the Equator or the Poles. ‘Tromee, Norway, inthe earl afternoon in Docomber (winter) Latitude 70°N OXFORDMB unit 21 s SATELLITE EARTH Satellite Earth: Assessment ‘1. In which direction does the Earth rotate on its axis? 2. Which country would have sunrise first on any day—China or the UK? 3. Why did people choose to split the day into 24 hours, instead of any other number? 4, How would you locate the North Star in the sky? B4. In which direction does the Earth orbit the ‘Sun? 2. How long does the Earth take to complete its orbit? 3. How do we match the calendar to the Earth's orbit? 4 a) At what time of day is the shadow of an ‘obelisk shortest? b) Observe your shadow at 10 a.m. and then observe it again at 4 p.m. Note down your observations, then describe any change, and try to explain it C1. a) What do we call the ‘shortest day’ in winter? b) What do we call the ‘longest day’ in summer? ©) What do we calll the days that have equal hours of daylight and darkness? 2 @) Why do the North and South Poles have 24-hour darkness during the winter? b) Why do the North and South Poles have 24-hour daylight during the summer? D1. a) How many days are there in a leap year? ) Why are there leap years in the universal calendar? c) Why do leap years occur every four years? d) Was the year 2000 a leap year? ) Will the year 3000 be a leap year? ) When will the next leap year be? E41. Here's a chance to use some maths! a) When the Earth does a complete rotation, how many degrees does it turn through? b) How many hours does this complete rotation take? ) Work out how many degrees the Earth ‘turns through in one hour. F 1. Why do you think the international Date Line does not follow longitude 180° exactly? 2. What happens to lines of longitude at the Poles? 3. Find out how people who go to the Poles decide what time to use. G 4. Look at the diagram of the Earth's orbit on page 15 to help you answer these questions: a) If Earth's axis did not tilt, what difference would this make to winter and summer at the Poles? b) If Earth's axis did not ttt, what difference would this make to daylight at the Equator? ‘a) What do you notice about early afternoon in winter in Ttoms@, Norway? Explain why itis like this. (Learn the pronunciation of Tromss from the Internet.) b) What do you notice about midnight in summer in Helsinki, Finland? Explain why itis like this. ©) Find Wellington, New Zealand, and check its latitude. What do you think the light would be like in Wellington at midnight in June and in the early afternoon in December? d) Explain the differences between Wellington and the two cities in northern Europe.UNIT 2 1 SATELLITE EARTH A year is the length of time the Earth takes to orbit the Sun. A day is the length of time the Earth takes to rotate once. Earth rotates 365.25 times during each orbit. A year is about six hours longer than 365 days. We adjust the calendar by adding one day to every fourth year (leap year). The ancient astronomers could measure Earth's position in space using the stars. Shadows shorten from sunrise to noon and lengthen from noon to sunset. We use lines of longitude to mark time zones around the Earth. Longitude 180° is the International Date Line (IDL). The date in places to the east of the IDL is one day before that in the places to the west. Earth's tilt on its axis causes the seasons to change as it orbits the Sun. Lines of latitude are imaginary parallel lines around the Earth and numbered from 0° (the Equator) to 90°N (North Pole) and 90°S (South Pole). VE VEU Satellite Earth ea Rotation on its axis Revolution around the Sun * The Earth completes one rotation on its * The Earth completes one revolution axis in 24 hours. around the Sun in 365 days and 6 hours. * The Earth's rotation on its axis causes * Due to its tilt, different parts of the day and night. world face the Sun during the Earth's | revolution. This causes the seasons. Measuring time * For centuries people have known how to tell time from the North Star. * Sundials and shadow clocks were used. to measure time long ago. Time zones * The surface of the Earth has been divided into 24 time zones using lines of longitude. * The line of longitude passing through Greenwich Observatory in London is numbered 0. It is called the Prime Meridian. * Time advances by one hour every 15° of longitude if we travel east of the Prime Meridian. * Time regresses one hour every 15° of longitude if we travel to the west. OXFORD 7Mapping the world The first maps How many different types of maps do you know? Talk to a partner about the places you have looked for on maps. You might have looked at places thousands of miles ‘away—whole countries or continents, or small towns or villages. What did you use the map for? Thousands of years ago, people only knew the places near to where they lived— perhaps as far as the coast. The Ancient Greeks wrote about their travels and drew maps that sailors used for many centuries. An Ancient Greek, Ptolemy of Alexandria, made an atlas of maps of the world in about 150 CE. He even used a form of latitude and longitude lines. Look at the copy of Ptolemy's map below. Even though the language is copied from Greek, you may recognize some places that are not too far away! OXFORD,UNIT 8 | MAPPIN HE WORLD Ptolemy's maps were very important to Arabian traders in the 8" century CE. The maps helped the traders to travel as ‘A FACT! \s far as Spain, East Africa, and China. They established trade | — routes across the Sahara Desert, up the River Nile, and into The famous explorers, Sudan and Ethiopia. | Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama, Ptolemy's maps and the knowledge the traders brought back were able to make their helped Islamic scholars such as Muhammad AMdrisi to | discoveries by using make more accurate maps. These maps were alll drawn and | Muhammad Abdrisi's copied by hand. | maps. Repo Menena! As maps got better and better, they helped explorers such as Ibn AikotsmapolEuope, _Battuta, and Chinese and European explorers of the 15" century. North Africa, and Asia, He They collected information about the places they explored, which Se helped the subsequent map-maters to produce more accurate dagoodupalin dows: maps. The use of the printing press spread around the world in so that itis the same way the late 15" century; this helped to make the maps more accurate tourid.ea a adem mites than the early maps. ‘Compare this with the modem map on page 20. How many countries and Nowadays, satellite photos and computers help people to make nen con Youldastiiyy maps even more accurate—and to print them or share them on the Internet. How are maps read? Maps have some essential elements that help us to read the map accurately. These are the title, the north sign, the symbols and key, the scale, and the grid lines. The title of a map tells us what the map shows. The title of the map on page 20 is ‘Political map fo North Africa, Asia, and Europe’. OXFORDMM uNiT 3 1 MAPPING THE WORLD Key (Seo — International boundary mA The north sign is an arrow pointing in the direction of north. It enables us to locate the other directions, south, east, and west, of the features shown on a map. Can you tell which country lies to the south of Egypt on this map? Real features can be represented on a map by symbols such as lines, points, colours, shapes, etc. The key of a map gives the meanings of the symbols that represent real features on a map. How are scale drawings made? Maps represent large areas that could not be drawn on paper in real Measurements. To fit large objects onto a page, they are drawn smaller and a scale is used to show their real size. Thus, the scale shows the relation between the real size of something and its size on a map. Plans are drawings that show the shape and the relative size of objects. If you compare the photographs and the plan of outdoor furniture, you will notice a few differences. The photographs show the furniture from different angles, while the plan shows the scaled size of the furniture and can be used to calculate its actual size. a OXFORD" An aerial view of the garden fumiture. We see what it ooks like from above. It doesnot show is actual size. ‘Aplanof the same furniture, Itis drawn to scale. You cannot soe what it looks like, but ‘you can sec its shape and use the scale to worle ‘out tho sizo. The scale is 1:50. 1 milimetre on this page reprosents 80 millimetres in real life, B41 How are grid references used? We use grid references to locate physical features on a map. The grid lines divide a map into squares. Vertical lines numbered from left to right go up the map. We call these numbers eastings because they go from west to east. Horizontal lines numbered from bottom to top go across the map. We call these northings because they go from south to north. UNIT 3.1 At. MAPPING THE WORLD ‘A view of some garden furniture, It shows ‘what the fumiture looks like. It does not tellus its size, Use a page of your notebook to draw a plan of your classroom. Work with a partner. a) Measure the length and width of the classroom. b) Will it fit on the page? No. So what should you do? Yes—work out a scale. Perhaps 1:100 would fit. That is 1. centimetre on your page to 100 reallife centimetres ©) Draw the outline of the room. Write the scale below your plan. Look where the doors and windows are. Mark them on the plan. Don't forget to measure them. - Look where the furniture is. Mark it on the plan. Don't forget to measure it. | Draw a key to show the | different types of furniture, | for example: chairs, tables, cupboards, stools, =? OXFORDMB UNIT 3 | MAPPING THE WORLD = EA Bg | | 32 a HH 30 e J 28 i Z 26 “i i 6 70 71 72 73 7 75 76 NNoethings —@@$_——_— > Up the stairs Eastings Along the corridor Look at the grid above. At. What are the grid references for these: a) the purple square —_b) the brown square ©) the red square 4) the grey square? 