UNIT 10 CURVES AND SURFACES

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 Frames of Reference
10.3 Basic Concepts in 2-Dimensions
10.4 Curves and Surfaces in Space
10.5 Summary
10.6 Solutions/Answers

1 0 . INTRODUCTION

So far you have studied ordinary differential equations, that is, equations involving one
independent and one dependent variable. You must have noticed that the integrals of
ordinary differential equations are plane curves. You may also recall from Unit 1 that
differential equations involving more than one dependent and one independent variable are
either simultaneous differential equations or total differential equations and those
involving one dependent and more than one independent variable are partial differential
equations. We shall discuss simultaneous differential equations in the next unit and partial
differential equations in the later units of this block. You will see that the solutions of such
differential equations are space curves and surfaces. For understanding the methods of
solving such equations and for interpretation of their solutions, a study of curves in a plane
and curves and surfaces in three dimensional space is essential. Accordingly, in this unit, we
have discussed some basic concepts from solid geometry, which we shall be using
frequently in the study of differential equations.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

identify different frames of reference;

identify equations of plane curves and space curves;
identify the equation of a surface and relation between surfaces, curves and points;
outline the concept of directional derivatives;
obtain tangent plane and normal to a surface at a given point;
state the meaning of envelope of a one-parameter and two-parameter family of surfaces,
characteristic curve and characteristic point.

10.2 FRAMES OF REFERENCE

In geometry, we always talk of frame of reference in terms of which the curve or surface is
expressed. We first discus; briefly some essential frames of references in three dimensional
coordinate system.
Take a point 0 as the origih of coordinates and OX, OY, OZ as three mutually perpendicular
lines through 0 as the coordinate axes, (see Fig.1).

Let P be a point in space. From the point P, draw a line PM perpendicular to the XY-plane;
from M draw a line MN parallel to OJ' and intersecting OX in N. Then,
First Order Partiel Differentla1
Equpuons

Fig. 1 :The RectangularCartesian Coordinate System

We term (x,y,z,) as the rectangular Cartesian Coordinates of the point P.

If the point P is on a spherical surface, then it is not convenient to use Cartesian coordinates.
In such cases, we proceed as follows :
Join OP (see Fig. 2). Let OP = r, then

r = ( x2+y2+ z2)' h.
If LZOP = 8 and LXOM = $, where M is the foot of perpendicular from P on XY-plane. Curvb and Surfaces
then we call (r,8,$) as the spherical polar coordinates of the point P. The relation between
(x,y,z) and (r,8,$) is
x = .rsin9 cos 4.
y = rsin 8 sin $.
1 . . . . (2)
z = rcos 8
J
where 0 l 8 Iz, W12z,01 r C-
If a point is on a cylindrical body, then we consider another system of frame of reference.
Let P be a point on a cylindrical body (see Fig.3). Draw PM as perpendicular from P on
XY-plane. Let us suppose OM = p. Then

p = (x2 + y2)M.If LXOM = $, then we call (p,$,z) as the cylindrical coordinates of the
point P.
z

Fig. 3 :Cylindrical Coordinate System

Here,

X = pcos 4,

y = psin $,
z=z

Where 01 p c w.
,I
Remember that thereis one-to-one correspondencebetween the points of space and the
ordered triples (x,y,z). If z = 0, then the triple (x,y,O), is nothing but the ordered pair (x,y)
which correspond to the point of the XY-plane. In such cases ( p,$) are the polar coordinates
in the plane.
You must have observed in the earlier units that the solutions of ordinary differential
equations are plane curves (ref. Block 1, Unit 1, Sec. 1.4). We have already mentioned in the
introduction to this unit that a study of curves in plane and curves and surfaces in space is
essential to understand and interpret the solution of simultaneous differential equations, total
differential equations and partial differential equations. Accordingly, we now give in the
next section some basic concepts from geometry. For a better understanding of these
concepts we first give a quick recall of plane geometry in 2-dimensions and then generalise
c.-.mm .-.$*La..&. ..&.r..l,r ...
L:rL .
.,a rL,ll L ..n:*,. "
a
*+
-.-, :" 2 .4:..-.~rn:.-."n
First Order Partial Dlfferential
Equations 10.3 BASIC CONCEPTS IN 2-DIMENSIONS

