OSI 7-Layer Network Architecture

COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. ISO-OSI 7-LAYER NETWORK ARCHITECTURE / OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Explanation:
Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers
all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network.
In the table below, we have specified the protocols used and the data unit exchanged by
each layer of the OSI Model.
Feature of OSI Model

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.
The OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model specifies standards for describing "Open Systems
Interconnection" with the term 'open' chosen to emphasize the fact that by using these
international standards, a system may be defined which is open to all other systems obeying the
same standards throughout the world. The definition of a common technical language has been a
major catalyst to the standardization of communications protocols and the functions of a protocol
layer.
The structure of the OSI architecture is given in the figure above, which indicates
the protocols used to exchange data between two users A and B. The figure shows bidirectional
(duplex) information flow; information in either direction passes through all seven layers at the
end points. When the communication is via a network of intermediate systems, only the lower
three layers of the OSI protocols are used in the intermediate systems.
The communications engineer is concerned mainly with the protocols operating at the
bottom four layers (physical, data link, network, and transport) in the OSI reference model. These
layers provide the basic communications service. The layers above are primarily the concern of
computer scientists who wish to build distributed applications programs using the services
provided by the network.
"Hop-by-Hop" "Network-wide" and "End-to-End" Communication
The two lowest layers operate between adjacent systems connected via the physical link
and are said to work "hop by hop". The protocol control information is removed after each "hop"
across a link (i.e. by each System) and a suitable new header added each time the information is
sent on a subsequent hop.
The network layer (layer 3) operates "network-wide" and is present in all systems and
responsible for overall co-ordination of all systems along the communications path.
The layers above layer 3 operate "end to end" and are only used in the End Systems (ES)
which are communicating. The Layer 4 - 7 protocol control information is therefore unchanged
by the IS in the network and is delivered to the corresponding ES in its original form. Layers 4-7
(if present) in Intermediate Systems (IS) play no part in the end-to-end communication.
Principles of OSI Reference Model
The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that architecture does not
become unwieldly.
Seven layers of the OSI model
OSI model consists of seven layers:
• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network
• Data link
• Physical
Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to Occur.
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and
1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
 Representation of bits
The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with no
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The
physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
 Data rate
The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the physical
layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
 Synchronization of bits
The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at
the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
 Line configuration
The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a point-to-
point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
 Physical topology
The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network. Devices can be
connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to every other device), a star
topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology (each device is
connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common link), or a
hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
 Transmission mode
The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only
receive.
The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can
send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices
can send and receive at the same time.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or
Hardware Layers.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable
link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
Packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address
in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with
its MAC address.
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

 Framing
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing
If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds
a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended
for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that
connects the network to the next one.
 Flow control
If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which data
are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control
The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect
and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
 Access control
When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of
host machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of
the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that
each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting devices
between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-
to-destination delivery.
Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of shortest path to transmit
the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in
the header by network layer.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
 Logical addressing
The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing
problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to
help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the
packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of
the sender and receiver. We discuss logical addresses later in this chapter.
 Routing
When independent networks or links are connected to create intemetworks (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees
source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to
End delivery of the complete message. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if error is found.
• At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and
also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source
and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example,
when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80,
because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default port
assigned.
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
 Service-point addressing
Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason, source-to-
destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a
specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on
the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-
point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the
transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly
A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
 Connection control
The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A connectionless
transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport
layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with
the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the
data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Flow control
Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
 Error control
Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However, error
control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link. The sending
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes,
maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
 Dialog control
The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the communication
between two processes to take place in either halfduplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two
ways at a time) mode.
 Synchronization
The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a
stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page
523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages
previous to 501 need not be resent.
**All the above 3 layers are integrated as a single layer in TCP/IP model as “Application
Layer”.
**Implementation of above 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are
also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
 Translation
The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in
the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit
streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems,
the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding
methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption
To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means
that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting
message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the
message back to its original form.
 Compression
Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text,
audio, and video.
Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and
transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
 Network virtual terminal
A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a user
to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at
the remote host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the
host, and vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals
and allows the user to log on.
 File transfer, access, and management
This application allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read
data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or
control files in a remote computer locally.
 Mail services
This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services
This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.
MCQs
1. OSI stands for
a) open system interconnection
b) operating system interface
c) optical service implementation
d) none of the mentioned
2. The OSI model has _______ layers.