2. What colour are these squares? a“. a) 7331 b) 7625 ) 7129 d) 7433 What is a grid square? A grid square on a map usually covers a large area, so each square can be split into even smaller squares. If all these lines were drawn on the map, it would be covered with lines! Instead, you have to imagine lines between each grid line. Imagine these lines are numbered 4 to 9. They divide the length between each numbered line into tenths. The lines divide the squares into hundredths. ‘ORDUNIT 8 1 MAPPING THE WORLD KARACHI 01 2345mn By ee fee 4 1] Map of Karachi a 8 © D E F c 4 T How are maps drawn? Using the basic elements of a map, can you draw a simple map of your neighbourhood? Of course you can. Have a look at the map of Karachi above and see how different buildings and physical features are represented on it. USE A PAGE OF YOUR NOTEBOOK TO DRAW A MAP 1. Drawa frame for the map. laboratory, library, entrance gate, etc. a) Use a pencil. First draw the shapes of large ‘You could label important buildings with features such as playground, canteen, initials, for example: L = library, hall, eto. C= classroom, 0 = office, etc. ) Use different colours for different areas c) Add a key to show what the initials and like the classrooms, office, playground, symbols mean. OXFORD oaMB UNIT 3:1 MAPPING THE WORLD How are places located on a map? The lines of latitude and longitude give the locations of places anywhere on Earth. The lines going across the map from east to west are called lines of latitude. These lines are parallel to each other. The line of latitude that divides ‘the Earth into the northern and southern hemispheres is called the Equator. The lines going from the North to the South Poles are called lines of longitude. The line of longitude that divides the Earth into the eastern and western hemispheres is called the Prime Meridian. NN yp0 160° 140° 129° 199" ape _g0°_4p°_20° o> 20° 4p" oor aor 100" 120° 140" _160°_1 80 Longitude we We can use the lines of latitude and longitude just like grid references to locate places on ‘a map, although these lines are different from grid references in two main ways: 1) Lines of latitude and longitude are numbered in two directions, not one. 2) We give the number up the side to the map (longitude), then the number across the bottom (latitude). mM OXFORDA 1. Write the latitude and longitude of each place the pilot visited. This first has been done for you. 2. Use Oxford Schoo! Atlas for Pakistan to find out which countries she visited. UNIT 3. 1 MAPPING THE WORLD Place Latitude and longitude GON, 80°E TODRONEMB UNIT 3 1 MAPPING THE WORLD Mapping the world: Assessment ‘1. Look at Ptolemy's map on page 18. You do not need to understand the words. a) Talk to a friend about what you can see. 'b) What countries do you think the map shows? ©) See if you can find the places in Ptolemy's map in Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan. 4) Which parts look like those on the modern map on page 20? ) What do the yellowish patches on Ptolemy's map show? B1. Refer to the map on page 24 and find out what is at these grid references? a)B4 b)C6 co) ES dE4 e)E3 106 2. Write the grid references of: a) Karachi Export Processing Zone b) Karachi Port ©) Korangi 4) Karachi University e) Super Highway 1) Quaid-e-Azam’s Mausoleum #) Nazimabad 3. If you were in the centre of grid reference C3, what might you see if you looked in these directions? a) north-east ©) south b) north 4) south-west C1. Match the views to their respective plans. Write your answers in a table like this: View Plan alojyie 1) D. Look at the grid square below. st T |__| ha | | |e i “@ 9) .. Write the grid references of: a) the orange circle o) the green circle e) the blue circle @) the red circle b) the brown circle d) the purple circle f) the black circle . What is in these squares (a heart, a circle, ora star)? a) 7744 b) 7946) 8245 d) 8551 e) 81491) 8349.UNIT 3 1 MAPPING THE WORLD > The first maps known to us were drawn by Ptolemy and Muhammad AHidrisl. > There are five elements of a map: the title, the north sign, symbols, key, and scale. > The scale shows the relation between the real size of something and its size on a map. > Photographs are different from plans. > Plans are drawings that show the shape and relative size of objects. > Grid references are used to locate physical features on a map. ‘> The lines of latitude and longitude give the locations of places anywhere in the world. Mapping the world The first maps Locating physical Elements of * Ptolemy created an features on a map maps atlas in 150 CE. z © grid references * scale Later Mubermad * lines of latitude and * symbols Atidrisi created more I . longitude key accurate maps. =e Muhammad Abdrisi’s © theron sin maps were used by explorers like Ibn Battuta and Chinese and European explorers. of the 15" century. OXFORD oyTid Types of maps Maps and globes A globe is a three-dimensional map of the world, although it still shows the land in two dimensions. It shows the shapes of continents and countries more accurately than a two-dimensional map on paper. Paper maps appear to have been made by peeling back the surface of the globe and laying it out flat—but in doing so, the shapes of the countries change. Map makers use different shapes of maps, also called projections, to keep the features of the Earth on a paper map close to their real shapes. ee pene ae eee Types of maps There are several different types of maps. Each type gives specific information about the various physical, political, and human features of the whole world or some parts of it. POLITICAL MAPS A political map shows the shapes of continents and countries. Did you know that political maps may change over time? Some events, like wars, can change the political map of the world, Sudan was the largest country in Africa until 2011, when the people living in the south voted for independence and the country was split into two separate countries: Sudan and South Sudan. OXFORDUNIT 4.1 TYPES OF MAPS Political maps also indicate the locations of major cities and where the major bodies of water are located. gi A. Talk to a friend about what you can find out B 1. Think of three questions that you could from the world map in your Oxford Schoo! answer. For example, which is the largest Atlas for Pakistan. You could talk about the country in Africa? location of your country on the map and find 2. Write the questions in your notebook. Use ‘some other countries as well. ‘the maps in your Oxford Schoo! Atlas for Pakistan to answer them, 3. Write the answers in your notebook. PHYSICAL MAPS A physical map shows the different physical features of land, such as mountains, plains, deserts, lakes, rivers, plateaus, and oceans. It might show whether the land is permanently covered with ice. Physical maps also show the height of land above or below sea level. This is called land elevation. The map below shows the world’s main deserts, ice caps, mountain ranges, plains (areas of flat low land), and plateaus (areas of high flat land). The map’s small scale makes it difficult to show smaller areas of land such as the parts of the Central Brahui Range in Balochistan that are higher than 3000 metres, and the parts of the Netherlands which are below sea level.MB UNIT 4 1 TYPES OF MAPS RELIEF MAPS A relief map shows the elevation of different physical features of the land. It shows the mountains, hills, and valleys of an area in different shades of colour that indicate their different elevations. The maps on this page show the elevations of the highest and the lowest land in each country in the world. ae S88 | 8885 ° S88 |UNIT 4.1 TYPES OF MAPS + Thirty-three countries have dry land below sea level + Many coastal cities are below sea level including New Orleans, in the USA, and Bangkok, in Thailand, + About 33% of the Netherlands, including, ‘Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport, is below sea level. La Rinconada, in the Andes in Poruhhas the highest : clevation of any city on Earth (5100 metre Some of the Earth's lowest land elevations ‘Some of the Earth's highest land elevations Country Area Elevation Country Highest point Elevation Jordan Dead Sea shore 428m Nepal Mount Everest 8848 m Syria Near Lake Tibe =214m Pakistan | K2 8611 m | Djibouti [Lac Assal shore |-155m Bhutan Gangkhar Puensum | 7570 m China Turpan Pendi 154m Tajikistan Ismoil Somoni Peak | 7495 m Egypt Qattara Depression |—133 m