Consider the equation

y = (a2 - x2)% ,-a 5 x < a . . . . (4)

Eq. (4) represents the arc of the circle for which y L 0.Similarly

y =-(a*- x2)N,-a<x<a . . . . (5)

represents the lower arc of the circle for which y < 0. J

.We can combine Eqns. (4) and (5) into one equation and write the equation of the circle as

This equation does not define y as a unique function of x for -a I x 5 a.

Thus. we can say that the circle, a curve in a plane, is a functional relation between two
coordinates x and y. We now give formal definition of plane curves.

Definition : If the rectangular Cartesian coordinates (x,y) of a point in XY-plane are

connected by a single relation of the type

then the point lies on a plane curve, whose equation is given by Eqn. (6), see Fig. 4.

Fig4 :The Plane Curve

In some simple cases when Eqn. (6) is solvable for y, we can write Eqn. (6) as

In other words, for x lying in some interval say, a I x < b, if we can find a unique value of y
from Eqn. (6) then can write Eqn.. (7). Next, consider the equation

Giving different values to the parameter c in Eqn. (8), we get a family of parallel lines in the
XY-plane, having slope tan -'3. Similarly, the equation
 represents a family of straight lines passing through the fixed point (0,4) and making Curves end Surfaces ,

different angles varying between O and n, with the X-axis depending upon different values
of the parameter m. Further, if you recall Sec. 1.4, Unit 1 of Block 1, you can check that the
ordinary differential equations which define the families
I
I
y = 3x+c and y = mx+4 are, respectively,

Remember that these equations have been obtained by eliminating parameters c and m from
Eqns. (8) and (9), respectively. We term Eqns. (8) and (9) as one-parameter family of lines.
In the same manner we now define one-parameter family of plane curves.

Definition : If the equation of the plane curve is

f (x,Y,c)= 0, . . . . (10)
where c is aparameter which may take discrete real values, or may vary continuously, then
Eqn. ( 10) defines a one-parameter family of plane curves.

Note that a plane curve may involve one or more parameters. For instance, a linear equation

in two variables x,y has two parameters cl. and c2.

A quadratic equation

ax2+2hxy + b y 2 + 2 g x + 2 f y + c = ~ , a0f

or,

in variables x and y has five parameters.

From Eqns. (1 1) and (12). we can obtain one-parameter systems by varying one parameter
while keeping others fixed. At times you may also come across a situation when it is
possible for you to express the coordinates of any point on the plane curve f(x,y) = 0 in
terms of one parameter. For example, consider the equation of the parabola

If we take x = at2, y = 2at, where t is a parameter and -< t <m, then

Thus we have been able to express x and y in terms of the parameter t, satisfying the
given equation of the parabola. In this case we call x = at2 and y = 2at as the parametric
equations of the parabola.
In general we say that if the coordinates of any point on the curve f(x,y) = 0 can be
expressed as

where t is a parameter, then we call Eqns. ( 13) to be the parametric equations of the plane
curve provided that

Note that parametric equation of a curve may not be unique. In other words, there can be
more than one parametric equation of a curve. For example, for the circle x2+y2= a2,we have
the paramemc equation
x = acost, y = asint, O < t -< 2~
 First Order Partial Differential as two possible parametric equations.
Equations
Further, parametric equations for the ellipse

are
x = acost, y = bsint, 05 t < 2n
I n n
I and x = asint, y = bcost, - < t 5 2n + -
2- 2.

You may now try the following exercise.

E 1) Express the following curves in the parametric form

You may recall that in Sec.l.2, Unit 1 of Block I, we talked about the differentials of a
function. These ditferentials have important applications in the solution of differential
equations.We now discuss them.