a) 4
b) 5
c) 6
d) 7
3. TCP/IP model does not have ______ layer but OSI model have this layer.
a) session layer
b) transport layer
c) application layer
d) None of the mentioned
4. Which layer links the network support layers and user support layers
a) session layer
b) data link layer
c) transport layer
d) network layer
5. Which address is used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols?

a) physical address and logical address
b) port address
c) specific address
d) all of the mentioned
6. TCP/IP model was developed _____ the OSI model.

a) prior to
b) after
c) simultaneous to
7. Which layer is responsible for process to process delivery?

a) network layer
b) transport layer
c) session layer
d) data link layer
8. Which address identifies a process on a host?

a) physical address
b) logical address
c) port address
d) specific address
9. Which layer provides the services to user?

a) application layer
b) session layer
c) presentation layer
10. Transmission data rate is decided by

a) network layer
b) physical layer
c) data link layer
d) transport layer
11. The physical layer concerns with

a) bit-by-bit delivery
p) process to process delivery
c) application to application delivery
12. Which transmission media has the highest transmission speed in a network?
a) coaxial cable
b) twisted pair cable
c) optical fiber
d) electrical cable
13. Bits can be send over guided and unguided media as analog signal by
a) digital modulation
b) amplitude modulation
c) frequency modulation
d) phase modulation
14. The portion of physical layer that interfaces with the media access control sublayer is called
a) physical signalling sublayer
b) physical data sublayer
c) physical address sublayer
15. physical layer provides

a) mechanical specifications of electrical connectors and cables
b) electrical specification of transmission line signal level
c) specification for IR over optical fiber
16. In asynchronous serial communication the physical layer provides

a) start and stop signalling
b) flow control
c) both start & stop signalling and flow control
17. In asynchronous serial communication the physical layer provides

a) start and stop signalling
b) flow control
c) both start & stop signalling and flow control
18. The physical layer translates logical communication requests from the ______ into hardware
specific operations.
a) data link layer
b) network layer
c) trasnport layer
d) application layer
19. A single channel is shared by multiple signals by

a) analog modulation
b) digital modulation
c) multiplexing
20. Wireless transmission can be done via

a) radio waves
b) microwaves
c) infrared
21. The data link layer takes the packets from _________ and encapsulates them into frames for
transmission.
a) network layer
b) physical layer
c) transport layer
d) application layer
22. Which one of the following task is not done by data link layer?
a) framing
b) error control
c) flow control
d) channel coding
23. Which sublayer of the data link layer performs data link functions that depend upon the type
of medium?
a) logical link control sublayer
b) media access control sublayer
c) network interface control sublayer
24. Header of a frame generally contains
a) synchronization bytes
b) addresses
c) frame identifier
25. Automatic repeat request error management mechanism is provided by

a) logical link control sublayer
b) media access control sublayer
c) network interface control sublayer
26. When 2 or more bits in a data unit has been changed during the transmission, the error is
called
a) random error
b) burst error
c) inverted error
27. CRC stands for

a) cyclic redundancy check
b) code repeat check
c) code redundancy check
d) cyclic repeat check
28. Which one of the following is a data link protocol?

a) ethernet
b) point to point protocol
c) hdlc
29. Which one of the following is the multiple access protocol for channel access control?
a) CSMA/CD
b) CSMA/CA
c) Both CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA
30. The technique of temporarily delaying outgoing outgoing acknowledgements so that they can
be hooked onto the next outgoing data frame is called
a) piggybacking
b) cyclic redundancy check
c) fletcher’s checksum
31. The network layer concerns with

a) bits
b) frames
c) packets
32. Which one of the following is not a function of network layer?

