|Introduction Each book in this series * draws on the knowledge and skills specified in the international secondary history syllabuses refers to international history and, where relevant, the history of Pakistan presents a student-friendly approach with a conversational tone to engage the students’ interest builds on students’ learning from earlier work in history uses clear language at an appropriate level encourages students to use higher-order thinking skills is illustrated with photographs, drawings, and maps provides interesting and important facts about the topics in fact boxes includes questions and discussion points to consolidate learning tests key points at the end of each unit summarizes the main concepts at the end of each unit Key features of Student’s Book 2 Student's Book 2 develops the students’ knowledge of the beginnings of Istam in the seventh century till the Renaissance in the fourteenth century. This book helps the students understand important common factors that shaped the development of civilizations and cultures, such as power structures, social systems, religion, economics, trade, landscape, geography, climate, and migration, It develops students’ chronological knowledge through timelines that highlight the most significant dates and developments within and across periods. It introduces to students major archaeological discoveries and fascinating original source material and artefacts, demonstrating how inferences can be drawn from these which contribute to our knowledge of the past. The units are organized around rigorous historical enquiry questions designed to convert content into interesting problems that the text and illustrations will help students to resolve. Accounts and historical narratives develop students’ awareness of concepts that shape the discipline of history itself, such as change and continuity, cause land consequence, similarity and difference, characteristic features of a period handling evidence, and historical significance. Itintroduces interesting historical controversies, encouraging students to justify their own conclusions and opinions by reference to evidence. foere) TContents and learning outcomes Unit 4. The coming of Islam 1 | ‘Students should be able to: | + describe the birth and life of the Prophet Muhammad. + describe the circumstances which led the Prophet and his followers to migration to Madina. + discuss the significance of the conquest of Makkah and the Prophet's&& farewell sermon, Unit 2 The spread of Isiam a3 Students should be able to: + explain how islam spread outside the Arabian Peninsula. + describe how the Khulafa-al-Rashidundis ruled and expanded the Islamic Empire. + describe the events that led to the conquest of Spain by Tariq bin Ziyad. Unit 3 The Abbasids 21 Students should be able to: *+ explain how the rule of the Abbasids led to the golden age of Islam. + describe the significance of Baghdad to the growth of Abbasid power. + discuss the literary and scholarly legacy of the Abbasid era. Unit 4 Muslim Spain 31 Students should be able to: + describe the establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty in al-Andalus (Mustim Spain), ‘+ comment on the growth of the great cities of Muslim Spain. ‘+ investigate the Christian response to the decline of Muslim rule in Spain. Unit 5 The Crusades a. Students should be able to: + explain the key factors that led to the First Crusade. * evaluate the significance of the Pope's call for Crusade. + explain how Salahuddin recaptured Jerusalem. * describe the legacy of the Crusades for Europe.Unit 6 The Mongols Students should be able to: * explain the role Changez Khan played in uniting the Mongol tribes. * describe the development of the Mongol Empire under Kublai Khan. * describe the nature of Mongol warfare and how this culminated in the sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE. * evaluate the legacy of the last great Mongol leader: Tamerlane. Unit 7 The Ottoman Empire 61 Students should be able to: * explain the origins of the Ottoman Turks. * explain how the Ottoman Empire expanded. + evaluate the basis and significance of the siege and capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans. Unit 8 Istam spreads to the subcontinent 7 Students should be able to: * explain how Islam was first brought to the subcontinent. * explain how Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, + explain how Mahmud of Ghazni expanded his empire into the subcontinent. Unit 9 The rise of the Dethi Sultanate 79 Students should be able to: + explain how the Ghorids came to power after the downfall of the Ghaznavid Empire. + describe how the Ghorids laid the foundations of the Delhi Sultanate. * explain the rise and fall of the Slave, Khilji, Tughlag, Sayyid, and Lodhi Dynasties. Coecel toUnit 10 The beginnings of the Mughal Empire 87 Students should be able to: + explain the growth of the Mughal Empire through the ambition of leaders from Central Asia. + appreciate the resilience of the first two Mughals, Babur and Humayun, and consider how they ultimately overcame challenges to establish a dynasty. + evaluate the significance of the rule of Akbar in the Mughal Empi Unit 4.1 The expansion and decline of the Mughal Empire 95 ‘Students should be able to: + identify the strengths and weaknesses of the Mughal emperor and Aurangzeb. + evaluate the significance of key women in the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. * analyse some of the factors that led to the expansion and decline of the Mughal Empire. : Jahangir, Shah Jahan, Unit 12 The Americas 105 Students should be able to: + explain the background to the European colonization of the Americas. + compare the different civilizations of the Americas. + evaluate the consequences of European colonization on the Americas. Unit 13 The Renaissance 115 Students should be able to: ‘+ explain the origins of the European Renaissance. + identify the great cultural and scientific developments during the Renaissance. ‘+ evaluate the significance of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England in the flourishing of Renaissance ideas and patronage. GlossaryTHE COMING OF ISLAM Presslamic Arabia ‘The Nabateans ‘The tribe of Quresh ‘The birth and early life of Prophet Muh. ‘The migration to Madina The conquest of Makkah The farewell sermon of the Prophet at Hajjatul wida Assessment Key facts OverviewThe coming of Islam Pre-Islamic Arabia Te Arabian Peninsula, in the centuries before the message of Islam transformed it forever, was a relatively insignificant land. It ‘was ignored by the two superpowers of the ancient world, the Romans and the Persians, and had its own unique social and economic system. Its landscape was dominated by endless desert with occasional oasis-towns and city-states. In the early seventh century CE, ‘a merchant from the Arabian city of Makkah shook the established social order of Arabia to its core. To his growing number of followers he was the final messenger of the one true God, Allah, and the revelations he received were His last instructions to mankind. His name was Muhammadg& and the message he carried would change the world. The Nabateans Of the numerous nomadic tribes that roamed this desert landscape, the Nabateans were the most ‘successful in connecting all corners of the peninsula into an impressive trading network. 