Afghanistan | Noshaq 7492 m Kazakhstan | Vpadina Kaundy -132 m SCALING UP Maps with larger scales show details of the physical features of a place more clearly, Find Djibouti on the political map of Africa here. It is in East Africa and has borders with Ethiopia, Somalia, and Eritrea. It has a coastline on the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea. Now compare it with the political map of Djibouti, which has a larger scale than the map above. It shows more detail of the land elevations and also shows roads and the names of the cities, towns, and mountains of Djibouti The relief map on page 30 shows the lowest land in Africa, which is around the shores of Lake Assal in Djibouti. The land below sea level is shown in dark green and bright green—each shade pertaining to a different level of elevation OXFORD,ME uNIT 4 1 TYPES OF MAPS + The main purpose of a large scale physical map is to show what the land is like: its height, its shape and where there is water. It might include roads and towns. + Aphysical map is sometimes called a relief map. + Some relief maps show the shape of ‘the land as if it were three-dimensional..UNIT 4 1 TYPES OF MAPS Thematic maps Thematic maps give information about specific themes like the climate, rainfall, temperature, precipitation, population, etc. of the whole or some parts of the world. TEMPERATURE MAPS The temperature map below gives information about the temperatures of different parts of the world. as w 50 $5 fe 100MB UNIT 4 | TYPES OF MAPS RAINFALL MAPS Look at the rainfall map of the world below. This shows where it rains the most and which parts of the world receive very little rainfall. Aropic of Cancer Pacific Ocean Precipitation 2rerage anal Pecptaton 3000 [so | 2000 [250 \ Antarctic Circle POPULATION MAPS Maps that provide information about the population density of an area are called Population maps. Population density is the number of people living in each square Key Go isos) so ID es98 [BiozsUNIT 4 1 TYPES OF vs kilometre (km?) of land. The information from this type of map makes it easier to relate it to other types of data, e.g. rainfall, temperature, or land elevation. The map on page 34 shows the population density in different parts of the world. Country | Population (2045) | Area Population (sq km) _density (sq km) Singapore | 5.535,002 719 7809 | Bahrain 1,377,237 [77a __|a786 Maldives | 409,263 1300 1364 Malta 320 1350 Mauritius 2040 622 | Phiippines (100,699,385 =| 300,000 | 338 Pakistan 188,924,874 796,100 245, Some of the world’s most densely populated countries of the world, according to World Bank data Country | Population Area Population — ____(sakm) _ density (sq km) ‘Greenland 56,414 (410,450 Less than 1 Australia | 23,781,169 7,744,220 3 Suriname | 5429 163.8203 [Iceland 330,823 103,000 3 Canada| 35,851,774 9,984,670 | 4 [Kazakhstan | 17,544,126 2,724,900 |6 | Finland 54a2013~—~«( 33842018 Some of the world’s least densely populated countries of the world, according to World Bank data ‘Nuuk (sometimes called Godthab), the capital city of Greenland. The ‘population density of Groonland is, tess than 1 person per km”, OXFORD gsMB UNIT 4 TYPES OF MAPS Types of maps: Assessment ‘A1, What kind of map is best for finding out what the land looks like? 2. What does land elevation mean? a) the shape of land b) the length of the land ) the depth of water 4) the height of the land above or below sea level 3 a) Where is the lowest land in Djibouti? b) Name three towns that are on the coastal plain in Djibouti. ©) The sources of several rivers are in the district of Dadar, Djibouti. Explain why these rivers flow north, and not south or south-east towards the coast. 4d) No rivers flow out of Lake Assal. Why do you think this is? ) Write a report on what you can find out about Djibouti from pages 32 and 33. B41. Choose a map to help you answer these questions. a) Where is Albania? With which countries does it have borders? On which sea does it have a coastline? b) What is the name of its capital city? c) What type of map did you use? C4 a) One of the largest areas of flat lowland is the Great Plains of North America Where is there another plain that is even larger? The map on page 30 will help. b) Which countries does this larger plain cover? Look at the political map of the world and use your Oxford School Atlas to find out. 2. Read the list of places with the world's lowest land elevations. Find these places on the political map in your Oxford Schoo! Atlas. What is similar about many areas of land more than 100 metres below sea level? Page 30 will help. 3 a) Which country has the largest area of land higher than 8000 metres? b) Name two countries in South America that have land higher than 3000 metres. OXFORD Da. E41. FA. ) Name a country in Asia that is mostly higher than 3000 metres. Copy and complete this table: Country | Continent |Highest | Lowest tand land elevation elevation (metres) _ (metres) ‘chile [South | 6000- 0-400 | ‘America | 7000 [Pakistan Beal Portugal | fearon are [New errr | |Zemana | | Name three countries that might be in danger of flooding if sea levels rise. Explain your answer. a) Where do you think most of the people in Greenland live? Explain your answer. b) Why do you think Greenland has a Population of fewer than 60,000 in an area measuring more than 2 million square kilometres? a) Australia has a large area with a population density of fewer than two people per square km. Use other maps in this unit to help you to explain this. b) Which part of Australia has the highest Population density? Explain this. . Choose a country with a population density pattern that interests you. Use the maps in this unit, reference books, and the Internet to find out more information about that country. Write notes about what you find out. Describe the population density of Egypt around the River Nile and the coast. Explain the differences. Select a map to find out the names of any mountains or deserts in Mauritania. If you do not know where Mauritania is, use the Oxford Schoo! Atlas for Pakistan for help.VVVYVYVUY UNIT 4 1 TYPES OF MAPS Globes are three-dimensional and show almost the true shape of the Earth, oceans, seas, and land. Maps ate two-dimensional and show the surface of the Earth spread out flat. Political maps show the coasts and borders of countries. Political maps may be altered as a result of a war or the emergence of a new state. Physical maps show what the land is like: mountains, plains, deserts, water, etc. Physical maps can show land elevation above and below sea level. Geographers can use colour keys to show countries by their highest or lowest land elevation. Thematic maps focus on a particular theme or a specific topic. Population density is the number of people living in 1 sq km. Population maps can use colour keys to show population density in different places. Colour keys can also show temperature or rainfall. ‘Small-scale maps show less detail than large-scale maps. Types of maps -— Globe Map + three-dimensional + twodimensional we Types of maps Scaled-up maps * political maps * These maps have larger * physical maps scales; they show details + thematic maps more clearly. ‘Some examples of thematic maps are: * temperature maps * rainfall maps * population maps ”UNIT Living with the climate What is the difference between climate and weather? Weather is not the same as climate. Weather can change in a short period of time—one day it can be dry and sunny, and the next day it may rain. it might rain for an hour and then stop. Climate is the usual weather pattem for a place throughout the year. Certain conditions of the atmosphere define the weather of a place, including temperature, rainfall, cloud, air pressure, and wind. The factors affecting the climate of a place are: distance from the Equator height of the land size of the land mass distance from the sea warm or cold sea currents epaooD ‘A map of the main climate zones of the world OXFORDUNIT 5 LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE Climate is different in different parts of the world. The main climate zones of the world are: Climate zone _| Temperature 2 Precipitation Polar very cold all year round very little rainfall Temperate cold winters and mild summers rain at any time of the year Arid ‘hot and dry all year round, cold at night scarce rainfall Tropical hot all year round high annual rainfall | Mediterranean | hot, dry summers and mild winters in falls mostly in winter; quite low annual rainfall Mountain cold all year round, very cold in winter high annual precipitation that also includes snow Living with the climate You can see from the map on the facing page that the climates of different regions of the world vary. The regions located at the North and South Poles have a polar climate. Some regions of Africa, South America, and South-east Asia have a tropical climate. Can you identify the climatic zone of the country you live in and of some other places that fall in the same climatic zone as yours? The climate of a region affects the way people build houses and grow crops, and the clothing they wear. This is why people living in different climatic