a) routing
b) inter-networking
c) congestion control
33. The 4 byte IP address consists of

a) network address
b) host address
c) both network address & host address
34. In virtual circuit network each packet contains

a) full source and destination address
b) a short VC number
c) only source address
d) only destination address
35. Which one of the following routing algorithm can be used for network layer design?
a) shortest path algorithm
b) distance vector routing
c) link state routing
36. Multidestination routing

a) is same as broadcast routing
b) contains the list of all destinations
c) data is not sent by packets
37. A subset of a network that includes all the routers but contains no loops is called
a) spanning tree
b) spider structure
c) spider tree
38. Which one of the following algorithm is not used for congestion control?
a) traffic aware routing
b) admission control
c) load shedding
39. The network layer protocol of internet is

a) ethernet
b) internet protocol
c) hypertext transfer protocol
40. ICMP is primarily used for

a) error and diagnostic functions
b) addressing
c) forwarding
41. Transport layer aggregates data from different applications into a single stream before
passing it to
a) network layer
b) data link layer
c) application layer
d) physical layer
42. Which one of the following is a transport layer protocol used in networking?
a) TCP
b) UDP
c) Both TCP and UDP
43. User datagram protocol is called connectionless because

a) all UDP packets are treated independently by transport layer
b) it sends data as a stream of related packets
c) it is received in the same order as sent order
44. Transmission control protocol is

a) connection oriented protocol
b) uses a three way handshake to establish a connection
c) recievs data from application as a single stream
45. An endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer network is called

a) socket
b) pipe
c) port
46. Socket-style API for windows is called

a) wsock
b) winsock
c) wins
47. Which one of the following is a version of UDP with congestion control?
a) datagram congestion control protocol
b) stream control transmission protocol
c) structured stream transport
48. A _____ is a TCP name for a transport service access point.

a) port
b) pipe
c) node
49. Transport layer protocols deals with

a) application to application communication
b) process to process communication
c) node to node communication
50. Which one of the following is a transport layer protocol?

