Data Communications

and Networking
 Chapter 2

Network Models
OSI Model

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2.1 LAYERED TASKS

 A network model is a layered architecture

 Task broken into subtasks
 Implemented separately in layers in stack
 Functions need in both systems
 Peer layers communicate

 Protocol:
 A set of rules that governs data communication
 It represents an agreement between the communicating devices

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Tasks involved in sending a letter

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier Hierarchy (services)

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2.2 THE OSI MODEL

• Established in 1947, the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.

• The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework

that explains the process of transmitting data between computers.

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 ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

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Layered Architecture

Layers
Seven layers of the OSI model
Layer 7. Application

Layer 6. Presentation
Layer 5. Session

Receiver
Sender
Layer 4. Transport

Layer 3. Network

Layer 2. Data Link

Layer 1. Physical

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Layered Architecture

 A layered model
 Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive
functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer
 Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers
 The processes on each machine at a given layer are called peer-to-peer
process

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PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS

 Communication must move downward through the layers on the sending

device, over the communication channel, and upward to the receiving
device
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the
layer just below it
 At the receiving device, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each
process receiving and removing the data meant for it

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PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS

 The passing of the data and network information down through

the layers of the sending device and backup through the layers
of the receiving device is made possible by interface between
each pair of adjacent layers
 Interface defines what information and services a layer must
provide for the layer above it.

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The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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An exchange using the OSI model

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2.3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
Topics discussed in this section:
1. Physical Layer

2. Data Link Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer

7. Application Layer

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Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

 Functions
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 Representation of bits
 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
 Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
 Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)

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Physical Layer

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Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Functions
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control

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Data Link Layer

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Hop-to-hop delivery

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Example 1
• In following Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node
with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the data
link level this frame contains physical addresses in the header. These are the
only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information
needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error
detection.

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Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
 Source-to-destination delivery
 Responsible from the delivery of packets from the original
source to the final destination
 Functions
 Logical addressing

 Routing

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Network Layer

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Source-to-destination delivery

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Example 2
We want to send data from a node
with network address A and
physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a
network address P and physical
address 95, located on another
LAN. Because the two devices are
located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses
only; the physical addresses only
have local influence. What we
need here are universal addresses
that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical)
addresses have this characteristic.
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Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
 Process-to- process delivery

 Functions

 Port addressing

 Segmentation and reassembly

 Connection control ( Connection-oriented or connection-less)

 Flow control

 Error control
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Transport Layer
Segmentation and reassembly

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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Example 3
Data coming from the
upper layers have port
addresses j and k (j is the
address of the sending
process, and k is the
address of the receiving
process). Since the data size
is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data
are split into two packets,
each packet retaining the
port addresses (j and k).
Then in the network layer,
network addresses (A and
P) are added to each
packet.

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Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

 It establishes, maintains and synchronize the interaction between

communicating system.

 Functions
 Dialog control
 Synchronization (checkpoints)

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Session Layer
Synchronization

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Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two system.

 Functions
 Translation ( EBCDIC-coded text file  ASCII-coded file)
 Encryption and Decryption
 Compression
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Presentation Layer

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Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.

 Functions
 Network virtual terminal (Remote log-in)
 File transfer and access
 Mail services
 Directory services (Distributed Database)
 Accessing the World Wide Web

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Application Layer

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Summary of Layers

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Summary of Layers
OSI Model
Data
Layer Function
unit

User 7. Application Network process to application

support Data 6. Presentation Data representation and encryption
layers
5. Session Inter-host communication
Sender

Receiver
User
Segment 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability
Network
Path determination and logical
Packet 3. Network
Network addressing
support Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission

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Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set
of protocols organized in
different layers) used in the
Internet today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol
made up of interactive modules,
each of which provides a
specific functionality.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite is
defined as five layers.

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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Transmission Media
• Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are
directly controlled by the physical layer.
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination.

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Categories of transmission media

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Guided Media
• Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept
and transport signals in the form of electric current. Fiber-optic cable
accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

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Twisted-Pair Cable
• Twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together.
• The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to
as unshielded twisted pair (UTP). There is also a version of twisted-pair
cable called shielded twisted pair (STP).

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Shielded twisted pair (STP)
• Outdoor
• More Bandwidth
• 100m
• Expensive
• Connectors RJ45

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Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
• Indoor
• Less Bandwidth
• 100m
• Cheap
• Connectors Rj45

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Twisted Pair Cable Categories

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Coaxial Cable
• Half duplex
• Less speed (10mbps)
• Removed from network
• Usage: TV, DTV, VSAT, Security Cameras
• Connectors: BNC, T-type, F-type

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Fiber-Optic Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light.

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Unguided Media
• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without
using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless
transmission.
• In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic
energy can flow easily.

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Unguided media
• Unguided media is broadly classified into three categories:
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared

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Radio waves
• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

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Advantages of Radio waves
• Radio wave is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
• Radio waves provides a higher transmission rate.

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Microwaves
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and receiving antennas need to
be aligned.
• A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of
aligned antennas.

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Infrared
• An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication
over short ranges.
• The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
• It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two
cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and
cell phone resides in the same closed area.

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Characteristics of Infrared
• It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
• An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun
rays will interfere with the infrared waves.

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THE END
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