Increments and Differentials

Let the points P(x,y) and Q(x+Ax, y+Ay) lie on the cdrve f (x,y) = 0 (ref. Fig.4). Let PT be
the tangent to the curve at P. Let PS = Ax = dx, SQ = Ay and SR = dy. Then we say that (Ax.
Ay) are the increments associated with the point Q on the curve and (dx, dy) are
differentials associated with the point R on the tangent at P.
Note that Ax and dx are the same whereas Ay and dy are two distinct quantities.

+ 4
The vectors PQ = PR, respectively are

+ +
PQ = iAx + jAy and PR = idx + jdy,

where i and j are unit vectors along OX and OY.

In the triangle RPS, we have

RS
tan LRPS = -= slope of tangent at P.
PS

where (fx)pmeans that fx =

Dot product of two perpendicular
ax is evaluated at P.
vectors i s zero
From Eq. ( 1 5), we get

(fx)pdx+ (fy)pdy = 0 , . . . . (161)

* ( if, +jfy&. (idx + jdy) = 0 . . . . (17)
-+
direction ratios of the normal to the curve at P. Then the direction ratios of the tangent Curves and Surfaces
at P will be (- f,, fx)P.

We now illustrate the above theory with the help of an example.

Example 1 : Find the direction ratios of the tangent and the normal to the plane curve

Solution : Here, the equation of the curve is

f(x,y)=y 2 - 4 x = 0

.'. fx =- 4, fy = 2y.
(fx) at (1.2) =-4, (fy) at ( 1 , ~=) 2.2 = 4
:. Direction ratios of the normal at (1.2) are

(fx,fy)at ( l , 2 ) = (-494)
and direction ratios of the tangent at (1,2) are

(-fy,fx) ,, (1.2) = (-4.4).

You may now try the following exercise.

E 2) Find the direction cosines of the tangents and normals, at the indicated points, of the
following curves.

You know that the first partial derivatives off (x,y,z,) are the rates of change off in the
direction of the coordinate axes (ref. Unit 5 of MTE-07). You may find it unnatural to
restrict attention to these three directions and may ask for the rate of change off in any
direction. This simple idea leads us to the notion of a directional derivative which we shall
take up now.

Directional Derivative
Let u(x,y) be a function of two variables x,y E D, where D is a domain in plane. Let C be a
curve in D, whose parametric equations are I

Fig. 5 :The Doman D and the Curve C

Finu Order Partial Dmmntid The values of u(x,y) for the points on C can be determined from u (9 (t) ,yr (t) ), where u
Equrthms may now be considered as a function oft. The derivative of u with respect to t is

If the arc length of the curve along C measured from some fixed point Po to the point P is s
S

=I(x4 + y" "dt

S

(S= I d s ) = function oft) then on this curve, u (x.y) may be considered as

0 0
a function of s also, and its derivative with respect to s is

= u, cosa + uysina, (where a is the angle which the tangent to the

curve at P makes with the X-axis).

= (i u, +j uy) . (i cosu +j sina)

du
We say that - is the directional derivative nf the function u (x,y) along the curve at P.
ds

If a = 0,then

and if a = n/2. fhen

Therefore, the partial derivatives of u (x,y) along OX and OY are special cases of the
directional derivative. Also,

Hence the derivative of u(x,y) with respect to the parameter t is proportional to directional
derivative of u.

So far in our discussion we have been considering basic concepts related to curves and their
properties in 2-dimensions. We now extend some of these concepts in.3-dimensions in the
next section. We start with curves and surfaces in space.

10.4 CURVES AND SURFACES IN SPACE

First we-consider some simple examples of space c'urves.

The simplest curve in space is a straight line. The equation of a straight line passing through
a given point Po(xo,yo,~o)and making angles a , p, y with OX. OY, OZ respectively are
(see Fig. 6).

x-xo - Y-Yo
--Pep-
2-Zo A
- s, s = POP
c o w cosp 'cosy

Therefore,

I
x=xo+scosa

y=y0+scosp, --<s<-, . . . . (21)

z=z,,+scosy *

are the coordinates of any point P(x,y,z) on the straight line. They are expressed in terms of
 Curves and Surfaces

Fig. 6 :The Straight Line

\

a single parameter s. By varying s, we obtain different points ,on the line. From Eqn. (21), we
obtain

- dx
- -d y = d z = d s
cos a cos p cosy
Eqns. (22) are simultaneous differential equations which define the straight line. We shall
take up the solution of simultaneous differential equations in the next unit.