2 OXFORD‘MIT 1 THE COMING OF ISLAM There are historical records that describe the Nabateans as controlling all the lucrative trade routes on the peninsula. Attempts by hostile neighbours to seize their trade failed from 700 BCE until their capital, Petra, was captured by the Romans around 100 CE. UO UOvUUUUUNEUEUHUen uneven eee + The Nabateans transported frankincense and _ methods for finding ita secret, for hundreds myrth from East Africa and southern Arabia of years. to the Mediterranean. * The Nabateans were known for their + The Nabateans were experts at extracting extraordinary wealth. Roman conquest and water from the Arabian Desert. They kept natural disasters led to the decline of their the locations of their water sources and their _civilization ‘VUE uueveueveceucecaezueeeeecueeeennan veces eee Until very recently treasure hunters looted the graves of buried kings and even shot at the ornamental vases carved into the rock at the site known as ‘The Treasury’ in the hope that it contained hidden gold. (es ‘gy -———— Assia oot ot nabs spin A ieee Reiter oe eo crtc ey Peeeec ets Mugen n Petra, Jordan around 300 BCE‘UNT THE COMING OF ISLAM The tribe of Quresh The birth and early life of Prophet Muhammadg Culture and Religion The Nabateans, like most of the Arabs before Islam, were polytheists. Evidence found in Petra shows they worshipped a number of gods and goddesses, the most powerful of whom were the goddesses abLat, alUzza, and Manat. Makkah, a great desert city, was very important to the Arabs for religious and economic reasons. It was located at the centre of the old trade routes that brought goods from East Africa and southern Arabia to the markets of Babylon, Damascus, and Jerusalem. People from across the peninsula also came to Makkah to worship the idols at the Ka’aba Makkah was controlled by the powerful tribe of Quresh. The Quresh tribe grew in number and influence in the late sixth and early seventh Centuries due to the strategie and spiritual value of Makkah. According to the eighth century Arab historian, Ibn Ishaq, the Quresh did not need to trade like the other Arab tribes because they profited greatly from granting access to the Ka’aba and selling provisions to pilgrims. Some clans of the Quresh took part in the valuable trade of spices, dates, perfume, and slaves. The Banu Hashim was one such clan. In the year 570 CE, the Prophet Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe. His father, Abdullah Ibn AbdulMuttalib, died before he was born; and his mother, Amina bint Wahab, died before he turned seven. He was raised for most of his childhood as an orphan under the care of his grandfather, Abdul-Muttalib and then later by his uncle, Abu Talib. Both of these men were respected members of the Quresh tribe. In 582 CE, the Prophet Muhammad accompanied his uncle Abu Talib on a camel train, laden with goods from Makkah to the market cities of modem Iraq and Syria. According to Islamic tradition, as the camel train approached the Syrian city of Bosra, a Christian monk was stunned to see a small cloud providing shade from the scorching ‘Sun to one of the riders. The monk hurried from his home and approached the chief of the trade expedition, Abu Talib, to learn more about this obviously very special young man. Abu Talib told the monk that the boy he was enquiring about was his nephew, Muhammad ibn Abdullahd.UNIT 1 THE COMING OF ISLAM Prophet Muhammadé continued to travel with his uncle on caravan trips and quickly gained a reputation for honesty and skill in trade. At the age of twenty-five Prophet Muhammad was working for a wealthy widow, Hazrat Khadijazz, who was greatly impressed by his loyalty and trusted him with much of her business. They later married, and Hazrat Khadija2: became the first person to embrace Islam. The revelation of the Holy Qur’an ‘The Prophet Muhammadé was never comfortable with the idotatrous religious practices that made Makkah the spiritual centre of Arabia. Instead he would retreat to the mountains and meditate alone in the caves that looked down on the city. One day, in the year 610 CE, whilst meditating and reflecting in cave Hira, the fortyyear-old Prophet Muhammad heard the voice of the Angel Jibraeel. He was told to recite the first five verses of what would later be compiled into the Holy Book: The Qur'an. The Holy Qur'an was gradually revealed to the Holy Prophet over the following years and he began to ‘spread the teachings of islam to the people of Makkah. He conveyed the message of Allah which commanded them to worship only Allah; to renounce their idol worship; to prepare for the Day of Judgement; and to accept the Prophet Muhammad as the messenger of Allah. He also preached that they should give up their greedy business practices, disregard for the poor, and mistreatment of the enslaved. Slowly and gradually, as the people began to convert to Islam, the rulers of Makkah turned against him. They inflicted pain, injury, and even death on those (particularly the poor and the slaves) who embraced Islam. AS more and more people in Makkah converted to Islam, the number of their enemies also increased. The Makkans feared that the Prophet Muhammadé might claim leadership and bring an end to their political, economic, and social supremacy. They even invited the Holy Propheta to become their king or accept riches, but stop spreading the message of Islam. But the Prophet refused their offers. Frustrated by this, they demanded Abu Talib to hand his nephew over to ees them, but Abu Talib refused. OXFORD 5‘OWT THE COMM OF ISLAM TUTE + The Prophet Muhammad’sé early followers were slaves and the poor. The first convert to Islam of a high social standing in Makkah, outside of the Prophet Muhammad'séé family, ‘was Hazrat Abu Bakriiz, a wealthy trader. * As the Muslims faced increasing persecution in Makkah from the Quresh, the Prophet Muhammadé instructed some of his followers to migrate, in around 615 CE, to the Christian kingdom of Abyssinia in East Africa This is known by some as the first migration of Muslims in history. HUTTE The migration to Madina Then a time came when the Makkans decided to expel the subtribe of Banu Hashim (including their women and children) from Makkah for offering protection to the Holy Propheta. They were forced to reside in a deep, narrow valley outside Makkah and denied access to food, water, and other necessities. The Makkans made sure that they were socially boycotted and also instructed the merchants neither to sell nor buy from them, or sell them goods at very high prices. Consequently, these people ran out of money and had to live in extremely miserable conditions. They even had to survive on the leaves of plants and animal skins. The cries of the children echoed in the valley, but the Quresh did not show mercy on them. Many people died from starvation and disease. The Prophet Muhammadaé was deeply distressed to see his clan's men, women, children, and elderly suffering like this. However, he endured all the hardships inflicted by the Makkans with great Patience and courage and did not give up spreading the message of Islam, This exile ended after three years. Abu Talib died in 620 CE. As long as Abu Talib lived, the Makkans dared not attack the Prophet openly; however, after his death, the rulers of Makkah began to openly persecute Prophet Muhammad's followers. Slaves were forced to worship idols and the businesses of the wealthier Muslims were boycotted. They even plotted to take the Prophet'sé& life. In 622 CE, after months of extreme persecution of the Muslims, the Prophet Muhammad and his companions migrated from Makkah ‘and headed to the northern city of Yathrib (later called Madina). This migration from Makkah to Madina is known as the Hijrah and it marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Yathrib, the city of the Prophet The small band of Muslim migrants was welcomed by the people of ‘Yathrib. The Prophet Muhammad laid the foundations of Islam in Yathrib, which eventually became the centre