zones have different lifestyles. Different regions in Pakistan have different climates. For example, the Thar Desert is very dry most of the year. It is very hot in the day but the temperature almost 0°C at night. The only source of water is ré falls only between July and ‘September. Some years it does not rain at is collected in ponds but due to extremely hot the water evaporates. To overcome this problem, people build underground tanks with ss lids. The lids keep the water cool and prevent it from evaporating. Stored water can drop to , which, all. Rainwater weather Water tanks are used in deserts for storing rainwater: Rainwater collects in the big concrete dish and runs down the hole into the tank. There is aid that goes on the top. OXFORD owMB UNIT 5 1 LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE a does not last for long, so the people of the desert have to move to other places where there is water. They lead a nomadic life and build temporary dwellings of mud and straw. The coastal climate of Pakistan is different from the desert climate. Karachi, for example, has mild winters and hot summers, with monsoon rain in July and August. The coastal areas of Thatta and Badin are often flooded by ‘sea water when the sea level rises during the rainy season. People move to safer places and return to their homes once the sea level goes down. The climate of the Indus plain in Punjab is hot in the summer and mild in the winter. It has monsoon rains but the total annual rainfall is low. During the dry season, the people of this region irrigate their farms through a system of canals called the canal irrigation system. What is extreme weather? Extreme weather is weather that changes suddenly or unexpectedly from its average recorded conditons. Seasonal weather is different from unusually extreme weather, e.g. a heatwave is a period of unusually hot weather. Other examples are flash floods, drought, and cold spells. People find ways to live comfortably in their usual weather conditions because they get to know the winds and they get used to very hot, very cold, very wet, or very dry seasons. But dealing with unexpected changes in the weather may disrupt their lives. For example, in parts of Pakistan, people are used to heavy monsoon rains, but the floods in Lahore in September 2014 were an example of extreme weather which disrupted the lives of the people for many days. It also caused danger to their lives and damage to their property. In January 2045, heatwaves caused bushfires in Victoria, Australia, In North Africa, people are used to strong winds, such as the Sirocco that blows from the Sahara Desert during spring and autumn, But in February 2015, Egypt had unusually strong winds. The winds swept sandstorms across parts of the country. There were storms in the Suez Canal and it had to be closed.UNIT 5 | LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE + Aheatwave is a time of unusually high temperature and humidity in a place. + Humidity means the amount of water in the air. Polar climate A bushi in Vitoria Ansiintheansary Imagine looking down at the North Pole from space. The map on this page shows what you would see. You would see the region we call the Arctic. Some of the coldest places on Earth are located in this region. They have long, dark winters and short summers. The climates of different places on this map Here are some more examples of ‘unusually extreme weather in Pakistan: 2 ihe flacds betuses G0li'and 2014 are similar in many ways. They have little + the heatwave of 2014 rainfall or snow. Sounds strange, doesn't it? * the coldest December for 30 years in Can you guess why it snows so little in the some regions in 2013 Arctic and why the winters are so long and dark there? ate It is because rainfall and snow occur in places where the humidity levels are high. The humidity level in the Arctic region is very low because the sea is frozen, therefore the water does not evaporate—hence, no rainfall occurs apart from in the coastal areas that surround the Arctic region. Winters in the Arctic are long and dark because, during this season, the North Pole is tilted away from the Sun—hence the hours of sunlight are very few. The Arctic is mainly ocean surrounded by land. The temperature of ocean water does not drop below -2°C, except at the surface. ‘So the water is much warmer than the land. Winters are cold with temperatures that can drop below -50°C. The average temperatures in January are —40°C to 0°C. Oxo! 4Munit st a ‘Summers, however, are cool. The average temperatures in July are -10°C to +10°C. Most of the land in the Arctic has a polar tundra climate. It has permafrost, which is a layer of frozen earth about 450 metres deep. The deepest parts of the ground stay frozen, even in the summer. In the southern parts of the Arctic, the surface above the permafrost melts in the summer and creates bogs and shallow lakes. LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE Living in a very cold climate How cold does it get in the winter where you live? Cold or very cold? Can you imagine living in a place where the temperature falls to -44°C in winter? There is a place in Russia called Yakutsk. Itis one of the coldest cities on Earth. It is located in the south of the Arctic Circle. For eight months of the year its temperature is 0°C or lower. But there are other places near the North Pole which are not as cold as Yakutsk. Examples are Oulu, in Finland, and Troms, in Norway. These cities have warmer climates because they are located near the sea. The Gulf Stream carrying warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean warms the coastal cities of the Arctic region. HOW ARE THE HOUSES BUILT? In Yakutsk, it is very difficult to dig deep into the hard frozen ground. Yet foundations have to be deep because the temperature in the summer can reach up to 30°C. In such hot weather, soil as much as 3 metres deep can thaw and soften, which could make the buildings sink if they did not have deep foundations.UNIT 5 1 LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE People dig small areas to erect foundations of buildings in permafrost. Buildings stand on pillars which prevent the heat-flow from the buildings penetrating the frozen ground below and causing it to thaw. Water, sewage, gas pipes, and electricity and communication cables are also installed above the ground. e ‘Atemperature of -47°C is a normal fora December day. People here are completely used to this kind of cold. The first thing we do when we get up in the morning is look at the colour of the sky. If t's blue, we know the cold will be bearable. If all you can see is fog behind the window pane, we know it will be a tough day. It’s hardest for the children. They have to spend all day inside, either at home or at school. | try to bring my two sons to the park at least once a day. Since it’s extremely cold, we go in a taxi, so that the little time they spend outside, they spend playing. | don't want them to get sick, so my rule is that we never stay outdoors more than 30 minutes per day.” Bolot Boucharev was born in Yakutsk and lives there with his wife and two sons, aged 3 and 5. This is from his online blog at http://askyakutia.com: Living in a very hot climate Why do you think some places have a very hot climate? In the figure you can see that some parts of the Earth near the Equator always remain close to the Sun, unlike some other places like the Poles that either away or tilt towards the Sun. These places have equal hours of day and night. The hottest places on Earth are mostly located near the Equator, e.g. Kuwait City, which is one of the world’s hottest cities. Its temperature can reach as high as 46°C in summer. However, some places near the Equator are not very hot, e.g. Quito, the capital city of Ecuador, which has warm summers and mild winters, and the temperature \ North Pole 90° is rarely below 7°C or above ast. —— , The reason for the difference Earth's rotation in the temperatures of these suniignt two cities is their different oo elevations. The table on page 44 shows that the elevation of Kuwait City is very close to sealevel, = about 20 metres above. On the other hand, Quito is located at 2850 metres above sea level. ‘South Pole 90° ‘The tit of the Earth affects the climate of « place. OXFORD 4gMB UNIT 5 | LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE “4 Kuwait City lies on the edge of the Arabian Desert and the land is very flat. There are no rivers or natural lakes. Very little vegetation or plants grow, therefore hardly any trees can be seen in this region. On an average, it rains for about 22 days each year in Kuwait. You might think that Kuwait faces a shortage of water, but that's not true. People make use of desalination plants which take the salt out of sea water and make it safe to drink, to be used in homes and industry, and to irrigate farms. Due to very low rainfall and very high temperatures, farming is not possible in a desert country like Kuwait. However, advancements in farming technology have enabled the people to grow crops in enlosed areas like polytunnels and glasshouses, where the conditions