We next consider another curve in space. Let the parametric equations of the curve be

x = acoswt,
1
y = asinwt,

z = Wt,
tJ <t < m.

Then the point (x,y,z) describes a space curve called the helix on the surface x2+y2= a2,
(obtained by eliminating t from x = acoswt, y = asinwt) of a circular cylinder of radius a (see
Fig. 7). Let us call this point as Po when t = 0, then the coordinates of the point Po are
(a,O,O). For any t, if the point on the curve is P, then we get the length of the arc POPalong
the curve as
First Order h r l i a l I)ikrential
Equations

Fig. 7 :The Helix

If the parameter t is interpreted as time, then in time t = 2x / w, the point describes a

complete circle of radius a and also moves parallel to OZ a distance 2nW/w, called the pitch
of the helix. The differential equations of the helix are

The examples considered above suggest that we may take the parametric equations of a
space curve as

m
x = ct). 1
z = e (t) ,
J
where 4) (t) , v (t) ,0(t) , are C' functions oft. We eliminate t from the first two to get

Similarly. from the last two equations, we get

C1 : f2 (y.2) = 0.

Hence C I and C2 are the equations of cylinders which intersect in the space curve given by
Eq. (23).

If we go back to Eq. (2) and take r = a and @ = QO,then

x = acosqo sine,

y = asinQo sine.
1 '
z = acose

Eqns. (24) are of the same form as Eqns. (23) with 0 as the parameter, where 0 5 0 Ix. From
the first two equations of the relation (24), we get y = xtanQo; which is a plane passing
through the z-axis. The sphere r = a and the plane @ = Qo intersect in the circle on the surface
of the sphere and its equation is Eq. (23). Thus a curve in space can be interpreted as Curves and Surfsecs
intersection of two surfaces or a surface and a plane.
We next consider surfaces in 3-dimensions.
The simplest example of a 3-dimensional surface is the plane. The general equation of a
plane is

where a,b,c,d are given constants.

In Eq. (25) we can choose x,y arbitrarily; let us say that

x=u,y =v,-<u,v<m andthen

Thus, we have expressed the rectangular coordinates of any point on the plane in terms of
two parameters, u and v.
You know that a sphere is the locus of a point P (x,y,z) whose distance from the centre of
the sphere, say 0(0,0,0) is equal to the radius a. Thus,

If you go baek to Eq. (2) and put r = a, then you get

x = asin 8 cos Q

y = asin 8 sin I$,

z=acose
which is the equation of the sphere in the parametric form.

Again in this case you may note that the rectangular coordinates of any point on the surface
are expressed in terms of two parameters, 0 and Q.

From above two special cases, it is seen that the equation of'a surface is a relation
connecting coordinates (x,y,z) of a point in the 3-dimensional space.
We, now, give the formal definition of a surface.
Definition : If the rectangular coordinates (x,y,z) of a point in a 3-dimensional space are
connected by a single relation of the type

then the point lies on the surface and Eq. (27) is the equation of the surface.

In some simple cases, that is, when Eq. (27) is solvable for z, we can write it as

z = F(X,Y)

By looking at the examples considered above, we can say that the parametric equations of a
surface are of the form

where u and v are two parameters, ul 5 u 5 u2 and v I v I v2.

Thus, the expression (28) when substituted in Eq. (27) must reduce it to an identity. Also we
can solve the first two equations in expression (28) and get

u = f, (x,y), v = f2 OLy),
and these, when substituted in the third equation of (28) will give us the equation of the
surface as
First Order Partial Differential
Equations
Remember that the parametric equations of a surface are not unique. As an illustration, you
may see that both the set of parametric equations

x = asinu casv, y = asinu sinv, z = acosu.

and

yield the spherical surface

x2+y2+z2= a2.