of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula,‘OWT THE COMING OF ISLAM There he built the first mosque of Islam called the ‘Quba’. His participation in the construction of this mosque reinforced his LUE UUE UU neenE Hee teachings about the equality of all human beings. sai hisesrlana eoceot at the Charter of Madina (also known as Constitution of Madina), which was dictated by the Prophet Muhammad, was the first written constitution in history. It was also significant because it guaranteed religious freedom and gave equal rights to every citizen. THHHHHTHTLHHTHUIAEEELAEIELLLNIEL Many of the powerful tribes began to accept either the message of Islam or the political authority of the Prophet Muhammadg&. During the first year in Yathrib, he drafted a constitution for the city which ended the bloody rivalries between the various clans of Yathrib and established peace there. Despite having large Jewish and Christian communities, Yathrib was gradually transformed into a Muslim city, and eventually came to be known across Arabia as Madinat al-Nabi: ‘the city of the Prophet’. Yathrib was transformed under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammadg from a prosperous but unruly and chaotic city into a harmonious multiaith society. This change is due to the genuine trust ‘he different tribal chiefs placed in the Prophet Muhammad's authority. They were sure that he would treat everyone justly when a dispute arose. The bond between al-Ansar and al-Muhajirun The Holy Prophet laid the foundations of the new society in Yathrib on the principles of brotherhood, or fraternity. The Muslims who had migrated from Makkah had left their material belongings behind. They faced the issue of how to settle in a new city with no resources. The Holy Prophetf did not want them to become a burden on their hosts in Madina. OXEOI‘OT 1 THE comin OF ISLAM Poste a on the arco Madina, Saudia Arabia The conquest of Makkah The Prophet Muhammad named the migrants from Makkah as al- ‘Muhajirun and the residents of Yathrib as alAnsar. He paired each ‘Muhajir from Makkah with an Ansar from Madina and declared them to be brothers. For the Arabs, for whom clan loyalty was everything, this kind of cooperation was a remarkable achievement. He asked the Ansars to make the Muhajirun their business partners and share their personal properties. The Ansars readily obliged and even allowed their Mujair brothers to inherit from them. The Jewish residents of Madina were also invited to join the growing, community of a-Ansar and some of them accepted this offer. The Prophet Muhammada& signed treaties of peace and cooperation with the tribes that did not. Within the span of eight years, the small group of the followers of the Prophet who had migrated to Madina had grown manifold, They longed to perform pilgrimage to the Ka’aba. So in 630 CE, about 10,000 Muslims travelled to Makkah for this purpose. When they reached Makkah, the Makkans were overwhelmed to witness such a massive but unarmed crowd. They were no longer a weak segment of the Makkan society, but a strong community unified under the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad. Apart from a few people, the Makkans surrendered, Thus, the Prophet Muhammad conquered Makkah without shedding a single drop of blood. First of all, he cleared the House of Allah of idols and by doing ‘80 symbolized the end of idol worship. He then displayed great generosity by granting a general amnesty to everyone, even those171 THE COMING OF ISLAM who had committed grave crimes against the Propheta, his family, and his followers. A great number of people converted to Islam and many leaders of the Arab tribes also came to the Prophetéf to embrace Islam. Henceforth, Makkah became the centre of Islam for the entire world. In 632 CE, during the Istamic month of Zi! Half, the Prophet, The farewell sermon Muhammad gave his final sermon in Makkah. For Muss then of the Prophet i; at and now, it encapsulated the message of Allah. Hajjatul wida’a ‘0 People! Listen to me in eamest, worship Allah, say your five daily prayers, fast during the month of Ramzan, and give your wealth in zakat (obligatory charity). Perform Haij if you can afford to All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over black, nor does a black have any superiority ‘over white except by piety and good action. Learn that every Muslim is a brother to every Muslim and that the Muslims constitute one brotherhood. Nothing shall be lawful to a Muslim which belongs to a fellow Muslim unless it was given freely and willingly. The Prophetéé passed away the same year, after uniting the entire Islamic community into an ummah, POC ECC CISL) OXFORD 5OR ae ASSESSMENT 1. Explain how the Nabateans managed to control the trade routes across Arabia Suggest some reasons why Makkah became an important trading city. 3. Write a brief account of the early life of the Prophet Muhamadé. Using the information in the text and your own knowledge, give three reasons why the Prophet Muhammadag was successful in spreading his message. 5. Explain why the Prophet Muhammad'ség message enraged the elite of Makkah 6. Explain why the Prophet Muhammad's farewell sermon is considered so important to Muslims. 7. Why was the bond between the al/Muhajirun and al-Ansar so remarkable? 8. What was so special about how the Prophet Muhammad: conquered Makkah? 9. Who was the first person to convert to Istam? a) Hazrat Ali ibn Abu Talib b) Hazrat Abu Bakr:z ©) Hazrat Khadijasie Pere)KEY FACTS + The Nabateans controlled significant trade routes all over the Arabian Peninsula before 100 CE. + The Arabian Peninsula was divided into numerous nomadic tribes; the Quresh was one of the wealthiest tribes due to their control of the Ka'aba. The Prophet Muhammad preached the oneness of Allah and challenged the social hierarchy by teaching the principles of brotherhood and equality amongst all people. The Hijra to Madina is regarded as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. ‘The peaceful and magnanimous conquest of Makkah in 630 CE signalled the triumph of Islam over the polytheist beliefs of the Arabs. OVERVIEW The fall of Petra, the capital city of the Nabateans Cites The birth of the Prophet Muhammad The first revelation of the Holy Qur'an The first migration of the early Muslims to Abyssinia The death of Abu Talib and Hazrat Khadija2=: The migration from Makkah to Madina The conquest of Makkah The Hajjatul wida and the year of the death of the Prophet MuhammadINNNINNNNNUUUII THE SPREAD OF ISLAM How Islam spread outside the Arabian Peninsula ‘The Rightly Guided Caliphs ‘The Umayyad Dynasty Assessment Key facts OverviesThe spread of Islam How Islam spread Islam is the second largest religion of the outside the Arabian world today. It is based on the universal va 5 principles of peace, equality, justice, and Peninsula tolerance. Once the entire Arabian Peninsula had come within the folds of Islam, the Prophet Muhammadgg sent his envoys to the Roman and Persian emperors, as well as to the rulers of Constantinople, Syria, Egypt, and Abyssinia, inviting them to embrace Islam. The Rightly Guided his mission to spread Islam was continued after his death by his Caliphs faithful companions and followers, particularly the Rightly Guided Caliphs, or the Khulafa-alRashidundis. Hazrat Abu Bakr (632-634 CE) Hazrat Abu Bakréiz was a rich trader of Makkah. He earned the title of ab-Siddiq meaning ‘the truthful’. He was among the earliest converts to Islam and the closest companions of the Prophet, Muhammadas. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Hazrat ‘Abu Bakriis was elected as the first khalifa of Islam in 632 CE. The newly established Islamic state faced many challenges at that time. The alliances of the Arab communities began to fall apart soon after the death of Hazrat Muhammad. Some Arab tribes rebelled; some refused to pay zakat, while the others refused to accept the authority of the caliphate. Despite being softly spoken and gentle by nature, Hazrat Abu Bakr: Ease ees any Istanbul dealt with these uprisings with an iron hand and unified the Arabs under his leadership. During his tenure, Islam spread to Syria 1 OXFORDUNIT 2 THE SPREAD OF ISLAM Hazrat Umar (634-644 CE) It was during Hazrat Umar'sg:s time as Caliph that Islam burst out from the Arabian Peninsula and absorbed the lands of Rome and Persia, the two imperial titans of the ancient world. At the time of his death in 644 CE, Islamic rule spanned from present day Libya in the west to the Indus River in the east. He crafted a system of administration that could survive anywhere and at anytime in the world. His achievements, from building fleets for the Muslim army to his accomplishments in law making, diplomacy, civil building works, free trade, and welfare for the poor, remain unmatched in history. The simultaneous defeat of the Roman and Persian armies during 634-636 CE, and the conquest of Jerusalem in 637 CE are remarkable military achievements of Hazrat Umargiz. He is known to the historians in the West for his conduct when he entered the recently conquered city of Jerusalem. He walked through the holy city without any pomp or ceremony. The guardian of the main church of Jerusalem even invited him to pray inside the church, but Hazrat ‘Umargiz refused. He said that if he prayed inside the church that day, later generations of Muslims might make it an excuse to turn it into ‘a mosque, saying that Hazrat Umar had prayed here. His humility earned him the respect of the conquered Jews and Christians. He was stabbed by a disgruntled Persian slave called Feroze over a personal grudge in 644 CE. He survived the wounds for a couple of days, appointing a panel to elect the next Caliph. Hazrat Usman ibn ‘Affansv (644-656 CE) Hazrat Usmangs took office as Islam's third Caliph at the age of sixty-eight. His father had been one of the wealthiest men in Makkah and he inherited his father's immense fortune when he was only twenty years old. He was famous for his generosity and piety. Even before his conversion to Islam, Hazrat Usmans lived a simple life; however, he was an exceptional businessman. These qualities shaped Hazrat Usman's%z administration as Caliph.Ur 2 THE SPREAD 0 Drege ans Ne OXFORD The Islamic Empire continued to expand into Persia, Armenia, North Africa, and parts of the eastern Mediterranean during his time. He increased taxation in the conquered territories and used the money to build public buildings and pay the salaries of workers and soldiers Markets were regularly inspected and the weight and prices of goods were regulated. This increased trust, and cities began to grow in size and wealth, He witnessed great turmoil in the form of civil unrest during his last years, Consequently, he was martyred in 656 CE. Hazrat Alig: (656-661 CE) Hazrat Al'suis reign as Caliph was the shortest since Hazrat Abu Bakr'suz. Hazrat Alids+ was, above all things, an incredibly pious, wise, brave, just, and thoughtful man. He had been at the Prophet's side during the most testing moments of his life. After the martyrdom of Hazrat Usmangiz, Hazrat Alidi: was elected as the fourth Caliph of Islam. He faced numerous challenges from the moment he assumed power. Amir Mu'awiya, Governor of Damascus, challenged his caliphate and marched troops against him. In order to maintain peace, Hazrat Alisiz accepted Amir Mu'awiya’s demand to divide the caliphate. Accordingly, Amir Mu’awiyah would control Syria and Egypt from Damascus, whilst Hazrat Alig: would control everything else from Kufa in Iraq. Despite all the challenges, during Hazrat Ali'si3 caliphate ‘the Muslim empire stretched Up to Tripoli in North Africa, the Caspian Sea in north-western Asia, and Herat in Afghanistan. For the protection and betterment of the people, police force was set up, roads were built, and wells were dug, during his rule. ‘The shrine of Hazrat Ali EN atcty However, there was a small sect who believed that Hazrat Aligis should not have made peace with Amir Mu'awiya, and so theyMIT 2. THE SPACAD OF ISLAM turned against him. One morning before dawn, whilst praying in Kufa Mosque, he was stabbed with a poison-dipped sword. The fourth and final Rashidun Caliphgz passed away two days later. After the martyrdom of Hazrat Alizz, Amir Mu'awiya (602-680 CE), founder of the Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE), established his caliphate in Damascus. During his time, the Arabs began a second period of conquest with an aim to conquer North Africa. This aim was realized when the Arab Poe! forces took the city of Tangjer in 711 CE. City founded by Caliph Welid 1 Tariq bin Ziyad and the Muslim conquest of Spain The Umayyad Dynasty Tariq bin Ziyad, hailing from a Berber tribe of Algeria, sailed with his army from Tangier to the Iberian Peninsula in 711 CE. They landed near a rock, later named after him as ‘Gibraltar’ (labl-e-Tariq), or Tariq’s Mountain. IM The circumstances surrounding Taria’s mission are unclear. The Pr Gibrabeie'a Brita most reliable sources we have suggest that the Spanish governor verses tettitory ofthe of the southern city of Cueta asked the Muslim commander, Musa south coast of Spain. bin Nusair, for help in his dispute with the Gothic Spanish King Roderick. Musa bin Nusair appointed his ablest general, Tariq bin Ziyad, for this mission. HUTTE ETE atE Although Tariq commanded 7000 men, the invasion was an enormous risk as there was no option to retreat. It is said that after landing in Spain, Tariq ordered his men to burn their boats. (This is where the idiom ‘to burn your boats’ originated.) The men initially protested, but Tariq inspired them with what must have been a powerful speech. Motivated by their commander's speech, they advanced towards the enemy and defeated Roderick’s army. In 742 CE, Musa ibn Nusair followed Tariq bin Ziyad into Spain, and by 714 CE their armies had defeated the Goths in almost every confrontation. The whole Spanish peninsula had now been absorbed into the still expanding Islamic Empire.ASSESSMENT oO 1. Draw table with the names of the Khulafa-alRashidunsiz down the side and their respective achievements beside each, 2. Compare the caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakriz, Hazrat Umargss, Hazrat Usmands, and Hazrat Alig. In what ways were they different? 3. Explain in detail why Hazrat Aliiz had such difficulty in maintaining the caliphate. 