Forest Science and Technology

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Forest inventory, assessment, and monitoring,

and long-term forest observational studies, with
special reference to India

V.P. Tewari

To cite this article: V.P. Tewari (2016) Forest inventory, assessment, and monitoring, and
long-term forest observational studies, with special reference to India, Forest Science and
Technology, 12:1, 24-32, DOI: 10.1080/21580103.2015.1018962

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Forest Science and Technology
Vol. 12, No. 1, March 2016, 24 32

Forest inventory, assessment, and monitoring, and long-term forest observational studies,
with special reference to India
V.P. Tewari*
Himalayan Forest Research Institute, Shimla, India

(Received 22 October 2014; Accepted 10 February 2015)

National forest assessments are attracting increasing attention owing to their role in providing information related to
manifold forest functions. Large-area information is in high demand, both for the forest in its role as ecosystem and in its
role as resource and service provider. Of particular current interest are forest assessment systems at national level by
countries that wish to engage in the REDDC initiative. Large-area forest monitoring has never had a prominent place on
the curricula of forestry faculties in India or many other tropical countries. As a consequence, in many tropical countries,
there is only very limited technical capacity for large-area forest monitoring. The discipline of “forest inventory” has
developed a versatile toolbox of techniques and methods useful for national level assessments, and remote sensing
technology has, over the last few decades, added some exciting options to this toolbox. This article analyzes the process of
national forest monitoring and identifies key areas where national capacity may be developed. A brief description of forest
assessment in India, long-term observational studies, and synergy with the national forestry inventory is also presented.
Keywords: forest inventory; forest monitoring; capacity building; forest observational studies; India

Introduction measured, represent a third type of approach to gathering

Forest monitoring has become a key issue in national and
international environmental and developmental policy
process. Forest monitoring is especially important in India
because of the high level of plant species diversity and
endemism in the country. This is especially true in tropi-
cal forests where rates of forest degradation and fragmen-
tation are high. The information generated by the forest
inventory and monitoring system not only feeds into
national environmental policies but also plays an increas-
ingly relevant role in international conventions. National
information needs on forests have grown considerably in
recent years. In 2010, only 45 countries worldwide were
able to assess changes in forest area and characteristic
through consecutive systematic national forest inventories
(FAO 2013).
A number of monitoring, assessment, and experimen-
tal methods and procedures have been developed, each
aimed at addressing informational needs for managing
and conserving forest resources. Regional and national
forest inventories provide estimates of standing volume
by species groups and sizes classes. With repeated sam-
pling, estimates of growth and change are also possible. A
second type of forest monitoring is termed forest observa-
tional studies (FOS). FOS are commonly employed to
study long-term trends in forest growth and succession, to
evaluate alternative silvicultural treatments, and/or to
acquire data for modeling stand dynamics, growth, and
yield of forest types of interest. Designed experiments, in
which specific treatments are applied to a relatively small
number of locations that are intensively monitored and
empirical data needed to assess and model forest ecosys-
tems (Burkhart and Temesgen 2013).
Extensive networks of long-term FOS have been
established since the middle of the nineteenth century.
The International Union of Forest Research Organisations
(IUFRO) was established with the objective of standardis-
ing the design and analysis of long-term field experiments.
The majority of these experiments are observational
studies.
All management and policy decisions are based upon
various factors and scientific information provided by the
forest inventories is one of them. International conventions
also use forest inventory data. Forest inventory assumes
the role of data provision for forest management and
forest policy at all geographic levels. The data provided by
national forest inventories (NFIs) are in increasing demand
and are also being used outside the forest sector.
In this article, we analyze the process of national for-
est assessment with a clear perspective of scientific tech-
nical capacity needs. A brief account of forests in India,
FOS, and its synergy with NFI is also presented.
National forest inventory and assessments
Large-area forest inventory has a long history and, over
the decades, the assessment techniques have been further
developed. In the tropics, probably the first large-area for-
est inventory was a teak inventory carried out by the Ger-
man biologist Dietrich Brandis for the British Crown in
the mid nineteenth century when establishing the forest