a) stream control transmission protocol
b) internet control message protocol
c) neighbor discovery protocol
d) dynamic host configuration protocol
2. TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network model
used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which govern every
possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data
between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer simple naming and
addressing schemes.
TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by
Department of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research
project of network interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP reference
model were:
 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and
destination machines were functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets)
another application running on different computer.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite is the engine for the
Internet and networks worldwide. Its simplicity and power has led to its becoming the single
network protocol of choice in the world today. TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow
cooperating computers to share resources across the network.
This model was initially developed & used by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network). ARPANET was a community of researchers sponsored by the U.S. department of
defense. It connects many universities and government installations using leased telephone
lines .Certainly the ARPAnet is the best- known TCP/IP network.
The most accurate name for the set of protocols is the "Internet protocol suite". TCP and IP
are two of the protocols in this suite. The Internet is a collection of networks. Term "Internet"
applies to this entire set of networks. Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modeled in
layers. This layered representation leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to the stack of
layers in the protocol suite. It can be used for positioning the TCP/IP protocol suite against others
network software like Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
By dividing the communication software into layers, the protocol stack allows for division of
labor, ease of implementation and code testing, and the ability to develop alternative layer
implementations. Layers communicate with those above and below via concise interfaces. In this
regard, a layer provides a service for the layer directly above it and makes use of services
provided by the layer directly below it. For example, the IP layer provides the ability to transfer
data from one host to another without any guarantee to reliable delivery or duplicate
suppression.
What is a Protocol?
Protocol is a set of rules. Thus Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) means it is a set rules
followed to perform the functionalities of Transport Layer. Similalry Internet Protocol means it is
a set of rules followed to perform the functions of Interent layer in the TCP/IP reference model
TCP/IP is a family of protocols.
A few provide "low- level" functions needed for many applications. These include IP, TCP, and
UDP. Others are protocols for doing specific tasks, e.g. transferring files between computers,
sending mail, or finding out who is logged in on another computer. Initially TCP/IP was used
mostly between minicomputers or mainframes. These machines had their own disks, and
generally were self contained.
i) Application Layer
The application layer is provided by the program that uses TCP/IP for communication. An
application is a user process cooperating with another process usually on a different host (there
is also a benefit to application communication within a single host). Examples of applications
include Telnet and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
ii)Transport Layer
The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by delivering data from an
application to its remote peer. Multiple applications can be supported simultaneously. The most-
used transport layer protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides
connection-oriented reliable data delivery, duplicate data suppression, congestion control, and
flow control.
Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol It provides connectionless,
unreliable, best-effort service. As a result, applications using UDP as the transport protocol have
to provide their own end-to-end integrity, flow control, and congestion control, if desired.
Usually, UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate the
loss of some data.
Regardless of the nature of the applications that are exchanging data, there is usually a
requirement that data be exchanged reliably. That is, we would like to be assured that all of the
data arrive at the destination application and that the data arrive in the same order in which they
were sent.
The mechanisms for providing reliability are essentially independent of the nature of the
applications. Thus, it makes sense to collect those mechanisms in a common layer shared by all
applications; this is referred to as the host-to-host layer, or transport layer.
iii)Internetwork Layer
The internetwork layer, also called the internet layer or the network layer, provides the
“virtual network” image of an internet this layer shields the higherlevels from the physical
network architecture below it. Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer.
It is a connectionless protocol that does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does not
provide reliability, flow control, or error recovery.
These functions must be provided at a higher level. IP provides a routing function that
attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their destination. A message unit in an IP network is
called an IP datagram.
This is the basic unit of information transmitted across TCP/IP networks. Other internetwork-
layer protocols are IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP.
iv)Network Interface Layer
The network interface layer, also called the link layer or the data-link layer or Host to
Network Layer, is the interface to the actual network hardware. This interface may or may not
provide reliable delivery, and may be packet or stream oriented.
In fact, TCP/IP does not specify any protocol here, but can use almost any network interface
available, which illustrates the flexibility of the IP layer. Examples are IEEE 802.2, X.25,ATM,
FDDI, and even SNA.TCP/IP specifications do not describe or standardize any network-layer
protocols, they only standardize ways of accessing those protocols from the internet work layer.
Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.
MCQs:
1. Which of the following services use TCP?
DHCP
SMTP
HTTP
TFTP
FTP
A. 1 and 2
B. 2, 3 and 5
C. 1, 2 and 4
D. 1, 3 and 4
2. What layer in the TCP/IP stack is equivalent to the Transport layer of the OSI model?
A. Application
B. Host-to-Host
C. Internet
D. Network Access
3. Which of the following is private IP address?

A. 12.0.0.1
B. 168.172.19.39
C. 172.15.14.36
D. 192.168.24.43
4. TCP is a ………. protocol.

A. stream-oriented
B. message-oriented
C. block-oriented
D. packet-oriented
5. TCP groups a number of bytes together into a packet called a ….

A. user datagram
B. segment
C. datagram
D. packet
6. The ………. of TCP/IP protocol is responsible for figuring out how to get data to its destination.
A. application layer
B. link layer
C. network layer
D. transport layer.
7. TCP is a(n) ……….. transport protocol.

A. protocol delivery
B. reliable
C. best-effort delivery
D. effortless delivery
8.……… is the protocol that hides the underlying physical network by creating a virtual network
view.
A. Internet Protocol(IP)
B. Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
C. Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)
D. Bootstrap Protocol(BOOTP)
9. To use the services of UDP, we need ……… socket addresses.
A. four
B. two
C. three
D. four
10. Which of the following is not the name of Regional Internet Registries(RIR) to administer the
network number portion of IP address.
A. American Registry for Internet Numbers(ARIN)
B. Reseaux IP Europeans(RIPE)
C. Europeans Registry for Internet Numbers(ERIN)
D. Asia Pacific Network Information Center(APNIC)
11. UDP packets are called …….

A. user datagrams
B. segments
C. frames
D. packets
12.………… addresses use 21 bits for the and 8 bits for the portion of the IP address for TCP/IP
network.
A. Class A
B. Class B
C. Class C
D. Class D
13. UDP packets have fixed-size header of ………. bytes.