4. Use the information in the text to write a short obituary for Tariq bin Ziyad. KEY FACTS After the Prophetéi passed away, the Khulafa.al-Rashidune: continued the mission of spreading and establishing Islam. + Hazrat Abu Bakr: was elected as the first Caliph of Islam. + Hazrat Abu Bakri:z successfully reunified the Arabian Peninsula Under Islamic authority. Hazrat Uma conquered Jerusalem without any pomp and splendour Hazrat Umarsz established a remarkable system of administration, Hazrat Usman introduced reforms in the administrative system of the government. The greatest challenge faced by Hazrat Alii: was posed by Amir Mu'awiya who marched his troops against him. To prevent bloodshed, Hazrat Aliz:z made peace with him. Amir Mu’awiya founded the Umayyad Dynasty in 664 CE, ‘The Berber general Tariq Bin Ziyad conquered the Spanish peninsula with 7000 men,OVERVIEW Hazrat Abu Bakr:z was elected the first Caliph of Islam. Hazrat Abu Bakr passed away and Hazrat Umargis became the second Caliph of Islam. Jerusalem was conquered by Hazrat Umargis Hazrat Umar:s was martyred and Hazrat Usmans was elected as the third Caliph. Hazrat Usmand:z was martyred and Hazrat Alidig became the fourth Caliph was martyred. Tariq bin Ziyad defeated King Roderick of Spain. Musa bin Nusair advanced into Spain with his troops. Tariq bin Ziyad and Musa bin Nusair conquered Spain.Least bo pls bGWiyle wash pay Be Wiser sul sy bed gees Sd Seehplsil yl leh siscish Uslutl asst dhaslwoiis j Lasiaa Sei beiUSSig al Listas x Ft al Lsolblab || Yalan sol sla sea Pera eb T Weel i past Li | ws lave oH iar llansvlataara ssb3) a epgtymrcsoes leltliniasl 5 SLE W poadeslisdad all Weel Peas, bil ease 7pIHAUIVUUUTTUUUIT THE ABBASIDS How important were the Abbasids for the Islamic Golden Age? Haroon a-Rasheed and the Islamic Golden Age Baghdad's House of Wisdom The scholars of the House of Wisdom The end of the Abbasid Caliphate Assessment Key facts OverviewHow important were the Abbasids for the Islamic Golden Age? The Abbasids The Abbasid Revolution The Abbasid Caliphate, established after the overthrow of the previous == ruling dynasty, the Umayyads, oversaw the golden age of Islamic culture. It ruled from 750 to 1258 CE, making it one of the longest reigning, and perhaps the most influential, Islamic dynasty. Between 750 and 900 CE it was the largest empire in the world. Their power was recognized not only by those they ruled, but also their distant neighbours such as the Chinese and the Indians in the east, and the Byzantines in the west. Key: 7 Expansion routes X. Bate sites Arca of amie infioence‘vir 3 THE ABBASIDS Although the Abbasids were Arabs, their support came from the Persians, who had recently converted to Islam. From them they learned to appreciate the value of different cultures, and this approach led to the creation of a state that built on the best knowledge from different cultures and encouraged its own people to experiment and innovate. Baghdad: The Abbasid capital The first site selected for the Abbasid capital was Kufa in southern Iraq, but when alMansur came to power as the leader of the Abbasids, he ordered that a new city be built north of Kufa between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It was built in 762 CE and was named ‘Madinat.as Salaan’, meaning the city of peace. As this city grew, it came to be known by its local name: Baghdad. By 780 CE, the Abbasid capital, Baghdad, was the largest city in the world outside China. By the reign of Haroon al-Rasheed, it had already expanded far beyond the round city akMansur had built and had become a vast sprawling metropolis that spread for miles on both sides of the Tigris. It had an efficient public administration system and laws to maintain justice and social equity ‘The location of Baghdad was quite significant in the sense that it could absorb the energies of east and west, and the sciences of Europe, the Mediterranean, the Near East, and Asia. It is no surprise that the acy Sareeawr 3 THE ABaAsins Haroon al-Rasheed and the Islamic Golden Age ones rer Eanes Baghdad of the Abbasid Golden Age was a centre of learning that made it a magnet for the world's greatest thinkers. Art, architecture, and scientific achievements flourished during the Abbasid rule. Haroon al-Rasheed, who reigned from 786 to 809 CE, has gone down in history as the icon of the Islamic Golden Age. Haroon's legacy has been cemented through his representation in the Arabian Nights. This collection of Middle Eastern and South Asian stories and folk tales was compiled in Arabic during the Abbasid period, and Haroon alRasheed appears in many of the stories as a wise ruler who often disguised himself as a peasant in order to walk amongst the people in Baghdad to find out how they lived and how he could improve their situation. However, it was not just through these folk tales that he gained his dignified status. The European Emperor Charlemagne was keen to impress Haroon al Rasheed and sent envoys with large amounts of presents; these included Spanish horses, wool cloaks, and hunting dogs. Haroon al Rasheed returned the gesture by sending his own envoys with even more impressive gifts including silks, perfume, ivory chess pieces, an enormous tent with multi-coloured curtains, an elephant named AburAbbas, and a water clock that marked the hours by dropping bronze balls into a bow! whilst mechanical knights—one for each hour—emerged from little doors which shut behind them. The presents were unprecedented in Western Europe and were designed to show Charlemagne the considerable technological sophistication Of the Islamic world compared to that of Western Europe. Haroon's al Rasheed rule was peaceful by any standard. The raids against the Byzantine Greeks to the north continued, but he mostly concerned himself with the policies of his predecessors regarding the emphasis on learning and scientific advancement and establishing 1 just and peaceful society. Haroon alRasheed is credited with contributing large amounts of money from the imperial treasury towards the construction of even more libraries and places of learning.UNIT 2 THE ABBASIOS preety where Haroon al-Rasheed is buried praerc ameit Mamoon al-Rasheed, the son of Haroon al-Rasheed, set up the Baghdad’s House of House of Wisdom in Baghdad. By 860 CE, it had become the largest Wy7i Gory library in the world. All of the great works of science, medicine, mathematics, and geography from Greek, Latin, Indian, Chinese, Syriac, and Persian sources were translated into Arabic so that they could be studied by scholars in Baghdad's great centres of learning. This was called the Transtation Movement and it saved the knowledge of the ancient world from destruction. The Abbasid caliphs paid a high price to ensure that the best scholars came to work in Baghdad. The Islamic Empire was flourishing, bringing in tax revenue from Morocco to Sindh, and some of this money was used to pay highly skilled linguists such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq the enormous sum of five hundred gold coins (dinars) a month! They also paid travel expenses to finance their trips around the world to locate rare manuscripts to translate into Arabic in Baghdad, uum OXFORD a5our 3 THE ABBAsios The scholars of the House of Wisdom ‘The Banu Musa brothers were some of the most influential scholars during the ninth century in Baghdad. The three brothers wrote over twenty books which were read around the world. Their most popular book ‘was The Book of Ingenious Devices, which described 100 inventions. Designed mainly for amusement purposes, the inventions demonstrate the Banu Musa brothers’ groundbreaking engineering techniques, such as one-way and two- way valves able to open and close by themselves, and devices that performed complicated movements without initiation. Most of these devices were operated by water pressure and have been recently reconstructed to prove they all work! UL a OXFORD Hunayn ibn Ishaq Hunayn ibn Ishaq was the most productive translator of Greek ‘medical and scientific works in his day. He studied Greek and became known among the Arabs as the ‘Sheikh of the translators’ Al-Kindi ALKindi was born in Basra and educated in Baghdad. AFKindi became ‘a prominent figure in the House of Wisdom. He wrote hundreds of original works of his own on a range of subjects ranging from medicine to astrology and optics. His work in other fields, including Perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology, tides, mirrors, meteorology, and earthquakes is also significant. In the field of mathematics, a-Kindi played an important role in introducing Indian numerals to the Islamic and Christian worlds. He wrote four volumes titled On the Use of the indian Numerals, which contributed Efeatly to the spread of this more sophisticated system of numeration in the Middle East and the West. AHKindi has also been credited with popularizing the use of the zero. The Arabic word for zero, sifir, entered Europe through al-Kindi’s works on codes, also known as ‘ciphers’. Banu Musa brothers The Banu Musa brothers were amongst the most famous of the scientists at the House of Wisdom. They measured the length of @ year to be 365 days and 6 hours; this was the most accurate measurement for centuries. They almost certainly used the astrolabe for this, a device that was the medieval equivalent of a computer. The astrolabe was also used to explore the world. It was like an early global positioning system (GPS) which allowed people to calculate See ta probably the first degree-awarding universities of the world,‘UNITS THE ABEASIOS| where they were based on the location of the stars. An astrolabe could be found on any large ship from the ninth to the sixteenth centuries. Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was perhaps the greatest Muslim Scientist of the Islamic Golden Age. He was an excellent student and it was reported that he had excelled his teachers in knowledge before he tured thirteen. He translated works whilst also developing new ideas. A-Khwarizmi's great innovations included: + using symbols in place of numbers for complex equations. The book in which he describes his method was called alJabr and his RUMIEEIRET EVES system is known to the whole world as algebra: + developing a system for calculating sequences of equations. This system, algorithm, is the Latin word for al-Khwarizmi. + leading a team of mathematicians and geographers to work out the size of the Islamic Empire and in the process discovering an accurate calculation of the circumference of the Earth. Tbn-al-Haytham He was a great physicist and developed many theories on light and optics. He was also a mathematician and an astronomer. In the early ninth century, Ibn al-Haytham devised a method of testing natural phenomena repeatedly in different situations to discover their causes. This is known as the scientific method and he is regarded by most as the father of the modern experimental scientific method. Te ey AlL-Razi AFRazi was a famous physician who wrote more than 200 medical books. His research was based on careful observation of his patients. His most famous work was on smalipox and measles. He set up one of the first hospitals in Baghdad. He was also an expert in mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy. The golden age of Islam came to a tragic end when Hulagu Khan, The end of the ‘a Mongol leader, attacked and destroyed Baghdad in 1258 CE. Abbasid Caliphate Baghdad, along with the House of Wisdom, was burnt down and the great treasures of knowledge accumulated over the centuries were turned to ashes. OXFORD©: ASSESSMENT For how long did the Abbasid Dynasty reign? 2. Give three examples of how the Abbasids were instrumental in leading the Muslims in the golden age of Islam. 3. Why did the Abbasid caliphs build Baghdad? 4. Design an inscription to go outside the tomb of Haroon alRasheed. Include information about his life that reflects his significance. 5. Why was the Translation Movement so successful? You can list your reasons in order of importance. 6. Draw a table with the names of alKindi, the Banu Musa brothers, and al-Khwarizmi as headings. Outline the achievements of each beneath their names. KEY FACTS + The Abbasid caliphs, Haroon al-Rasheed and Mamoon al-Rasheed, expanded the libraries of Bagdad and established the House of Wisdom. Scholars from across the Islamic world translated texts from foreign languages into Arabic throughout the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries. Great thinkers such as alKhwarizmi expanded on the translated works and created new ways of mathematical thinking such as algebra and algorithms. Ibn alHaytham developed the modern experimental scientific method.The era of the Abbasid Caliphate began. Haroon al-Rasheed became the Caliph of the Abbasids. The House of Wisdom became the largest library crore in the world The Mongols sacked Baghdad and destroyed the House of Wisdom:ITUUUUUUUINNN MUSLIM SPAIN ‘The conquest of Spain Umayyad Spain The Reconquista ‘The Spanish Inquisition + Assessment + Key facts + OverviewThe conquest of Spain Umayyad Spain Muslim Spain After the collapse of the Roman Empire in Western Europe towards the end of the fifth century, Spain came under the control of the Goths. Tariq bin Ziyad defeated the Gothic King of Spain, Roderick in 711 and conquered most of Spain and Portugal in a short space of time. Historians agree that this was a result of Christian disunity, but also a consequence of the very generous terms of surrender the Muslim armies offered to the conquered cities. In 732, the advance of the Muslim armies halted at Poitiers, in southern France, in the Battle of Tours. This defeat has gone down in history as the moment when Muslim expansion into the Western Europe reached its limit. After a period of civil war in Syria and Iraq, the Umayyad Dynasty was overthrown and the caliphate was replaced by a new dynasty, the Abbasids, in 750 CE. The centre of power shifted from Syria to Iraq, A young Umayyad prince, Abdul Rehman, escaped the Abbasid forces that had taken control of Syria and Iraq. He reached al-Andalus and established his rule there in 756 CE.xeon f AlAndalus peed Mur ay fe Sevito—ranads BSUS MU Seton Cordoba: The centre for learning and culture in Europe Abdul Rehman ruled directly from Cordoba, the Umayyad capital of al-Andalus. He ordered the construction of what would become the Grand Mosque of Cordoba. His descendants, particularly Abdul Rehman Ill (912-961), built one of history's greatest civilizations in Spain that lasted till 1492. ‘OTs must SPAIN The Great Mosque looks like a really unique building, What was the inspiration behind it? S Yes, there is no other building like it on Earth! ‘The multitude of columns and arches combine to. reflect the date palms found in Arabian oases. This, gave the Umayyad rulers a reminder of the scenery of the deserts that their ancestors had come from Cot ted MEET testes uC) al-Mansur in the eleventh century. OXFORD 33‘UNIT 4 MUSLIM SPAIN ” Cordoba became a world renowned centre for learning and culture. Its only other rival as the intellectual capital of the world was the great Islamic city, Baghdad. In the tenth century Cordoba, had over 500,000 inhabitants, ten times more than that of Paris at that time. Its streets were lit at night by street lamps hundreds of years before any other European city, and most hames had running water when many people in Western Europe bathed only a few times a year. Artists, architects, and scientists flocked to Cordoba to inspire and to be inspired. TUTTO CC One of the earliest scholars was Abbas ibn Firnas. He died in the year 888 GE. He came to Cordoba to teach music and mathematics, and eventually became interested in the mechanics of flight. He constructed a pair of wings, made out of feathers on a wooden frame, and attempted to fly, ahead of Leonardo da Vinci by some 600 years. Ibn Firnas even constructed a planetarium in which the planets actually revolved. It also simulated such celestial phenomena as thunder and lightning, News of his, accomplishments added to Cordoba’s glory, encouraging even more scholars to come to Cordoba and make their name. PUTT Al-Andalus: a model of tolerance and intellectual cooperation The society that developed in Muslim Spain was distinctly ‘multicultural. The large Jewish population that had lived there before the arrival of the Muslims