*Email: vptewari@yahoo.com

ISSN 2158-0103 print/ISSN 2158-0715 online

Ó 2015 Korean Forest Society
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2015.1018962
http://www.tandfonline.com

service in India. At the turn of the twentieth century, sta-
tistical sampling was established as a scientifically
founded methodology and, then, cluster plots on a system-
atic sample grid have more and more prevailed in NFIs
(Kleinn 2010). Accurate surveys, mapping, and assess-
ment of forest resources are essential steps for efficient
forest management.
Regional and national forest inventories provide
essential data for formulating national forest policies,
planning forest industry investments, forecasting wood
production, and monitoring forest ecosystem dynamics.
The traditional role of a NFI has been to provide unbiased
forest resource information covering a whole country and
including computation of forest statistics. NFIs assess for-
est areas, growing stock volumes, and changes in biodi-
versity status, land use, carbon stock, and ecosystem
services.
The reporting requirements for international agree-
ments are manifold and also cover biophysical informa-
tion on the forest resource. Such information can be
directly provided from NFIs, in particular in relation to
information about status and changes of forest area and
forest structural characteristics. Information collection
approaches for international conventions also benefit from
this: one example is the discussion about how to define
a forest, an extremely difficult field in which much
work has been done in the context of NFIs’ forest area
estimation (e.g., Lund 2013).
Estimating indicators of ecosystem diversity, includ-
ing forest vertical and horizontal structure, forest edge
length and fragmentation status, estimating species
diversity, or the abundance of particular habitat
elements, can be readily done from large-area forest
inventories (Kleinn et al. 2005). Integration of more
indicators is possible. This is especially true for indica-
tor habitat or structural elements while the observations
of, for example, the abundance of faunistic or floristic
indicator species is a real challenge, mainly for organi-
zational reasons. The implementation of such observa-
tions in the field is often strongly seasonal (time of year
and/or time of day); for a NFI that is a very difficult
planning criterion.
Capacity building in forest assessment
UNCED Agenda 21 stipulates that:
Assessment and systematic observations are essential
components of long-term planning, for evaluating effects,
quantitatively and qualitatively, and for rectifying inade-
quacies. This mechanism, however, is one of the often
neglected aspects of forest resources, management, con-
servation and development. In many cases, even the basic
information related to the area and type of forests, existing
potential and volume of harvest is lacking. In many devel-
oping countries, there is a lack of structures and mecha-
nisms to carry out these functions. There is an urgent need
to rectify this situation for a better understanding of the
role and importance of forests and to realistically plan for
their effective conservation, management, regeneration,
and sustainable development.
Forest Science and Technology 25
Participation of countries in the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) global forest assessment process pro-
vides an opportunity to find out about technical and tech-
nological developments in other countries. South-South
Cooperation, also called Technical Cooperation among
Developing Countries (TCDC), is an accepted method of
capacity building. Countries located in analogous ecologi-
cal regions tend to have very comparable forest formation.
It has been observed in many countries that capacity built
through short-term international or bilateral cooperation is
soon lost when the project ends.
To cope with increasing information needs, and the
increased demand for expertise in national forest monitor-
ing, comprehensive efforts need to be undertaken to build
or strengthen such national capacity, and this also requires
establishing an institutional setting for forest monitoring
and related activities.
Forest inventory courses are usually exclusively
focused on forest management inventories because this is
needed in many countries for the establishment of forest
management plans. As a consequence, national capacity
and national expertise in the technical side of national for-
est monitoring has not been systematically formed in aca-
demia in most developing countries (FAO 2013).
Collaboration in planning, implementing, and analysing
different national forest monitoring systems is an excel-
lent way to exchange knowledge and avoid common
errors and pitfalls.
A brief overview of forestry in India
India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the
world and its land area includes regions with some of the
world’s highest rainfall to very dry deserts, coast line to
alpine regions, river deltas to tropical islands. India’s nat-
ural forests include evergreen tropical rain forests in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and
the northeastern states, dry alpine scrub forests in the
northern Himalayas and semi-evergreen rain forests,
deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests, subtropical pine
forests in the lower montane zone, and temperate montane
forests (Lal 1989).
Before independence
In 1840, the British colonial administration promulgated
the Crown Land (Encroachment) Ordinance which tar-
geted forests in Britain’s Asian colonies, and vested all
forests, wastes, unoccupied, and uncultivated lands to the
Crown. The Imperial Forest Department was established
in India in 1864 (ADB 2009). Britain’s monopoly over
Indian forests was first asserted through the Indian Forest
Act of 1865. The British colonial administration then
enacted a further far-reaching Forest Act of 1878, thereby
acquiring the sovereignty of all wastelands which, in its