We now take up another example to illustrate this fact.

Example 2: Find the parametric equation of the surface

Solution :We can rewrite the given equation of the surface in the form

The intersection of this surface with the plane z = k, a constant, is the ellipse

Thus we can write the parametric equations as

As the domain of z is -oo < z < w, on setting z = c sinh a , we get another set of parametric
equdtions as

x = a'cosha cose,

y = bcosha sine,

z = csinha ,
whereoI852x,-oo<a<w.

The given surface is elliptic hyperboloidof one-sheet.

You may now try the following exercise.

E 3) a) Find the parametric equations of the surface

b) Find the Cartesian equation of the surface

C ) h o v e that the straight .line

lies on the plane x+y-z = 0.

In calculus, you have learnt that tangent is a line touching a curve in a plane. Also, normal to Curves and Surfaces ,

the curve at a point is perpendicular to the tangent there at. Similarly, plane touching a
surface at a point is called tangent plane and line perpendicular to the tangent plane at a
point of the surface is called its normal.

We shall now determine the equations of tangent plane and normal to a surface.

Tangent plane and normal to a surface

Let f(x,y,z) = 0 be the equation of a surface and let x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t) be the
parametric equations of a curve C lying on the surface.

The typical point {x (t), y (t), z (t)) of the curve lies on this surface if

f(x(t), y(t), x(t)) = 0

Differentiating the above equation with respect to t (along the curve C), we obtain

or.

where i, j and k are the usual unit vectors along three coordinate axes. Eq. (29) holds at all
points of the curve. Thus for any point Po (x,, yo, z0 ) on C (and also on the surface), we can

say that the vector (if, +jfy + k f )

"0
is perpendicular to the vector

which is along the tangent to the curve C at Pg.Since the relation (29) is true for all the.
curves passing through Po and lying on the surface, the vector (if, + jfy + kf ) is
P"
perpendicular to the tangent plane to the surface at Po and ((fJPo, (fy)po,(fJP,, are the
direction ratios of the normal to the surface at Po(xo, yo zO), If (x,y,zj are the coordnates
of any point P on the tangent plane, then the vector.

lies on the tangent plane and hence it is perpendicular to the normal at Po. We therefore have

or,

Ix-xo) (fx)po+ (Y-YO)(fy)po+ (i-zo) (fz)p,, = 0. . . . . (30)

Eq. (30) is the equation of the tangent plane to the surface at Po. The equation to the normal
to the surface at Po is

Let us look at the following example.

Example 3 : ' ~ i n dthe equation of the tangent plane to the surface = 0 at (1,l.l).

Solution : Gere f(x,y,z) = 2z-x2-y2 = 0 and Po is (1 ,!,I).