had been oppressed by the Christian majority and so they welcomed the Muslim invaders with open arms. The Christian population were surprised at the leniency shown by the Victorious Muslims; none of their property was confiscated and they were allowed to continue worshipping in their churches; they were even allowed to build new ones. ‘The first major rebellion against Muslim rule was coordinated by Christians who felt threatened by the large number of locals who were freely converting to Islam. Their aim was to show the Christians and the new converts that the Muslim rulers were intolerant, and in 851 CE began to openly criticize them. The Muslim rulers handled this situation with a great patience. Christian leaders in al-Andalus denounced these attempts to create divisions between the different communities and7 & MUSLIM SPAIN the rebellion faded away. In the following centuries alAndalus (Cordoba in particular) was regarded as a uniquely tolerant place for people belonging to different faiths. The Spanish called this coexistence ‘La convivencia’. This atmosphere contributed to great collaboration between scholars from all three faiths and from all over Europe and Asia. The two best examples of this intellectual cooperation were Ibn Rushd and Maimonides. A Muslim and a Jew, but both born in Cordoba nine years apart in the twelfth century, they gained world fame for their groundbreaking work on natural science, medicine, law, philosophy, and astronomy. Both were inspired by the ancient Greeks, but their work was highly original and yet there is also evidence that they developed ‘some of their ideas through contact with one another. Toledo: the frontier capital Toledo is situated in the heart of Spain and was the largest city north of Cordoba in al-Andalus. Its location as a frontier city played a large part in shaping its legacy as a place where Jews, Musiims, and Christians came together in relative harmony to learn and produce great works of ‘science and philosophy. Toledo's location also meant that it became the connection between al-Andalus and Christian Europe. Slee i, Sui Whilst the tenth and eleventh centuries are still referred to as the Dark Ages in Europe, it was anything but ‘dark’ in Toledo. The great works of the Greeks, such as Plato, Euclid, Aristotle, and Galen, had been forgotten in Europe, but they had been reborn in the Muslim world, in Baghdad and in al-Andalus. It was through Toledo that Europe was reconnected to the works of the Greek masters. Most importantly, Christian visitors found a culture that had built on the works of the Greeks and used their knowledge as the basis for scientific breakthroughs that would shape the future of physics, surgery, and pharmacology. Bs ial One good example of this cultural exchange is of Michael Scot, a Scottish priest who travelled all over Europe. He was eventually drawn to Toledo where he learned Arabic and began translating the works of the Muslim scholars OXFORD 45NIT 4 wusuM SPAIN Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) into Latin. Translations like these spread around Europe and played a significant role in creating the conditions for the European Renaissance in the fifteenth century. HULU UOUTELUATUEEHanAEELLUHALILLL Christopher Columbus was with Ferdinand and reed Isabella in Granada during ve its capture in order to ask er a diatrics, and ophthalmo for permission to begin w ere erect his historic voyage west. Columbus wrote in his diary: ‘on january 2 in the year Granada, the splendid city of Spain 1492, when your Highnesses Granada is famous to this day for the elegance and splendour of the had concluded their war Alhambra Palace and Gardens. It was built between the mid-thirteenth with the Moors (Muslims) and the midffteenth centuries. The site was originally developed as a who reigned in Europe, I saw military fort but was used as a palace by the Nasrid rulers of Granada, your Highnesses’ banners Sitorisealy tieed'on tae Itis a UNESCO World Heritage site due to its unique architecture towers of the Alhambra, the Nd the dazzling decorative work inside the palace. It remains as a citadel of that city...’ Powerful legacy to the Muslim rule in Spain over seven hundred years. SHUTTLE eae a tee = —‘ONT 4 must SPAIN TES es a ‘Although the relations between the Christians and the Muslims The Reconquista began to deteriorate in Spain between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, the Muslim rulers had not resorted to forced conversion or imprisonment of their Christian subjects. Consequently, the Muslims lost city after city to an increasingly powerful Christian coalition formed by the unification of the crowns of the two major northern Christian kingdoms, when King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile married in 1469 CE. In 1492, the last Muslim city in Spain, Granada, was besieged by the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella. The last Muslim ruler of al-Andalus, Muhammad Xil, was expelled, along with his family, from the great palace his ancestors had built. This period in history during which the territories in the Iberian Peninsula were recaptured from the Muslims is known as the Reconquista (which means to recapture). The Catholic Church in Spain began an over three hundred year The Spanish programme of brutal religious conformity known as the Spanish Inquisition Inquisition (1478-1834 CE). For the new rulers of Spain, it was not enough that the Jews and the Muslims outwardly accepted Catholicism out of the fear of religious persecution. There were rumours that many of these new converts were not sincere and hence were either imprisoned, tortured, expelled, or killed. The victorious Christians immediately expelled the Jews of al-Andalus in 1492 CE. After over seven hundred years of rule (711-1492) and a presence lasting 1000 years, the practice of Islam in Spain was extinguished by the early eighteenth century. ‘ ee : OXFORD 97ASSESSMENT 1. What was the most important factor in the establishment of a long-term Muslim presence in Spain? What made the city of Cordoba one of the greatest in the world? Explain your answer in a short paragraph. 3. Imagine you are a Christian traveller from Northern Europe and you have just come to Toledo in the year 1000 CE. Write a letter back home to your friend describing what you have found there and why you will remain in Toledo longer than planned. 4. Some historians today dispute the fact that there was genuine tolerance and cooperation in al-Andalus. Use the information in the text and any other sources to support or challenge this view. 5. Describe the events and consequences of the Spanish Inquis! KEY FACTS In 711 CE Muslim forces invaded and conquered most of Spain and Portugal. ALAndalus grew to become one of the great Muslim civilizations, reaching its height with the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba in the tenth century. Muslim Spain was a multicultural mix of people of three religions: Muslims, Christians, and Jews. This coexistence was kno as convivencia The cities of Toledo, and espe centres of learning, fame as lly Cordoba, gained world + Ibn Rushd’s translations and explanations of Aristotle's work were read throughout Europe and contributed to the Renaissance. + Muslim control over al-Andalus weakened in the twelfth century ‘and ended in 1492 when Granada was conquered by Isabella and Ferdinand. The victorious Christians forcibly converted the remaining Muslims and Jews in Spain after the Reconquistacera erie 1834 CE The Battle of Tours at Poitiers Abdul Rehman established an Umayyad Dynasty in Spain, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella got married. The fall of