definition, included all forests. This Act also enabled the
administration to demarcate reserved and protected
forests.
26 V.P. Tewari
It was believed in colonial times that the forests
belonged to the state for exploitation and forest areas
became a source of revenue. Teak was extensively
exploited by the British colonial government for ship con-
struction while sal and pine was used in India for railway
sleepers. Forest contracts (e.g., for the leaves of Diospyros
melanoxylon which are used to create Indian cigarettes)
earned so much revenue that they were often used as
leverage for political power. These contracts also created
forest “zamindars” (a form of upper class aristocrat).
Some forests in India were earmarked by government offi-
cials and rulers with the sole purpose of using them for
hunting and sport for members of the royalty and colonial
officials (Banerjee 1997).
After independence
In 1953, the government nationalized the forests away
from the zamindars. In 1980, the Forest Conservation
Act was passed, which stipulated that central govern-
ment permission was required to practice sustainable
agroforestry in a forest area. Violations or lack of per-
mits were criminal offenses. However, the intent of this
legislation was not implemented in practice. Neither
investment aimed at sustainable forestry nor knowledge
transfer followed once India had nationalized and
heavily regulated forestry. Deforestation increased, bio-
diversity diminished, and wildlife dwindled. India’s
rural population and impoverished families continued to
ignore the laws by using their local forests for suste-
nance (Tewari and Campbell 1995).
Over the last 20 years, India has reversed the defores-
tation trend. FAO ranks India among the 10 countries
with the largest forest area coverage in the world (FAO
2011). According to FAO, in terms of gains in forest cov-
erage, from 1990 to 2000 India was globally ranked fifth,
while from 2000 to 2010 it was ranked third.
Forest assessment and monitoring in India
At local level
The practice of forest inventory was introduced at the
local level in 1856 to estimate the growing stock to pre-
pare management plans or working plans for the teak-
dominated forests in the Pegu management unit (in
Burma, now Myanmar). However, until 1884, progress
was negligible because trained staff were scarce and the
work involved in surveying, settlement, and demarcation
was immense. Recognition of the need for skilled workers
led to the establishment of training institutions in India to
build the capacity of field staff. Subsequently, the forest
inventory gradually expanded throughout various man-
agement units, and a substantial area of forest was covered
by the working plans. The quality of the working plans
also improved after 1919 when good quality maps at a
suitable scale became available from the Survey of India.
It became possible to divide the management units into
blocks and compartments, and to make detailed stock
maps (Pandey 2012). The working plans were generally
valid for 10 years.
Different management units are inventoried in differ-
ent timeframes and, hence, estimates are not generated at
state or national level for any given timeframe (Pandey
2008). At present, there are about 790 management units
in India (ICFRE 2011). During the past decade, inventory
methods have been greatly modified with the introduction
of modern tools such as geographic information systems
(GIS) and remote sensing technology.
At national level
After independence in 1947, the 1952 National Forest Pol-
icy laid emphasis on forest survey and demarcation along
with other aspects of forest management and develop-
ment. Having been in the era of industrial resolution, the
forestry department of the Indian government also wanted
to attract wood based industries. With this in mind, in
1965 a project called Pre-Investment Survey of Forest
Resources (PISFR) was undertaken by the Indian
government in collaboration with UN Development
Programme/FAO.
Precision of estimates is the key factor in designing a
forest inventory. Suitable plot size and shape, and opti-
mum sample size impact on staffing requirements, costs,
and time for a given level of precision. To understand the
level of heterogeneity, pilot surveys are conducted and
above parameters are estimated; based on which suitable
sampling designs are ascertained for a particular study
area. During 1965 to 1980 generally, systematic cluster
sampling was used. The study area was divided into suit-
able grid sizes (50 x 50 or 2.50 x 2.50 ) depending upon the
optimum sample size (which defines the sampling inten-
sity). Within the selected grid, a cluster of three to eight
sample plots were used for recording the data on different
parameters. Whenever the information on the stratification
variable was available, stratified random sampling was
used; otherwise the collected data was post-stratified to
increase the precision of the estimate.
The late 1970s and early 1980s were very important
for international as well as national forest scenarios, influ-
encing a paradigm shift in realization of the role of forest
resources. The forests, which had seemed an inexhaustible
resource, were rapidly depleting under the pressure of bur-
geoning human and cattle populations leading to overall
environmental deterioration and threatening the very exis-
tence of communities. Therefore, strategies were framed
to divert production forestry to conservation forestry.
New programs such as social and agroforestry came into
being.
To formulate suitable strategies for the new scenario
there was a need for information at national level.
Acknowledging this, in 1976 the National Commission on
Agriculture recommended the creation of a national forest
resource survey organization. As a result, in 1981, PISFR
was converted into the Forest Survey of India (FSI). In
anticipation of this move, PISFR had started designing a
NFI. A high-level committee, chaired by the director of