A. 16
B. 8
C. 32
D. 64
14. ………. messages are never sent in response to datagrams with a broadcast or a multicast
destination address.
A. ICMP
B. ARP
C. IP
D. BOOTP
15. TCP assigns a sequence number to each segment that is being sent. The sequence number for
each segment is number of the ……. byte carried in that segment.
A. first
B. last
C. middle
D. zero
16. ………. is responsible for converting the higher level protocol address (IP addresses) to
physical network addresses.
A. Internet Protocol(IP)
B. Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP)
C. Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)
D. Bootstrap Protocol(BOOTP)
17. UDP and TCP are both ……… layer protocols.

A. data link
B. network
C. transport
D. interface
18. ……….. is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control,
and length information to the data from upper layer.
A. TCP
B. UDP
C. IP
D. ARP
19. Which of the following functions does UDP perform?

A. Process-to-process communication
B. Host-to-host communication
C. End-to-end reliable data delivery
D. Interface-to-interface communication.
20. A port address in TCP/IP is ………bits long.

A. 32
B. 48
C. 16
D. 64
21. When the IP layer of a receiving host receives a datagram, …..

A. delivery is complete
B. a transport layer protocol takes over
C. a header is added
D. a session layer protocol takes over
22. TCP/IP is a ………. hierarchical protocol suite developed before the OSI model.
A. seven-layer
B. five-layer
C. six-layer
D. four-layer
23. Which protocol ensures reliable delivery

A. TCP
B. UDP
C. Both of above
D. None of above
24. TCP/IP suite was created by

A. IEEE
B. Department of defence
C. Open source
D. None of above
25. Which layer of TCP/IP stack is equivalent to transport layer of OSI

A. Application layer
B. Host to Host layer
C. Internet
D. Network access
26. Which layer will be used while transmitting data using FTP or Telnet
A. Presentation
B. Application
C. Session
D. Transport
27. Which protocol uses both TCP and UDP

A. FTP
B. SMTP
C. Telnet
D. DNS
28. Telnet
A. allows user to connect client machine
B. transferring files
C. sharing files
D. none of above
29. Which protocol uses window flow system
A. UDP
B. TCP
C. FTP
D. None of above
30. ICMP works on which layer

A. Physical Layer
B. Datalink Layer
C. Network layer
D. Transport Layer
31. Which of the following is true with respect to TCP

a) Connection-oriented
b) Process-to-process
c) Transport layer protocol
d) All of the mentioned
32. In TCP, sending and receiving data is done as

a) Stream of bytes
b) Sequence of characters
c) Lines of data
d) Packets
33. TCP process may not write and read data at the same speed. So we need __________ for storage.
a) Packets
b) Buffers
c) Segments
d) Stacks
34. TCP groups a number of bytes together into a packet called

a) Packet
b) Buffer
c) Segment
d) Stack
35. Communication offered by TCP is

a) Full-duplex
b) Half-duplex
c) Semi-duplex
d) Byte by byte
36. To achieve reliable transport in TCP, ___________ is used to check the safe and sound arrival of
data.
a) Packet
b) Buffer
c) Segment
d) Acknowledgment
37. To achieve reliable transport in TCP, ___________ is used to check the safe and sound arrival of
data.
a) Packet
b) Buffer
c) Segment
d) Acknowledgment
38. Suppose a TCP connection is transferring a file of 1000 bytes. The first byte is numbered
10001. What is the sequence number of the segment if all data is sent in only one segment.
a) 10000
b) 10001
c) 12001
d) 11001
39. Bytes of data being transferred in each connection are numbered by TCP. These numbers
starts with a
a) Random number
b) Zero
c) One
d) Sequence of zero’s and one’s
40. The value of acknowledgement field in a segment defines

a) Number of previous bytes to receive
b) Total number of bytes to receive
c) Number of next bytes to receive
d) Sequence of zero’s and one’s
41. The receiver of the data controls the amount of data that are to be sent by the sender is
referred as
a) Flow control
b) Error control
c) Congestion control
d) Error detection
42. Size of TCP segment header ranges between
a) 16 and 32 bytes
b) 16 and 32 bits
c) 20 and 60 bytes
d) 20 and 60 bits
43. Connection establishment in TCP is done by which mechanism?