*
.'-(fJP,, = (-24 (1.1 .I) = -2

(f,)," = ( - 2 ~ )(,,I,,) = -2
First Order R r ( l . 1 Differential
mu-
From Calculus, we know that if
4 p. y are the angles which the
tangent to C at P makes with
OX, OY, OZ respectively,then
The vector defined by grid
grudient of the scalar function @.
:. Equation of the tangent plane is
(x - 1) (fx)po+ (Y- 1) (fy)po+ (2 - 1) (fz)po= 0'
* (x-1 ) (-2) + (y- 1) (-2) + (z-1) 2 = 0.
You may now attempt the following exercise.
E 4) Find the equation of the normal to the surface
We now extend the concepts of increments and differentials presented in Sec. 10.3 to
3-dimensional space.
Increments and differentials
Let P(x,y,z) and Q(x+ Ax, y+Ay, z+Az) be two points on the surface f(x,y,z) = 0. Then
(Ax, Ay, Az) are called increments associated with Q. Let R(x+dx, y+dy, z+dz) be any point
on the tangent plane at P, then (dx, dy, dz) are called the differentials associated with R and
+
PR = i dx + j dy + k dz is a vector which lies on the tangent plane. It is perpendicular to the
normal to the surface at P and we have
(fxIp dx + (fy)pdy + (f,)p dz = 0 . . . . (32)
Just as we obtained the directional derivative of a function in 2-dimensions in Sec. 10.3, we
can obtain it for a function in 3-dimensional space.
Directional Derivative
Let u(x,y,z) be a C' function of x,y,z ED. D is a domain in space. h t x = $(t), y = ~ ( t ) .
z = 8(t),t, < t < t2 be a space cuwe C in D. The value of the functon for points on the curve is
given by
and we consider it as a function o f t on the curve. Then the total derivative of u with respect
to t along the curve C is
du au dx au dy au dz
---- +
+--
dt - ax dt ay dt a~ dt
e
If we say that s is the arc length PQ along C measured for some fixed points P and Q on it,
then
t
I
s = (xr2+ yp2 + zp2) dt = function o f t
0
and on C we can consider function u(x,y,z) as a functibn of s. In this case we then have
= (iu, + juy + ku,) .(icosa) + jcosp + kcosy)
= (grad u).3, where, grad u = uxi + uyj + u, k a n d 3 = icosa + jcosp + kcosy
du
Here, -is the directional derivative of u at P in the direction of vector3 along the curve C.
ds
If, in particular, 3 has the direction of the positive x-axis then3 = i
Similarly, the directional derivative in the positive y-direction is uy, etc. Curves and Surfaces

Let us now consider following example.

Example 4: Find the directional derivative of the function u= 3x+4y+5z along the direction
of the vector 3i + 4j - k.

Solution : We know that the directional derivative of a function u(x,y,z) in the direction of a
vector2 is??. grad u = a, ux + a2uy+ a+, where?? = a,i + a d + a3k.

Here u = 3x+4y+5z

Hence the directional derivative$. grad u = 3.3 + 4.4 -5.1 = Pel6 -5 = 20.

You may now try the following exercise.

2 2 2
E 5) Find the directional derivative of u = x +y +z at P (1,1,1) in the direction of
+
the vector OP, where 0(0,0,0) is the origin.

So far we have considered only a surface in space. We next take up family of surfaces.

If the function f(x,y,z,c) is of class C' for all x, y, z E D, a domain in space, and c being a
parameter, then the equation

represents a one-parameter family of surfaces. We consider two surfaces of this family,

one for a prescribed value of c and another for the value c+&, that is,

where 6c is a small increment in c.

The surfaces given by Eqs. (33) and (34) will intersect in a curve which is defined by the
Eqs. (33) and (34). This curve is also the intersection of surface (33) and the surface

f
Now as the parameter 6c + 0, the curve of intersection of surfaces (33) and (35) tends to a
limiting position given by

We call this limiting curve as the characteristic curve of the family and it lies on the
surface (33). As the parameter c varies, the characteristic curve (36) traces out a surface,
whose equation is obtained by eliminating the parameter c between the two Eqs. (36) in the
form

We call this surface to be the envelope of the one-parameter family given by Eq. (33).

For a better insight let us take up an example.

Example 5 : Find the envelope of the family of spheres

X ~ + ~ ~ + =( c2
Z -sin2a,
~ ) ~c being the parameter.

Solution :We obtain the envelope by eliminating the parameter c between the equations
7 7 .7 7 . 7 ,-.
First Order Partial Differential and
Equations

On eliminating c, we find that the envelope is a cone

x2*+ y2 = z2 tan a

and the characteristiccurve is given by

z = c cos2a
which is a circle of radius c sina cosa in the plane z = c cos2a.

You may now try this exercise.

E 6) Show that the envelope of the family of spheres of radius unity and centre at
(0,.0, c) is a cylinder x2 +y2 = 1, c being the parameter.

Next, we consider a two parameter family of surfaces defined by the equation

where f is a C' function of x,y,z E D, a domain in space and a and b &e parameters. From
Eqn. (37) we can obtain a one-parameter family of surfaces by taking b as some definite
function of a, say

We can then obtain the envelope of this one-parameter fanlily by eliminating a and b from
Eqns. (37) and (38) and.the relation

The characteristic curve of this one-parameter family is then given by the Eqns. (37) and
(39) in which b = $(a).