for growing crops can be controlled. Glasshouses and polytunnels let sunlight in but they do not get too hot. Crops grown in Kuwait include animal feed, dates, and tomatoes. Honey farming is also carried out in this way. ne ‘we City Kuwait | Quito City Latitude 29°22" N |0°15'S Elevation 20m 2850 m Average summer daily high 44-46°C | 20.: temperature 20.3°C Average annual temperature 26 14°CUNIT 6 1 LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE HOW ARE THE HOUSES BUILT? The older houses in Kuwait City, as well as in other countries of the Middle East, were made of stone and earth. + Kuwait is one of the seven Arab states which These materials absorb heat from the Sun during border the Persian Gulf. ‘the day. Stone and earth take a long time to heat | + The hottest months up and a long time to cool down. Thus, the houses | in Kuwait are June, remain cool during the day and are warm at night. | July, and August, with Also, it is much cooler indoors than outdoors during. | frequent sandstorms. the day. Many older houses have courtyards with rooms around them. The walls of the courtyard provide shade and absorb heat, which helps to keep the rooms cool. Moreover, the walls are painted in white or light colours to reflect the sunlight and to keep the house cool. Did you know that many ancient buildings in Kuwait and other parts of the Middle East had a natural system of airconditioning? Such houses had wind- towers. A wind tower has openings that make the air move around the building and thus keep it cool. In the older parts of the city, one can see how the narrow streets with tall buildings provide ‘traditional house in Kuwait has a courtyard with roms opening out shade from the Sun. from it and shaded parts that stay cool OXFORD - 6_ ne a 5 | LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE Living with the climate: Assessment A1. Find out about the number of hours of B41 ca Da. ‘sunlight in the Arctic region during summer and winter. a) Look at the photo of the polar tundra of ‘Alaska on page 42. Describe the land and what grows there. 3 b) Why do you think there are generally no trees? a) What problems do you think people who live in a polar tundra climate face? b) Write some questions about life in the polar tundra. See if you can find the answers to your questions in books or on the Internet. a) How does permafrost affect the way homes are built? b) Explain how builders solve this problem. a) How would your daily life change if you lived in Yakutsk? ) What would you like to ask Bolot Boucharev 2 ‘and his family about life in Yakutsk? Write three questions. ©) Discuss the questions with a partner and tell your teacher your answers. a) Name three cities in the Arctic Circle that are farther north than Yakutsk. Find outand 3. compare their average winter temperatures with those of Yakutsk’s. b) What weather conditions do you think are responsible for this difference? a) Find out from the Internet about the average temperatures and rainfall for the month of January in Reykjavik in Iceland and Yakutsk in Russia, b) Compare the rainfall of both cities. c) Compare the temperatures of both cities. Find out what makes some places near the Equator hotter than others. a) What conditions do you think make Kuwait City’s climate so hot? b) What type of climate does Kuwait have? c) How did the people of Kuwait solve the problem of shortage of water for homes, farms, and industry? d) How do glasshouses and polytunnels OXFORD, E4, control the conditions for growing crops? e) What have been used for many centuries to cool buildings in Kuwait? f) What keeps older buildings cool during the day but warm at night? a) What is a heatwave? Describe a heatwave you may have experienced. Write a few sentences about how the heatwave affected people, animals, and businesses. b) Give three examples of extreme weather that was unusual for the places where it ‘occurred. Complete the sentences. a) Weather means the day-to-day changes in conditions such as _, __, cloud, and b) Climate means the usual for a place throughout the Choose the correct word(s) for each gap. a) Apolar climate is (very cold/mild) with very litle (sun, wind, rain). b) A tropical climate is very hot with (no rain/ rain at any time of the year/rain in winter) c) A mountain climate is (cold/very cold) all the year with (cold/mild, very cold) winters, Copy these sentences and write True or False for each. Correct the false sentences. a) It is always cold in Yakutsk. b) Yakutsk has more hours of daylight than Karachi in the summer months of June, July, and August. ) Most of the time, the temperature in May in Yakutsk is higher than 0°C. d) Permafrost is soil that stays frozen. e) Yakutsk is in the Arctic Circle. f) It often snows in Yakutsk, How do the climates of coastal areas of Thatta and Badin and the Indus Plain affect the lives. of people living over there?UNIT 5 | LIVING WITH THE CLIMATE > Weather means sunshine, temperature, rain, wind, air pressure, etc. Weather can change daily or even more often. > Climate means the usual weather pattern all year in a place. > Places in or near the Arctic or Antarctic Circle have cold climates. > Permafrost is a layer of Earth that stays frozen all year, > Places with a polar tundra climate have permafrost. > Both polar tundra climates and desert climates have very little rain. > Inextreme climates, houses are specially designed to minimize the effects of the climate. a Living with the climate 1 Factors affecting Extreme Living in a very hot climate weather climate * distance from the * floods * Places with a hot climate Equator * sandstorms are located near the * height of the land * heatwaves Equator. * size of the land mass * severe cold * They have equal hours of + distance from the sea spells day and night. * warm or cold sea * Kuwait is one of the hottest currents places on Earth. + Ithas a desert climate. * Rainfall is very low. Climate zones * The maximum temperature in summer can reach as of the world high as 46°C. eer * Houses are built of stone + Temperate and earth. ; + Aid * Courtyards and wind towers = tropical keep the houses cool. * Mediterranean + Mountain Living in very cold climate ‘The temperature can drop to -50°C in winter in polar tundra. ‘The average temperature during summer remains between ~10°C and +10°C. ‘These areas receive very little rain and snow. Yakutsk is the coldest place on Earth. Ithas permafrost, which is a layer of frozen earth about 450 metres deep. * Houses are built over pillars that are dug deep into the frozen ground.Forests of the world What is a forest? A forest is a large area of land covered mainly by trees, but there is no exact size that makes a group of trees a forest rather than a wood There are different kinds of forest around the world and not all forests have the same kind of trees. Different regions have different climates, and the type of trees growing in a forest depends upon the various climatic conditions zie sac aplbylenvos ot of that region, e.g. rainfall, temperature. ee sunlight, etc = —_ Is fe ts are fc Types of forests Why do you think coniferous forests are found in some parts of Pakistan, even though it is not in a cold climatic zone? Remember, the higher you climb, the colder it gets. The northern areas of Pakistan and Ziarat have a CONIFEROUS FORESTS very cold climate owing to their high altitudes. therefore coniferous forests are found here Coniferous trees have thin, spiky leaves and seeds in cones or berries. They do not lose all their leaves at the same time, so they never look bare. Forests in cold climates are mainly coniferous. This type of forest does not have layers—all trees are of uniform height. Conifers can withstand snow because of their strong, supple, downward-sloping branches and their conical-shape which allows the snow to slide off. Let's find out about the main types of forest in the world A juniper forest in the Suleiman Mountains Some examples of coniferous trees are fir, pine, and spruce. Pakistan has coniferous forests in Chitral, DECIDUOUS FORESTS Swat, Azad Kashmir, and Ziarat. The juniper _—_These forests have three layers: the canopy, forests near Ziarat in the Suleiman mountain the shrub layer, and the ground layer. range in Balochistan are among the largest. Deciduous trees have wide, flat leaves. Their and the oldest in the world. seeds are not enclosed in cones but form in @ — OXFORIUNIT 6 | FORESTS OF THE flowers. These forests receive plenty of rainfall all year round. Maple, oak, and chestnut are examples of deciduous trees. Deciduous forests are also called temperate forests, as they are only found in temperate climatic regions of the world. The places where these forests grow have four distinct seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The trees go through different phases during each season. New leaves grow in spring, and during the summer these broad leaves capture plenty of sunlight to manufacture food. The trees store food in their roots before the onset of autumn, when the leaves change colour and are eventually shed in winter. The reason why deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter is because the leaves cannot survive the cold, Leaves and an acorn of oak. a deciduous tree TROPICA RESTS Tropical rainforests are found in the regions surrounding Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The climate of a tropical rainforest is hot and humid, as it receives rain throughout the year—hence the name ‘rainforest’, The average temperatures each month are between 18°C and 35°C. Tropical rainforests are the habitat of more than fifty per cent of the plants and animals of the world The world’s largest tropical rainforest is in the Amazon Basin. It is spread over 5,500,000 square kilometres and includes parts of nine countries. This is a lowland forest on a flat plain. The Amazon rainforest is being cut down on a large scale to fulfil the growing demand for wood and other rainforest products \ rite ieuves of a ateltiona across the world, > ‘ee—a tropical rainforest tree OXFORD @MB UNIT 6 | FORESTS OF THE WORLD Pace Ocean Wopic of Capricorn Boe Newer 6 ee ae Layers of the rainforest A tropical rainforest has four main layers of plants. The plants in each layer have adapted to their environment in order to survive. Each layer has a name: 1. Emergent 2. Canopy 3. Under canopy 4. Forest floor 40 Heignt (m) ‘The layers of a rainforestUNIT 6 | FORESTS OF THE WORLD EMERGENT LAYER do not need much sunlight, such as shrubs, This is the topmost layer of the rainforest. tosses, ferns, and bushes grow Here. a receives the most sunlight. Its leaves are big aie a poet ae 0: si eee th and leathery or hairy. Their texture and pointed height, while other climbing plants grow up the shape lets water run off easily. itees'to reach the fair. The kapok is an emergent tree. It grows very ‘ ivina i quickly to the top of the canopy where plenty Making a living in the of sunlight reaches it, Ithas a thick trunk and YAinforest of Brazil many roots that spread out to support the tree in the shallow soil. These large roots help the RUBBER-TAPPING tree to take up water. Its leaves turn to face the Sun and their fan shape helps the rain to run off them. Rubber trees produce a liquid called latex. It is the raw material for rubber. The rainforest of Brazil is the only place in the world where rubber trees grow wild. Rubber-tapping is an CANOPY ancient industry of the rainforest. This is the second layer, below the emergent layer. The canopy has shorter trees that do not __ The province of Acre, in Brazil, has laws to need quite so much sunlight. The leaves of protect the forest and to help industries the trees in this layer are so dense that they that do no damage to the rainforests. The form a canopy that blocks out sunlight from the _8overnment pays the rubber-tappers to help deeper layers. The canopy is home to most of _ them to make a living from trees in the wild. the animal and plant life in tropical rainforests. Only wild trees are tapped, so no forest is cut down to plant rubber trees. UNDER CANOPY ‘As soon as the Sun rises, the rubber-tappers This is the third layer. Its trees are shorter than go into the forest and make a small cut in those in the canopy layer and need even less _—_the bark of the trees. They fix a cup to collect sunlight, but need shelter from heavy rain. They the latex that runs out. Later in the day, they can survive in the little amount of sunlight that go back to collect the cups of latex. The next filters through the dense canopy layer. No direct day, they tap different trees. They sell the latex rainfall reaches these trees but they get water from the dripping leaves of the canopy trees. SA FACT! \ oe) | + Acte province covers about 164,000 km. E Tr More than 40% of the people of Acre live in poverty, + Around 15% cannot read or write + The provincial government is working to | improve the lives of the poorest people there. FOREST FLOOR Not much grows on the forest floor because it is very cool and shaded. Some plants that aMunit 61 2 FORESTS OF THE to manufacturers who are helping to save the rainforests. These manufacturers pay fair prices for the latex, so the workers can make a reasonable living. BRAZIL NUT HARVESTING People have gathered Brazil nuts in the wild for many centuries. But most of the world’s Brazil nuts come from Bolivia! Brazil nuts also grow wild in Peru. Local people, as well as migrant workers, walk along forest trails to gather the pods of nuts that fall from the trees. WORLD They use a machete to open the pod and take out the nuts. They put these in large bags and carry them to a nearby house or settlement near a road or river. Then the nuts are transported by road or river to processing plants in towns. Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru have laws that protect the rainforest and help people to make a living from Brazil nuts. earner + Brazil nut trees grow up to 49 metres tall and can live for hundreds of years. + In Brazil, itis illegal to cut down a Brazil nut tree. * Brazil nut trees can only survive in a healthy forest with the right types of animals. What is the difference between primary and planted forests? Some forests have grown naturally. Their trees dropped seeds that grew into more trees. The forests have been changed very little by humans. These are called primary forests. There are also forests that are planted. OXFORD ‘Some forests are 100% planted or seeded. Others are a mixture of primary forest and planted trees, Primary forest in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda Why do people plant forests? People plant forests for four main reasons: to obtain wood or other materials from trees, + to protect habitats of plants and animals to protect land from erosion and desertification to help to reduce climate change Different kinds of forests are planted across the world for various purposes. For example pine trees are planted for timber in Newlands Forest, Cape Town, South Africa. Similarly, hardwood trees are planted for forest habitat in Shelte:belts in Canterbury, New ZealandUNIT 6 | FORESTS OF THE WORLD North Wales, UK. The shelterbelt forest planted on Sanjiang Plain, north- east China, protects farmland from dust storms from the Gobi Desert. TFS A Fact! a | | + Planted forests cover 264 million hectares of the Earth’s surface. Each year this increases by about 5 million hectares. + Forests can help to reduce climate change by reducing | the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Urban planted forests An urban forest is a forest or woodland in a town or city. Many towns and cities around the world are planting trees to improve their environment in many ways: + They give shelter for animals and provide pleasant recreational spaces for people. + They provide shade from sunlight. + They reduce pollution. + They shelter buildings from winds. + They take up excess water that could cause flooding. ee aerel ar TTS A FAC ey + Towns and cities are usually warmer than the countryside around them. This heat is produced from human activities. + This warm area is called an urban heat island. Forests can cool the city by around 5.5-11°C, How do forests help a city? If you have been to a forest or an agricultural area, you will know how cool and fresh the air there feels. Can you explain why this is so? Of course, it is. OXFORD 33ME UNIT 6 | FORESTS OF THE WORLD because plants give out oxygen and water vapour during the process of photosynthesis, which cleans the air. However, in a city, a lot of heat is produced by the moving vehicles, air conditioning units, and industrial processes, which make the atmosphere of a city polluted and warm. Planting a forest around a city can help control environmental pollution and improve its atmosphere naturally. Look at the diagram below. Do you know that hot air rises while cool air sinks? The cool air surrounding the forests and agricultural area sinks towards the ground. Also, the upper atmosphere of the Earth is cooler than The eae ‘the lower atmosphere. the cool air from the surrounding When the hot air in a city rises, it goes up into the upper agricultural land or atmosphere and cools slightly. As it cools, it begins to sink ee See and gets cooler as it gets close to the air above the forests, and Sere continues to sink down. This creates low air pressure in the city, ~ thus cool air from the forest flows towards the city. Due to this air cycle, the atmosphere of the city is improved and pollution o~ is reduced. 