a) Flow control
b) Three-Way Handshaking
c) Forwarding
d) Synchronisation
44. The server program tells its TCP that it is ready to accept a connection. This process is called
a) Active open
b) Active close
c) Passive close
d) Passive open
45. The process of, A client that wishes to connect to an open server tells its TCP that it needs to
be connected to that particular server is
a) Active open
b) Active close
c) Passive close
d) Passive open
46. In Three-Way Handshaking process, the situation where both the TCP’s issue an active open is
a) Mutual open
b) Mutual Close
c) Simultaneous open
d) Simultaneous close
47. Size of source and destination port address of TCP header respectively are
a) 16-bits and 32-bits
b) 16-bits and 16-bits
c) 32-bits and 16-bits
d) 32-bits and 32-bits
48. The last address of IP address represents

a)Unicast address
b) Network address
c) Broadcast address
d) None of above
49. Return value of the UDP port “Chargen” is
a) String of characters
b) String of integers
c) Array of characters with integers
d) Array of zero’s and one’s
50. Beyond IP, TCP provides additional services such as

a) Routing and switching
b) Sending and receiving of packets
c) Multiplexing and demultiplexing
d) Demultiplexing and error checking
3. LAN TECHNOLOGYS | ETHERNET

LAN Technologies | ETHERNET
Local Area Network (LAN) is a data communication network connecting various terminals or
computers within a building or limited geographical area. The connection among the devices
could wired or wireless. Ethernet, Token Ring and Wireless LAN using IEEE 802.11 are examples
of standard LAN technologies.
Ethernet:
Ethernet is most widely used LAN Technology, which is defined under IEEE standards 802.3.
The reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, maintain and
allows low cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of topologies
which are allowed. Ethernet operates in two layers of OSI model, Physical Layer and Data Link
Layer. For Ethernet the protocol data unit is Frame, since we mainly deal with DLL. In order to
handle collision, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.
Manchester Encoding Technique is used in Ethernet.
Since we are talking about IEEE 802.3 standard Ethernet therefore, 0 is expressed by a
high-to-low transition, a 1 by low-to-high transition. In both Manchester Encoding and
Differential Manchester Encoding Baud rate is double of bit rate.
Baud rate = 2* Bit rate
Ethernet LANs consist of network nodes and interconnecting media or link. The
network nodes can be of two types:
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE):-
Generally, DTEs are the end devices that convert the user information into signals or
reconvert the received signals. DTEs devices are : personal computers, workstations, file servers
or print servers also referred to as end stations. These devices are either the source or the
destination of data frames. The data terminal equipment may be a single piece of equipment or
multiple pieces of equipment that are interconnected and perform all the required functions to
allow the user to communicate. A user can interacts to DTE or DTE may be user.
Data Communication Equipment (DCE):-
DCEs are the intermediate network devices that receive and forward frames across the
network. They may be either standalone devices such as repeaters, network switches, routers or
may be communications interface units such as interface cards and modems. The DCE performs
functions such as signal conversion, coding and may be a part of the DTE or intermediate
equipment.
Currently, these data rates are defined for operation over optical fibers and twisted-pair cables:
i) Fast Ethernet
Fast Ethernet refers to an Ethernet network that can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbit/s.
ii) Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet delivers a data rate of 1,000 Mbit/s (1 Gbit/s).
iii) 10 Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet is the recent generation and delivers a data rate of 10 Gbit/s (10,000 Mbit/s).
It is generally used for backbones in high-end applications requiring high data rates.
MCQs:
1. Which of the following cabling techniques is considered best between buildings for
establishing LANs ?
A 10Base5
B 10Base-F
C 10Base2
D None of these
2. For optical fiber used in point to point transmission, the repeater spacing is
A 10-100 km
B 2-10 km
C 1-10 km
D None of these
3. Connections to the thick Ethernet cable are generally made using

A RJ-45
B BNC connectors
C Vampire taps
D None of the above
4. The 10Base-T scheme can support segments of up to

A 500 m
B 100 m
C 200 m
D 50 m
5. Which topology of LAN uses circuit switching ?