You may note here that for every choice of of +(a), the characteristiccurve of the
one-parameter family passes through the point defined by the equation

This point is the characteristic point of the two-parameter family (37) on the particular
surface of the family. As we vary the parameters a and b the characteristic point generates a
surface which we call the envelope of the two-pzrame!er family of surfaces (37).

We now take up an example to illustrate the theory outlined above.

Example 6 : Find the envelope of the two-parameter family of planes

Solution : Let f (x,y,z,a.b) = z- ax -by - a2 - b2 =0' . .. . (41)

Eliminating a and b from fa = 0, fb = 0 and Eq. (4 1 ), we obtain the envelope as

which is a paraboloid of revolution. The characteristic point is (-2a, -2b, - (a2+b2)).

20 Next, we take a2+b2= 1. Substituting in Eqn. (41) we obtain a one-parameter family of planes
 3 ,

Curves and Surfaces

of which the envelope is the right circular cone

It is easy to verify that the characteristic point for a2+b2= 1 is

this point lies on both the surfaces (43) and (44).

And now an exercise for you.

2 2
E 7) Find the envelope of the two-parameter family of spheres (x-a) + (y-b) + z2 = 1.
Also obtain the equation of the characteristic curve of the one-parameter family,
2 2 2
(x-a) + (y-2a) + z = 1.

'We now end this unit by giving a summary of what we have covered in it.

10.5 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have covered the following

1. (a) The Cartesian coordinates of a point in space are (x,y,z).
(b) The coordinates of a point on a spherical body are denoted by spherical polar
coordinates (r,8,$) and their relations with Cartesian coordinates are
x = rsin 8 cos $,
y = rsin 8 sin $,
z = rcos 8.
(c) The coordinates of a point on a cylindrical body are denoted by cylindrical
coordinates (p,$,z) and their relatians with Cartesian coordinates are

2. , (a) The equation of a plane curve is f (x,y) = 0.

(b) The equation of a one-parameter family of plane curves is f (x,y,c) = 0, c being a
parameter
(c) The parametric equations of a plane curve f (x,y) = 0 in terms of the parameter t
are

provided that f [$(t), ~ ( t )=] 0 for t, I t I t2

(d) Increments associated with a point on a curve are difference in coordinates

between two neighbouring points on the curve, whereas differentials associated
with a point on a curve are difference in coordinates of a point on a curve and
projection of a neighbouring point on the tangent to the curve at the point.
(e) Direction ratios of tangent and normal to a curve f(x,y) = 0 at a point P are
(-fy, fx)pand (f,, fy)Prespectively.
(f) Directional derivative of a function u(x,y) along the curve at Pis (u,i + uy j).
(icosa + j sina), where a is the angle which the tangent to the curve at P makes
with the positive-direction of OX.
3. (a) The parametric equation of a space curve f (x,y,z) = 0 are

provided f( $(t), ~ ( t )8(t)

, ) =.0, for tl I t I t2.
(b) The equation of a surface is f(x,y,z) = 0 or z = F (x,y).
(c) The equation of a tangent plane and a normal to a surface f(x,y,z)= 0 at point
Po ( X ~ , Y ~are
, Zrespectively,
~)
First Order Partial Differential
Equations

(d) Directional derivative of a function u(x,y,z) at a point P in the direction of

vector?? is (grad u).$ where grad u = ux i + uy j + u, k.
(e) The equation f (x,y,z,c) = 0 represents one-parameter family of surfaces with c
as a parameter.
The envelope of one-parameter family of surfaces is a surface obtained by
f
eliminating c between f (x,y,z,c) = 0 and - = 0.
a
ac
The characteristic curve is the intersection of surfaces given by f (x,y,z,c) = 0
f a
and - = 0.
ac
(f) The equation f (x,y,z,a,b) = 0 represents two-parameter family of surfaces, with
a and b as two parameters. If b = $(a), tben characteristic curve for the surface
f (x, y, z, a, b) = 0 is the intersection of the surfaces given by