the Central Statistical Organization, was set up in 1980. It
recommended that systematic sampling should be used
for a NFI.
National forest inventory
The government of India made plans to begin a NFI to
monitor forest resources and land use change on a 10-year
cycle, but the project was stalled because human resources
were not increased to meet the additional needs under the
new NFI mandate. In 1986, FSI took on the additional
responsibility of monitoring the country’s forest cover
using remote sensing imagery. By that time, over a period
of 20 years, about 75% of the country’s forests had been
inventoried, and thematic maps using aerial photographs
of selected forest areas had been prepared, but no reliable
estimates of the national growing stock could be gener-
ated (Pandey 2012).
During the last decade of the twentieth century, the
role of forests was again redefined by including additional
parameters such as carbon sequestration, biodiversity,
regeneration status, and non timber forests product
(NTFP). Taking the opportunity to fulfill its dream of con-
ducting a NFI, FSI held a series of workshops and meet-
ings with experts, and came out with an integrated
approach in 2002 2003 in which a NFI capable of captur-
ing the above mentioned parameters was to be conducted
over a 2 year cycle. This approach is being followed and
the estimates are being improved cycle after cycle. The
layout of sampling units is shown in Figure 1.
A new NFI has been designed and adopted by FSI
since 2002 to generate national level information on vari-
ous forestry parameters for strategic planning of the for-
estry sector every 2 years. In every cycle, 60 districts,
spread over the entire country, are selected for detailed
inventory of forest.
In 1991, realizing the importance of non-forest trees in
fulfilling timber and fuelwood needs, FSI started an inven-
tory of trees outside forests (TOF), which was initially
confined to subregional level. Until 2001, national level
estimates of growing stock of forests and TOF based on a
regular inventory program was not available. Therefore,
from 2002, FSI initiated a NFI, modified its sampling
design, and developed a methodology so as to obtain
information on growing stock both for forests and TOF at
national level every 2 years. The growing stock informa-
tion has become an integral part of the State of Forest
Report since 2003.
In 2008, FSI launched a new biomass study to measure
those components of forest biomass that are not measured
by NFI, as required under REDDC. This study was com-
pleted in 2009. With the completion of this biomass study,
a new dimension was added to the NFI in 2010. Addi-
tional parameters needed to estimate the total carbon stock
of the forests are now being measured in the sample plots
of the NFI (Pandey 2012). The new biomass study led to
the estimation of the carbon stock in India’s forests in
2009, following the Tier 2 approach of the Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines
Forest Science and Technology 27
(IPCC 2006). To estimate changes in the carbon stock for
the purpose of REDDC, “post-sampling stratification” is
done.
The sampling design adopted for the NFI has two
stages. In the first stage, the country is stratified into 14
homogeneous strata based on physiography, climate, and
vegetation; physiographic zones and civil districts form
the sampling unit. Ten per cent of districts (c. 60 districts
in the country), distributed over all the physiographic
zones in proportion to their size, are selected randomly
for detailed forest and TOF inventory to estimate growing
stock at zonal and national level on a 2 year cycle. These
estimates are further improved continuously in subsequent
cycles as the number of districts inventoried keeps on
increasing with completion of each cycle. The random
selection is without replacement and hence new districts
are selected each time (Kumar and Lakhchaura 2008). In
the second stage, a separate sampling design is followed
for inventorying forests, TOF (urban), and TOF (rural).
Selected districts are divided into grids of latitude and lon-
gitude which form the second stage sampling unit. Every
year, approximately 3500 and 5000 sample plots are
assessed in the forest and TOF areas, respectively. Since
2010, 25% of the forest sample plots have been remeas-
ured using geo-coordinates to improve understanding of
the changes in forests. The forest cover of the country is
assessed using remotely sensed satellite data. IRS LISS
III data, which has a spatial resolution of 23.5 m (with a
minimum mappable area of 1 ha), is subjected to hybrid
classification (i.e., a mix of visual and digital classification
to generate wall-to-wall forest cover mapping of the
country; FSI 2012). The assessment made on the basis of
satellite images is backed by rigorous ground truthing
carried out by FSI staff. The forest cover mapping
process has been carried out at a scale of 1:50.000. GIS
technology has also been used in analyzing the data.
Capacity development
A sound scientific foundation for national forest monitor-
ing in India was laid in 1965. Within 3 years, PISFR had
acquired an international reputation, and the Indian CEO
of PISFR at the time had an important role.
At present, besides induction training for professional,
subprofessional, and technical forestry staff, there are
other short-term mid-career training courses for different
officer levels. There are many institutions under the Indian
government’s Ministry of Environment and Forests which
offer specialized courses of both long and short duration.
The Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal organ-
ises a 2-year postgraduate course in forest management, a
1-year postgraduate course in natural resource manage-
ment, and a management development program in general
management, sectoral, and functional management
(ICFRE 2011).
FSI is dedicated to national forest assessment and
monitoring, and is the nodal agency for reporting to FAO
on the country’s forest resources. FSI conducts many
short-term training courses of 1 to 3 weeks’ duration in
28 V.P. Tewari