Granada ‘The Spanish Inquisitionpee ei ‘Soe | HIITUUUUUUIINNN THE CRUSADES Who were the Franks? ‘The background to the Crusades ‘The causes of the Crusades The long road to Jerusalem lahuddin Ayyubi ‘The impact of the Crusades on Europe Assessment Key facts OverviewThe Crusades Who were the By the eighth century, the territories Franks? comprising France, Germany, and the ‘smaller nations in Western Europe were ruled by a group known as the Franks. These were the barbarians who had conquered Rome in the fifth century ‘A Frankish prince, Charles Martel, defeated the Umayyads at the Battle of Tours in 732. Charles Martel’s grandson, Charles, was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope in 800. Charles came to be known as Charlemagne (meaning ‘Charles the Great’). He ruled unchallenged over the Western Roman Empire. During his reign, trade and diplomatic relations between European merchants and the Arabs increased. The background to Two major events rocked the Christian world in the second half of the theiGrimeatios eleventh century. The Great Schism The Great Schism (say: skizem or sizem) was a religious disaster. Both the Western (based in Rome) and the Eastern (based in Constantinople) halves of the Roman Empire had adopted Christianity as the official state religion. The two halves of the empire grew increasingly distant. The leader of the Western Church, the Pope in Rome, declared that he was the head of all of the worldwide churches. The Christians of the Eastern Roman Empire disputed this, and in 1054, Christianity officially split into two sects. 2 OXFORDThe Battle of Manzikert This was a military disaster. The Islamic conquests of Syria, Egypt, and Iraq had left the Eastern Romans (Byzantium) with just Anatolia and their welldefended capital city, Constantinople. The leader of the Seljuk Turks, Alp Arslan, led a brave attack against a Byzantine army that was double the size of his army. The Seljuks won a famous victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. He even captured the Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV during the battle. After his capture of Emperor Romanos IV, Alp Arslan placed his boot on the Emperor's neck and forced him to kiss the ground. A famous conversation is also reported to have taken place: Alp Arslan: ‘What would you do if I were brought before you as a prisoner?” Romanos: ‘Perhaps I'd kill you, or exhibit you in the streets of Constantinople’ ‘WITS THE CRUSADES UUUUANEUUUUOUUUEUUUUUU EATER Alp Arslan: ‘My punishment is far heavier. I forgive you, and set you free’ ‘The fact that Arslan released Romanos without even asking for a ransom showed the rest of the Christian world how insignificant the once mighty Byzantines had become. PTT ‘The new Byzantine Emperor, Alexius Comnenus, wrote a personal The causes of the letter to the Pope in Rome begging him to send professional soldiers to help him retake Anatolia (Turkey) and perhaps even Syria. The letter stated that if the Pope could raise an army large enough to help Alexius retake Anatolia, then any further captured land would be given over to the Pope and the Franks to rule. This included the holy city of Jerusalem. Pope Urban II was determined to reunite Christendom under his authority. He gave a rousing, speech to a crowd of around ten thousand people, quoting the letter he had received from Alexius. Within weeks of his speech, the message of conquest had spread throughout all of Europe. Princes, lords, and knights from all over the lands of the Franks began to take an oath to recapture Jerusalem. Crusades OXFORD 43‘UNIT 5 THE causanes The long road to First Crusade Jerusalem While the nobles of Europe were preparing their armies for the First Crusade, another force, the People’s Crusade, was already on the road. From across Europe, more than 300,000 ordinary people came together to advance towards Jerusalem. Most of these people were immTTTTIITUTIUE Simple peasants, though amongst them were also some wealthier knights. ‘As Pope Urban finished his speech, the crowd shouted Emperor Alexius was disappointed to see this untrained army of ‘Deus Volt’ (God wills it). Men : i i a tentiet Gh cas ‘common people. He decided that the sooner he got rid of them the spot They cut out red crosses _Detter, and so he quickly arranged for them to be shipped across and sewed them onto their _the Bosphorus and into Anatolia. In 1096, the People’s Crusade was clothes as a sign they were defeated by the Turks at Nicaea. Most were killed and many of the fightingfor Christ. The French survivors were sold into slavery. word for cross is ‘croix’ and Soon men talked of goingon Qn the other hand, the Turks had no idea that the real army was ee England, om its way and would put up a much better fight. In 1097 CE the wars fought on behalf of the _@"™ies of the First Crusade arrived in Constantinople and marched Pope to recover the Holy Land. 0 to Jerusalem. They defeated the Turks at Dorylaeum. As they Continued to advance southwards towards Jerusalem, they captured HUTA castle after castle. In 1099, the Crusaders arrived outside the gates of Jerusalem. After a brief siege the city was captured. Key Once inside [ Foman catholic church pec (J Greek orthodox Church Jerusalem, i stam the Crusaders behaved with si epi epee reat cruelty towards the inhabitants and massacred thousands of “apa them. The news of the massacre filed the Muslim world with horror. At the same time, the recapture of Jerusalem was greeted throughout the Christian world with great joy. Hugh of Vermancios 4 OXFORDUNIT § THE cHUSADES Second Crusade The Crusaders established four states in the Middle East: the County of Tripoli, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. These four states remained intact until the rise of the Turkish Prince of Mosul, Zengi, who made it his mission to push the Crusaders out of the Middle East. Zengi successfully conquered the County of Edessa in 1144. This news shocked Europe much like the loss of Jerusalem had shocked the Muslim world forty five years earlier. ‘The Pope called for another Crusade. This time it was led by the kings of France and Germany but it proved to be an utter disaster. The Muslim armies successfully defended Edessa and later Damascus from the large Crusader army. Zengi's son, Nur-ed-din, began to promote the idea of Musiim Salahuddin Ayyubi unity as a means to push the Crusaders out of the Holy Land. He appointed Salahuddin Ayyubi (1174-93) as the prime minister of Egypt. Salahuddin was a famously pious man. Even in his youth he was regarded as loyal and humble. ‘The great issue Salahuddin faced after he became the Sultan of Egypt was how he should go about destroying the Crusader states. He established a new dynasty with the aim of uniting the Muslims against the Crusaders. The Ayyubi Dynasty was remarkably successful under his leadership, and by 1187 CE he had united much of Syria, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula under his authority The Battle of Hattin In 1187 CE Salahuddin had gathered an army of 30,000 men with the aim of conquering Jerusalem. Around 20,000 Crusaders marched out to confront Salahuddin’s army in a valley known as ‘the Horns of Hattin, The resulting battle lasted for most of the day but Salahuddin’s forces won a decisive victory. The Crusader army was destroyed and many of their leaders were captured, including the King of Jerusalem. Salahuddin guaranteed the safety of the King of Jerusalem and promised to release him. The Muslim army marched on to Jerusalem and took the city with very little bloodshed. This was in stark contrast to the Crusader conquest ninety years earlier. The Christian inhabitants were Ree OXFORD 45