41 Heat radiated from buildings, cars, and roads increases ar temperature in the city, causing the hot air to rise above the city, 2 Hot alr spreads out ‘and cools slight. ~~ —_ 3 ..and as ane Lar gg itfalts, — 7 cools more. A 4 Coo! airs drawn into the city due to the decrease in air pressure > caused by rising ww hota: —“— me “= In agriculture areas, the ai: 1m usban areas, ai tomporature is warmer than Ina forest, the air fexipernfuye ls coaler than rural (otest oF agricultural) ai temperature. temperature is cooler then, urban air temperature. urban air temperature. A PLANTED FOREST IN PAKISTAN: CHANGA MANGA One of the world's largest planted forests, called Changa Manga, is near Lahore, in Punjab. It was planted in 1866 during British rule to produce wood for building railways, and to use as fuel for the steam trains, The climate of this area is hot and dry. It has very hot summers from April to ‘September and cool winters from mid-November to the end of January. It has much lower rainfall than tropical rainforests, although it has heavy monsoon rains duringCrossing the lake on a pedestrian bridge in Changa Manga Forest the months of July and August. The forest is irrigated by canals during the dry seasons. Changa Manga Forest used to cover 5061 hectares; now it covers only 1416 hectares because of logging. About 200 hectares of this forest are being replanted each year. The most common trees in the forest are shisham and eucalyptus. In 2005, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Pakistan ‘opened a breeding centre here for the gyps vulture, which is a critically endangered species. Parts of Changa Manga Forest have been made into a recreation park. Visitors can take a fivekilometre ride into the forest on a small WORLD UNIT 6 | train. There is also a pagoda, a water turbine, a waterfall, a children’s play area, a boating lake, and picnic areas. FORESTS 0 ‘They can visit the wildlife zoo, where the animals live in conditions as close as possible to their natural habitats. Some animals in this 200 are blue bulls, monkeys, urials, spotted deer, peacocks, partridges, and many others. A PLANTED FOREST IN KIELDER FOREST Kielder Forest is in Northumberland, north- east England. It was planted on moorland that had some small natural woods. The Forestry Commission of the United Kingdom began to plant the forest in 1926 and it now covers 650 km*—the largest planted forest in Western Europe. K: K: The trees are mainly conifers. Plants like spruce, pine, and fir grow in this forest along with some deciduous trees like birch, rowan, cherry, oak, beech, and willow. Kielder Forest was mainly planted for timber. The forest is the habitat of many animals, including red squirrels, badgers, roe deer, otters, shrews, bats, and many woodland birds. Itis also an important habitat for protected birds of prey including ospreys. Kielder ForestMENT 6 | FORESTS OF THE WORLD Forests of the world: Assessment AL BL Webbe a) How is a rainforest different from other forests? In which country is the world's largest tropical rainforest? b) Find out from the map on page 50 the latitudes between which the tropical rainforests are located. ©) Describe the climate of a tropical rainforest. 2) Describe the different layers of a rainforest. b) What helps the kapok tree to survive ina tropical rainforest? ©) How can plants that grow on the forest floor survive? Explain two ways. a) How do rubber-tappers collect latex from. rubber trees? b) How do rubber-tappers help to look after the rubber trees? ©) Which three countries of the Amazon rainforest are the main producers of Brazil nuts? a) Name three plants that grow in the ‘Amazon rainforest. b) Why do the national and provincial governments of Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru help rubbertappers and Brazil-nut harvesters? ©) Describe a day in the life of a Brazil nut harvester. Another crop of the rainforest is the acai berry, a) Find out what acai berries are like, how they are harvested, and how they are used. b) Write a report about the acai berry industry in the Amazon rainforest. C1, Make notes about the advantages and disadvantages of planting forests. in your notes, write your thoughts about the people who might be affected by a new forest. Use your notes to help you to write an argument for or against planting forests. a) Name some animals you could see at Changa Manga b) How can visitors to Changa Manga spend their time? c) What would you choose to do at Changa Manga and why? d) How do you think Changa Mange affects the lives of the people who live nearby? e) Write an information leaflet for visitors to the Changa Manga Forest Park. Write the correct answer: The forest on Sanjiang Plain in China was pianted for. a) timber ') protection from dust storms ©) a habitat for animals d) protection from floods 4, Write True or False for each statement. a) Urban forests help to prevent flooding in towns, b) Urban forests are found in uninhabited places. ©) Cities are cooler than the surrounding countryside. The three main types of forests are coniferous, deciduous, and tropical rainforests. ‘Tropical rainforests are found between latitudes 30°N and 30°S. The climate is hot and humid, Rubber and Brazil nuts can be collected without harming the trees in the Amazon. ‘The governments of many countries in the Amazon rainforest have laws to protect the forest. A primary forest is a forest that grew naturally. A planted forest has trees that have been planted or seeded. Urban forests give shade and shelter and help to keep towns cool. Trees take up water from the ground and reduce flooding.UNIT 6 | FORESTS OF THE WORLD ia Forests of the world ae Coniferous forests Primary forests * narrow, spiky leaves + grow naturally * seeds in cones or berries + changed very little by humans * usually found in cold climates + trees of uniform height Planted forests Uses * to obtain wood and other materials * to protect the habitats of plants and animals Dasisabus ean * to protect land from erosion and desertification + to help reduce climate change * wide, flat leaves + seeds form in flowers, Advantages ‘+ found in the temperate climatic arose any oarnencellsul tion regions * improve the atmosphere of cities Layers of forest Examples See * _Changa Manga Forest, Pakistan shrub + Kielder Forest, England * ground Tropical rainforests + found in the Tropies of Cancer and Capricorn regions * receive rain throughout the year Layers of a rainforest ‘emergent canopy under canopy forest floor Protection * Laws have been passed to protect forests from being cut down. * Help is given to industries that do not damage the rainforests. Ways of earning a living * + rubber tapping * Brazil nut harvestingMountains, plateaus, and valleys How were mountains formed? The foremost things you would probably notice about mountains are their towering height and incredibly different shapes. Have you ever wondered what gives mountains their different shapes? Geographers believe that the shape of a mountain depends on how it was formed. Mountains are formed by internal and external forces of nature. These forces act as pushes and pulls and change the shape of the Earth. The internal forces come from the movement of the Earth's tectonic plates, while the external forces are exerted by wind, water, climate, etc. The internal forces that form mountains Let's read about the internal structure of the Earth to find out where the internal forces that form mountains come from. The centre of the Earth, which is called the inner core, is as hot as the surface of the Sun. Scientists believe that the Earth's core is very dense and is made up of metals—mainly iron and nickel. Despite the fact that the temperature of the inner core is very high, these metals do not melt because the material outside the inner core exerts immense pressure on it. This pressure keeps even the very hot metals in solid form. ‘Around the inner core lies the outer core which is made up of very hot molten iron and nickel. The next layer is called the mantle. This is made up of hot, dense, almost solid, rock. The rock is more solid nearer the outer part of the mantle. The layer around the mantle is called the crust and is made of solid rock. The crust and the top layer of the mantle have spiit into massive pieces called tectonic plates. Tectonic plates move very slowly on the liquid below. They sometimes push and pull against one another and change the Earth tectonic plates shape of the land. se OXFORDUNIT 7 | MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS, AND VALLEYS Types of mountains Let's find out about the different types of mountains. FOLD MOUNTAINS Fold mountains form at places where tectonic plates bump into one another. The plates push and fold over each other—creating a hump on the surface of the Earth. ee The photographs on this page show mountains in the You need: continents of Asia, America, Europe, and Africa. All these + Stowels of different mountains were formed in the same way. See if you can spot cola oan any similarities between the mountains thickly ; + 2boxes of books (or other heavy items). Here is an investigation to help you to find out how fold mountains were formed. Cae Y HOW ARE FOLD MOUNTAINS FORMED? ™ 1. Slowly push the two boxes towards 3 a) In your notebook, draw a diagram of what one another. Watch what happens to the you did. towels. »b) Label your diagram. ©) Write what you did and what happened. ) Write an explanation of how fold mountains, are formed. B1. Give four examples of fold mountain ranges. 