Figure 1. Layout of NFI sampling unit (Source: FSI, Dehradun [2012]).

the application of modern technology such as remote
sensing, GIS and GPS in forest surveys, and field inven-
tory and working plan preparation, to different levels of
officials of the State Forest Departments. FSI has kept
pace with technological and methodological advances in
computing, remote sensing, and GIS during the past 3 dec-
ades and has been able to absorb applications of upgraded
technology.
However, FSI faces the challenge of dwindling human
resources. The number of technicians has fallen over

time. Given the volume of work for the country, the insti-
tution is too small. The result is that remeasurement of
permanent plots is delayed, as is, therefore, the generation
of information on changes in biomass and other parame-
ters. There are not enough professionals to comprehen-
sively analyze the vast amount of data held by FSI
(Pandey 2012).
Forest observational studies
Field studies can be classified as manipulated experiments
and observational studies. A manipulated experiment is
an investigation that attempts to establish a particular set
of conditions under a specified protocol with the aim of
testing a hypothesis. A manipulated experiment deliber-
ately imposes treatments on experimental plots with the
aim of observing a particular response. In contrast, a com-
parative observational study involves collecting and ana-
lyzing data from different site conditions but without
actively predefining these conditions (Kuehl 1994). These
are also known as quasi experiments (Cook and Campbell
1979).
In forestry, long-term FOS play an important role in
formulating guidelines for forest policies and in develop-
ing methods for sustainable forest management. The sci-
entific contribution of long-term observations has two
aspects, descriptive and cognitive. While the accumula-
tion of long-term observations is one of the greatest
achievements of forest science, assimilating this informa-
tion and extracting meaningful relationships have been
not quite so remarkable.
The aims and objectives of FOS vary widely, which
have led to differences in their designs, variables of inter-
est, and measurement protocols. Observational studies
provide information at various scales, ranging from spe-
cific sites where management actions have been, or will
be, implemented to large geographical regions or an entire
nation. If designed well, FOS can advance scientific
understanding of forest ecosystems and provide critical
information to inform forest policy and management.
In India, long-term research sites (LTRS) have a long
history. In India, typically, linear increment plots (in the
form of transects or strips) have been used for collecting
incremental data on individual trees and permanent sam-
ple plots have been used for collecting growth data for
stands.
Growth and yield studies make use of various sources
of data; for example, permanent sample plots, forest
inventory plots, interval plots, and temporary plots. Now,
the environmental functions of forests are gaining promi-
nence and hence forest dynamics plots are assuming
greater importance.
FOS provide essential information for modeling eco-
system structure and dynamics. Forest management deci-
sion-making and effective long-term planning are based
on information about current and future forest condi-
tions. Models which describe forest dynamics accurately
are essential for decision-making and sustainable forest
use.
Forest Science and Technology 29
By indicating changes in forest ecosystems, long-
term observational plots, in particular unmanaged plots,
have a unique contribution in a country’s biomonitoring
system.
A brief history of FOS in India
In India, the network of forest plots is very wide and cov-
ers diverse forest types and environmental conditions.
LTRS in India have three different names: linear tree
increment plots; linear increment plots; and linear sample
plots. Some are also called permanent preservation plots.
The common feature of all these plots has been the diame-
ter measurement of individual trees at periodic intervals.
There was a countrywide concerted effort for laying out
