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Network Models
2-1 LAYERED TASKS
Layer
A grouping of related tasks involving the transfer of information .
Each layer addresses an essential networking tasks
PEER-TO-PEER PROCESS
Peer-to-peer processes
Are the processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer
Between machines layer x communicates with layer x on another machine by protocols
Communication between machines is peer-to-peer processing using the protocols
appropriate to a given layer
The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the
sending device and backup through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by interface between each pair of adjacent layers
Interface defines what info. and services a layer must provide for the layer above it
THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. (theoretical
( model for networks of all
kinds)
OSI reference model, drafted in late 1970s by ISO
By 1983, the draft became ISO Standard 7498
Common framework for developers and students of
networking to work with and learn from
Attempt to develop a working set of protocols and
technologies based on the OSI model and to put those efforts
into common use never materialized
THE OSI MODEL
Model’s foundation
Networking can be separated into a series of related
tasks
Each task can be conceptualized as a single layer, of the
communication process
Reduces complexity of networked communications into series
of interconnected tasks and activities
“Divide and conquer” approach: relationship among tasks
persists, but each can be handled separately, and its issues
solved independently
Reference models and standards enable interoperability among layers
Role of a Reference Model
Computer networking, computer compatibility, and
networking features and functions can be daunting
concepts to grasp
The OSI model and its seven-layer approach to networking provides
this common framework
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
Communication between peer layers is “virtual”
In reality, communications pass up and down the protocol stacks on both
machines
As data gets passed from layer to layer, it’s divided into data units
appropriate for the layer
Protocol data units (PDUs) are passed as a self-contained data structure from
layer to layer
Encapsulation process adds “headers” to allow successful delivery of each layer’s
payload
Decapsulation strips header information on way up
No layer can pass information directly to its peer counterpart except for the
Physical layer
Encapsulation Process
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
Line configuration
Physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media ( point-to point or multipoint)
Physical topology
How devices connected to make a network
Devices can connected by using Star, mesh , bus, ring or hybrid
topology
Transmission mode
It defines the direction of transmission between two devices
(simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex)
Duties of the data link layer
Responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next
Framing
Divide the stream of bits received from network layer into data units
called frames
Physical addressing
Known also as the MAC or link address
Data Link Layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and
receiver of the frame.
If the frame for a system outside the sender’s network the receiver
address : is the address of the connecting device that connects the
network to next one (Router/switch).
Ethernet uses 6-bytes (48-bits) physical address that imprinted on the
NIC
Duties of the data link layer
Flow control
It imposes a flow control mechanism , if the data rate at the receiver is
less than produced by sender the data link layer imposes a flow control
to avoid overwhelming the receiver
Error control
Add mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
Prevent also duplication of frames.
Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of
frame.
Access control
When two or more devices than one devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at given time
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
Example 2.1
A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address
87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the
computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.
MAC addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses will not
TRANSPORT LAYER
Function
Dialog control
Allows two systems to enter into dialog
It allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half-duplex or
full-duplex.
Synchronization
It allows a process to add checkpoints into a stream of data
So that if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints, the layer can
retransmit all data since the last checkpoint.
Presentation layer
Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems
Functions
Translation
At the sender it changes the information from its
sender –dependent format into common format.
At receiving, changes the common format into its
receiver-dependent format
Encryption
To ensure privacy and security
Compression
Data compression reduces the number of bits contained
in the information.
It is important in the transmission of multimedia such
as audio or video
Application layer
Set of interfaces to access networked services
Responsible for providing services to the user
Mail services