af af db
f (x,y,z,a,$(a) = 0 and - + - . - = 0
aa ab ba
f a
The equations f (x,y,z,a,b) = 0, - = 0 and
f a
= 0 represent a point known as
-

aa ab
characteristic point for two parameter family of surfaces.
(g) The envelope of two-parameter family of surfaces is generated by its
characteristic point and is obtained by eliminating a and b from the equations

n Jc
E 1) a) x = asec 0, y = btan 0, - -
2
<0 <-
2
b) x = a sin30, y = bcos30, 0 5 0 5 2n

E 2) a) Here f(x,y) = x2+y2-5 = 0 and the point is (2.1)

Now, fx = 2x, (f,) at (2.1) = 2.2 = 4

f , = 2 ~ , ( f ~ ) ~ ~ ( ,2.1
, , ,==2
The directional ratios of tangent to the given curve at (2,l)

4
:. Direction cosines of tangents =

Also, the direction ratios of normal to the given curve at (2.1 )

2 I
:. direction cosines of normal =
 [ k-+]
Curves and Surfaces
b) D~rectioncosines of tangent = - --

Direction cosines of normal =

E 3) a) The given equation of the surface is

2
The intersect!on of this surface with plane z = k is the circle x + y2 = 2k
This equation is satisfied if we take x = G c o s 0, y = &sin 0

Hence the parametric equations of the given surface are

As the domain of z is < z < m, we get

and then parametric equations reduce to

b) The parametric equation of the surface is

X -
-
X =U COSV - cosv
U

y = u sinv 3 '= sinv

z = u cotv J and z = ucotv

3 xZ+ y2 = z2 tan2 v, which is the required Cartesian equation of the surface.

C) Any point on the given line is

x = 1 +2s,y=2+3s,z=3+5s,

This point will lie on the plane x + y - z = 0 if

( 1 + 2 ~+) ( 2 + 3 ~-) ( 3 + 5 ~=
)0

which is identically true for all values of s.

Hence the give11line lies on the plane x+y-z = 0.

E 4) The given surface is I

7 7 3
f (x.y.z) = x-+y'+zb-a =0

Therefore. f, = 2x

f, = 2y

f, = 22

The give11~ o i n ist P,, (a.a.a)

 . The equation of the normal fo the given surface at (a,a,a) is
x-a - y-a - z-a
--
2a 2a 2a '
.* x-a=y-a=z-a

We know that directional derivative of u in the direction of vector3 is (grad u). 3

=2x i + 2 y j + 2 z k
Since P is (l,l,l),

+
:. Directional derivative of u at P (1,1,1) along OP

E 6) The equation of the family of spheres of radius unity and centre at (O,O,c) is

Let f = x2 + y2 + (z-c12.- 1 = 0

af =-2 (z-c) = o
-
" ac
af
Eliminating c from f = 0 and
ac = 0, we get the envelope of the family of spheres as
-

which as a cylinder with base in xy-plane, the centre (0,0), radius 1 and generators
parallel to z-axis.

E 7) The equation of two-parameter family of spheres is

f = (x-a12 + (y-b12 + z2-I = o
Here fa = 0 * -2(x-a) = * (x-a) =0

fb = 0 * -2(y-b) =0 (y-b) = 0.
Eliminating a and b between f =0, fa = 0 and f,, = 0, the envelope of !he given family
of sphere is

Now one-parameter family is

= (x-a12 + (y-a)2 + z2 -1 = 0
The characteristic curve is given by
 Curves and Surfaces
3 (x-a)' + (y-a12 + z2 - 1 = 0 and 2(x-a) + 2(y-a) =0

3 (x-a12 + (y-a12 + z2 - 1 = 0 and (x+y) = 2a

Hence characteristic curve is (eliminiing a from g = 0 and = 0)
aa

1 1
* - ( ~ - y ) ~ + - ( y - x ) ~ + z ~ -1 = o
4 4

* (x-y) = 2 (1-22)