linear tree increment plots, subsequent to a resolution in
the Third Silvicultural Conference in Dehradun in 1929.
Many of these sites are in degraded conditions and main-
tenance work of most sites is rather poor (Tewari et al.
2014). There is a need to stimulate proper maintenance
and upkeep of these sites which are invaluable for forestry
research.
The LTRS of India were mainly studied by
Mathauda (1958) and Rai (1996). In some cases, single
species plots were created, for example: sandalwood
(Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh; although
most of these plots have been lost); Adina cordifolia
and Acacia catechu (Bihar and Uttar Pradesh); Mesua
ferrea, Hopea parvipora, Calopkyllum elatum, Artocar-
pus kirsuta, and Dalbergia latifolia (Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, and Kerala); and red sanders (Andhra
Pradesh). Sometimes plots were created to specially
study important commercial species such as Shorea
robusta, Terminalia tomentosa, and Adina cordifolia in
linear increment plots in Uttar Pradesh. Efforts were
also made to create plots for different vegetation types,
for example: moist deciduous and dry deciduous Shorea
forests in Bihar; hill Shorea, Bhabhar Shorea, and dry
Shorea in Uttar Pradesh; moist and dry Shorea forests
in West Bengal; teak and non-teak bearing forests in
Karnataka and Maharashtra; dry deciduous forest in
Maharashtra; and tropical rainforests. Plots were also
created in the shola forests (montane hill forests) of
Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. A large number of plots,
particularly in Karnataka (both in tropical rainforests
and in teak and non-teak bearing moist deciduous for-
ests), were created wherein all species were considered
for study of rate of diameter growth.
The idea of establishing preservation plots in India
was mooted at the Third Silvicultural Conference in 1929.
The Fifth All India Silvicultural Conference finalised
detailed instructions regarding layout, maintenance, and
record-keeping, and recommended 8 ha as the minimum
area for such plots. The available records show that there
are 309 preservation plots in the country, of which 187
are located in natural forests and 122 in plantations cover-
ing a total area of approximately 8500 ha. Preservation
plots were established in different forest types to conserve
the existing biodiversity of the forests.
30 V.P. Tewari
In 1988, a 50 ha forest dynamics plot was set up in the
Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu) in the east-
ern foothills of the Western Ghats of southern India by the
Centre for Ecological Sciences of the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, following protocols for large-scale
plots established by the Smithsonian Tropical Research
Institute (Sukumar et al. 1992, 2004; Suresh et al. 2011).
A major focus is the impact of fire and elephants on forest
regeneration and dynamics.
Permanent sample plots (PSPs) were also laid out in
various parts of India for tree growth and yield studies to
develop growth and yield models based on the data col-
lected from these plots (e.g., Kumar et al. 1995; Jayara-
man and Lappi 2001; Upadhyay et al. 2005; Tewari 2011).
Two types of observational studies were used for
studying ecosystem dynamics and structure: low intensity
tree count plots (TCP); and more intensive tree re-mea-
surement plots (TRP). These plots are located in different
forest types of the country. The main aim of these plots is
growth studies and long-term ecological monitoring.
Tree count plots
TCPs are less intensive observational studies which pro-
vide simple measures of structure and diversity, such as
diameter at breast height (dbh) measurements and species
counts. The TCP methodology involves enumerating the
available plant resources and obtaining a broad represen-
tation of the existing floristic variations. Species richness,
evenness, species diversity, and importance value index
(IVI) are calculated to observe diversity and structure in
the forests. These traditional methods of measuring
diversity are based on concepts developed during the
1960s, at a time when computer software was in its