2. Use this investigation to explain how the Earth’s moving tectonic plates formed mountains, Mountains formed in this way are called fold mountains. OXFORD 9MB UNIT 7 | MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS, AND VALLEYS 0 FAULT BLOCK MOUNTAINS Tee wl tlcese eretenica Due to the movement of are formed. The arrows show tectonic plates, sometimes Fault-block mountains the directions of the forces. the crust of the Earth splits into blocks. The cracks or splits in the crust of the Earth are called fault lines. These blocks can be pushed or pulled upwards, downwards, or sideways to form fault block mountains. These mountains have steep sides. normal fault Look at the diagram above. The two blocks on the side are pulling apart and the middle block is being pushed up to form a fault block mountain. Look at the illustration below that shows different ways of how fault block mountains are formed. 2 zp (Other ways of forming fault Block mountains TS A FACT! we) + Mountains form close to fault lines. Fault lines are places where tectonic plates meet or pull apart. + Voleanoes form where tectonic plates are pulling apart or pushing towards one another. + Voloanoes do not usually form where two tectonic plates slide past one another. OXFORDUNIT 7 | VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS Volcanic mountains are formed in places where volcanoes erupt. Do you know where the volcanoes come from? Well, the inside of the Earth is extremely hot so that it melts rock. Molten rock is called magma. As the pressure of the overlying rocks increases, magma rises towards the surface of the Earth. Sometimes, it erupts through cracks or fissures in the Earth's crust called fault lines. Magma that has escaped from the inside of the Earth is called lava. Volcanic ash and gases also escape along with the magma. Lam rmountoin layers of ash om ‘ech eruption \ How cone volcanic ‘mountains are formed ‘Mayon volcano in the Philippines is 2462 metres high. It is an active cone volcano. MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS, AND VALLEYS What happens when a volcano erupts? It spreads over the land and cools down, forming a layer on the surrounding land. Each time the volcano erupts, it leaves more lava and ash. This eventually builds up into a mountain. Did you know that there are volcanic mountains under the sea as well? Sometimes, these can become tall enough to form islands. DOME MOUNTAINS Dome mountains are also formed due to volcanic activity inside the Earth, but in this, case, volcanoes do not erupt. This is because when magma pushes up from the Earth’s mantle, it might not find a weak place to escape to the surface—so there is no eruption. Instead, the magma collects between the layers of rock and pushes the top layer of the Earth's crust upwards, forming a dome mountain. The shape of a dome mountain is not always a rounded dome. The piece of rock that is pushed upwards rests on top of the other rocks like a dome on a building. + Adome mountain forms from magma that has collected between layers of rock in the Earth's crust. | = Not all mountains with a dome shape are dome mountains. aUNIT 7 ¢ = IT’S A FACT! ) + The area of the Tibetan Plateau is about 2,500,000 km?, + The area of the Columbia Plateau is about 260,000 km. Castle Dome Peak, a dome mountain in Arizona, USA Plateaus Plateaus are large flat plains higher than 600 metres. Some plateaus were formed when the moving tectonic plates pushed the Earth’s crust, upwards. Others were formed by the formation of layers of lava from volcanoes. The Tibetan Plateau was formed by the movement of tectonic plates. It is also called “the Roof of the World’ because it is the world's highest and largest plateau. It covers most of the Tibet Autonomous Region, Qinghai province in China, and part of Ladakh in India. The Columbia Plateau was formed by lava flows. It covers parts of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon, USA. Valleys Can you believe that water can change the shape of the land? Valleys are formed when fast flowing water cuts through mountain rock. Water flows very fast where the land slopes steeply. As the water flows downhill with 2 massive force, it erodes the rock and cuts a valley, shaped like the letter ‘V’. AV-shaped valley in the Lake District National Park, UK @ OXFORDUNIT 7 There are glaciers on top estan ao of very high mountains. A aoe glacier is a huge body of | ice that moves downhill 4 Ice can also cut through iy rock, but in a different way from water. When a glacier moves downhill, it erodes the rock of the mountains and cuts a valley shaped like the letter ‘U'. The glacier might also leave How a V-shaped valley is formed a narrow stream running through the valley. Before glaciation During glaciation Iter glaciation <>, erosion erosion glacier How U-shaped valleys are formed Bagrot Valley, in the Karakoram Mountain range in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. This is a U-shaped glaciated valley. OXFORDME UNIT 7 | MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS, AND VALLEYS RIFT VALLEYS A rift valley forms where tectonic plates move apart. This is almost like the formation of fault block mountains; however, a rift valley is much larger than a valley between fault block mountains. The East African Rift Valley formed where tectonic plates moved apart. They are still moving apart. The East African Rift Valley runs through Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, and Mozambique. Rift valleys also form where tectonic plates grind past one another, for example: the rift valley that runs through California, USA. horst horst graben How sift valleys are formed | + Many of the world’s largest lakes are in rift valleys, for example: | Lake Baikal in Siberia, and Lake Tanganyika in the East African Rift. + There are rift valleys in oceans as well as ‘on land—and on the Moon! + The largest known rift valley is Valles Marineris, on Mars. It is about 4000 km long and parts of it are 7 km deep.UNIT 7 | MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS, AND VALLEYS Landforms on maps In unit 3, you learned about relief maps which show the elevation of land. These maps use contour lines to show the details of landforms such as mountains, cliffs, and valleys. Contour lines show the height and shape of the land. HOW CONTOUR LINES ARE DRAWN ON A MAP Ifyou look at a picture of any mountain or valley, you will notice that it does not have a uniform shape. Some landforms have steep slopes, while others have gentle slopes. Contour lines can show the changing elevation of a landform. To draw contour lines, the different levels of height of a landform are marked. The points of equal elevation are joined together to make lines. Each line corresponds to a certain level of height. Look at Figure i. The lines are spaced far apart which shows that the land slopes gently. Now look at Figure ii. The contour lines are very close to each other, which shows that the height of the landform is changing rapidly. it indicates a steep slope. Figure i Contour diagram showing a gentle slopeMBUNIT 7 | MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUS, AND VALLEYS Mountains, plateaus, and valleys: Assessment ‘A1_) What type of fault block mountains are shown in the picture of the Sierra Nevada Mountains on page 60? b) What type of volcanic mountain is Mayon, in the Philippines? ¢) How is a dome mountain similar to a volcano? 4d) How is a dome mountain different from a volcano? B41. What is a plateau? a) Explain two ways in which plateaus are formed. b) Find out from your Oxford Schoo! Atlas for Pakistan which mountain ranges surround the Tibetan Plateau ©) Find out which mountain ranges surround the Columbia Plateau. ¢) Look at the maps of these plateaus in your Oxford Schoo! Atlas for Pakistan. What similarities can you see between the Tibetan Plateau and the Columt Plateau? C4. What is a valley? 2. What shape is a) a valley cut by a fast flowing river? b) a valley cut by a glacier? 3 a) Explain two ways in which a rift valley can be formed. b) Give examples of each type of rift valley. ‘The Earth is made up of different layers. to the surface. Volcanoes can form mountains. VEVYUNYY ve oxror! . Copy and complete the chart: D1. Draw a diagram to help you to answer each of these questions: a) What type of mountains form where tectonic plates push against one another? b) What kind of mountains form where pieces of tectonic plates drop down between two faults? a) What do we call motten rock under the surface of the Earth? ) What do we call molten rock that has escaped onto the surface of the Earth? ©) Name two types of mountains that are formed when magma pushes upwards. [Name of Country —_—_ Type of | mountain mountain |r mountain [lanmelese pe aes { | Rocky canada Karakoram Pakistan |siewva usa Nevada Mayon Philippines castle Dime Arizona Peake usa ‘The centre of the Earth is about as hot as the surface of the Sun. Each layer is cooler nearer ‘The layers of the Earth, from the inside, are: inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust. Tectonic plates are huge plates in the Earth's crust and the solid upper part of the mantle. Tectonic plates move very slowly, afloat on the molten rock of the mantle. ‘The features of the Earth’s surface are shaped by the movement of tectonic plates. Fold and fault mountains are formed where tectonic plates push and pull against each other. Valleys are formed by erosion or by tectonic plates moving apart. Contour lines on maps show the elevation and shape of the land.