infancy and effective analytical tools were not available
(Tewari et al. 2014).
Tree re-measurement plots
More intensive TRPs consist of numbered and mapped
individual trees. Each tree in a TRP plot is identified by
at least five attributes: number; species name; dbh; x
coordinate; and y coordinate. This permits the detailed
study of ecosystem dynamics, including growth and
competition, and application of spatial statistics relating
to ecosystem structure and diversity. The most impor-
tant difference to the TCP approach is the fact that each
tree is identified by a number and by its x and y coordi-
nates. Numbers are permanently painted on the trees to
allow re-identification of individuals at successive re-
measurements in the field, thus creating a basis for spa-
tially explicit analysis of forest structure and diversity,
and for studying the effects of competition and forest
dynamics (Tewari et al. 2014).
Complementarities between TCP and TRP
TCP plots contain very limited information. Ingrowth
assessment is possible only when trees are numbered.
Spatial patterns reveal relationships between species. TCP
plot establishment and maintenance costs are thus very
high relative to the rather limited information they pro-
vide. In a TRP plot all trees are numbered for easy identi-
fication at re-measurement and their positions (x and y
coordinates) are assessed at the first enumeration. The first
enumeration is costly. Afterwards, re-measurements are
less costly while the value of the information continues to
increase with each re-measurement. One important advan-
tage of TRP studies is the fact that it is possible to mea-
sure spatial variations in density and species composition,
and therefore to infer competition effects on individual
tree growth and stand dynamics (Tewari et al. 2014).
Although TCP data is more limited than TRP data for
some detailed analysis, some synergies may evolve to bal-
ance the common parameters such that TCPs can be used
to extend the utility or inference associated with the more
expensive TRP plots. One way is to convert TCP plots to
TRP plots instead of creating new TRP plots. Also, TCP
plots may be used to validate relationships modeled from
TRP data, particularly when scaled up from individual
trees to plant communities.
Synergies between FOS and NFI
Long-term observations and monitoring are needed to val-
idate models and remote sensing algorithms of global
change research and to ensure sustainable forest manage-
ment. These are important in assessing changes in diver-
sity and structure of the forest, growth and yield research,
studying the effect of climate change on vegetation, and
many other aspects of forestry.
The establishment of a network of FOS is a practical
way to ensure monitoring and analysis of forest ecosys-
tems covering a wide range of topics such as spe-
cies habitat associations, natural ecosystem structure and
diversity, response to natural disturbances, and regenera-
tion dynamics. FOS networks normally feature big plots
with the focus is on ecosystem analysis rather than on geo-
graphical assessment. Data from FOS are collected over
long time periods. Thus, a FOS network may effectively
complement the activities of the NFI in India (Tewari
et al. 2014).
Data from observational studies, collected over long
time periods, may effectively complement forest inven-
tory and monitoring. Such data will provide the empirical
basis for growth models and spatially explicit diversity
analysis. Models developed from observational studies
are essential for generating reasonable scenarios at land-
scape level, including carbon modeling and projections of
climate change (Zhao et al. 2011).
National forest monitoring is a comprehensive process
which includes the collection, analysis, and dissemination
of forest-related data and the derivation of information
and knowledge at regular intervals to allow the monitor-
ing of change over time. Long-term observational studies
also play an important role in assessing the changes in
diversity and structure of the forest, and studying the
effect of climate change on vegetation and hence these

can very well be integrated with the national forest moni-
toring and assessment.
The sample based field observations and allometric
models are also the data sources being employed in
national forest monitoring to efficiently provide the
required information. Long-term FOS are one of the
important tools of forest monitoring. Thus, there are
important synergies between FOS and NFI.
Conclusions
A national forest monitoring system comprises the institu-
tional and consultative arrangements that enable a country
to estimate its greenhouse gas emissions and removals
from forests, including those due to REDDC activities. In
addition, a system should provide data for policy assess-
ment, take advantage of the knowledge of local communi-
ties in monitoring, be linked to monitoring of other forest
values such as biodiversity and social conditions, and pro-
vide information on the success of policy implementation.
NFIs have produced much useful information for
national and international instruments regarding forests
and related resources over the past decades. They cover
larger areas and their estimations have scientific validity
for such regions. Over the years, many additional varia-
bles and target objects beyond the traditional forestry vari-
ables have been included in these inventories, and their
sampling and plot design has proved to be extremely flexi-
ble in accommodating such features (Kleinn 2010).
Since long time, a major methodological challenge in
NFIs has been the very expensive and frequently different
field work. Many of the relevant variables can, so far,
only be recorded in the field. But much of the time in the
field is spent unproductively by walking to the field plots
while observations are limited exclusively to the field plot
locations. In particular, in regions lacking road infrastruc-
ture, walking time can be much more than the
“productive” measurement time on the field plots. This is
not efficient and approaches must be developed that allow
the integration of observations on the way to the field plot
location. This probably calls for combinations of design-
based and model-based estimation approaches. It is
expected that such approaches will improve the estimation
of forest area, forest structure, forest utilizations, biodiver-
sity, and, in particular, rare events (Kleinn 2010).
Although the forest inventory is probably the scientifi-
cally best developed and most systematically organized
large-area data collection approach in the field of renew-
able natural resources, there are still a number of issues
that need work. NFIs have yet been able to systematically
develop a formalized impact assessment so that the direct
and indirect impacts on the inventory study and its results
could be analysed in all possible fields for application.
Based on such information, the usefulness of an inventory
can eventually be transparently evaluated and lessons can
be learned for the planning of follow-up studies. Such
studies are ongoing in several research groups (Duvemo
and L€am€as 2006; Kangas 2009).
Forest Science and Technology 31
The selection or development of an appropriate insti-
tution for national forest monitoring depends on the
country’s circumstances and its available capacity. This is
a challenging task because national forest monitoring
efforts implemented, for exa,ple, every 5 or 10 years, typi-
cally exhibit a cyclic distribution of workload which may
cause difficulties for any permanent institution. One solu-
tion to this problem may be the implementation of data
collection on a rolling basis. Efforts should be made to
build on existing national institutions and existing
national capacity, keeping in mind that long-term and
secured adequate funding is required (FAO 2013).
Research infrastructure and capacity need to be devel-
oped and enhanced. Capacity building includes both
short-term training and longer-term academic and techni-
cal education, and can be implemented through national
expertise or by international cooperation. Training and
education activities should be combined directly with the
design and implementation of the monitoring system in
order to offer interested staff an immediate possibility to
gather hands-on experience.
Growth models developed from observational studies
are essential for projecting inventory data and for generat-
ing reasonable scenarios at landscape level. Unfortu-
nately, many of the existing forest observational networks
are lacking essential coverage of extreme sites and densi-
ties which are required for modeling. Such data reposito-
ries, if collected over long time periods, may be useful for
the study of some aspects of climate change, but are other-
wise often of limited use (Zhao et al. 2011).
The FOS network ensures professional monitoring and
analysis of forest ecosystems covering a wide range of
topics such as ecosystem structure and diversity, response
to natural disturbances, and regeneration process. Growth
models developed from observational studies are required
for inventory data projections. Data from FOS are col-
lected over long time periods and, hence, effectively com-
plement the activities of the NFIs.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Sh. Rajesh Kumar, Joint Director
(NFDMC), FSI, Dehradun for providing useful information &
materials about the NFI in India.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
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