A Ring
B Tree
C Star
D None of these
6. The maximum number of nodes per segment supported by 10Base-F is

A 1024
B 512
C 100
D None of these
7.Which of the following topologies cannot be used for a local area network ?
A Star
B Ring
C Bus
D None of the above
8. In a network with 25 computers, which topology would require the most extensive cabling?
A Mesh
B Bus
C Ring
D Star
9. Which device is used to handle carrier detection and collision detection in LANs ?
A Bridge
B Repeater
C Transreceiver
D None of these
10. Which device is used to handle carrier detection and collision detection in LANs ?
A Bridge
B Repeater
C Transreceiver
D None of these
11. Switches are

A Limited to small data networks
B Inefficient
C Are not used presently
D Better than hub
12. For establishing LANs between building, which of the following cabling techniques is
considered best:
A 10Base5
B 10Base2
C 10Base-F
D 10Base-T
13. IEEE 802.5 is ____________

A Token bus
B Ethernet
C Token ring
D Voice data transmissions
14. A conventional LAN bridge specifies only the functions of

A Layers 1 and 2
B Layers 1 through 3
C All layers
D None of these
15. Which of the following device copies electrical signals from one Ethernet to another?
A Bridge
B Repeater
C Hub
D Passive hub
16. Which of the following items is not used in Local Area Networks (LANs) ?
A Computer
B Modem
C Printer
D Cable
17. Which of the following device is used to connect two systems, especially if the systems use
different protocols ?
A Hub
B Bridge
C Gateway
D Repeater
18. A device that links two homogeneous packet broadcast local networks, is
A Hub
B Bridge
C Repeater
D Gateway
19. Network topology, consisting of modes attached in a ring without a host computer, is known
as
A Star
B Bus
C Ring
D None of the above
20. Which out of the following topologies is the most reliable ?

A Ring
B Star
C Bus
D None of the above
21. Ethernet uses

A Ring topology
B Tree topology
C Bus topology
D None of the above
22. In a network with 25 computer, which one of the following topologies would require the least
cabling ?
A Mesh topology
B Star topology
C Bus topology
D Ring topology
23. Which topology requires a central controller or hub ?

A Mesh topology
B Star topology
C Bus topology
D Ring topology
24. The speed of Ethernet is

A 64 Kbps
B 64 Mbps
C 10 Kbps
D 10 Mbps
25. Which topology requires a central controller or hub?

a.Mesh
b.Star
c.Bus
d.Ring
26. Which topology requires a multipoint connection?

a.Mesh
b.Star
c.Bus
d.Ring
27. Multipoint topology is

a.Bus
b.Star
c.Mesh
d.Ring
28. ATM technology supports different types of connections between

A. two end users
B. A number of Organizations
C. Worldwide
D. All of the Above
29. If address field of a Frame Relay frame is 101100000101001, this is

A. Not Valid
B. valid
C. Both A & B
D. None
30. Frame Relay networks offer an option called

A. Voice Over For Relay
B. Voice Over Fine Relay
C. Voice On Frame Relay
D. Voice Over Frame Relay
31. Ethernet frame consists of

a) MAC address
b) IP address
c) both MAC address and IP address
32. What is stat frame delimeter (SFD) in ethernet frame?

a) 10101010
b) 10101011
c) 00000000
d) 11111111
33. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers within a ____________ (choose two)
a) limited area
b) Building
c) Country
d) across different Cities
34. A device that connects different computers on LAN.

a) Switch
b) router
c) repeater
d) SVI
35. Normally cables those can be used in LAN are __________ (Choose Two)
a) coaxial cable
b) twisted pair
c) fiber
d) none
36. ______________ is by far the most commonly used LAN technology.

a) Server
b) Client
c) Ethernet
d) none
37. Designated port is a ____ port for every LAN segment

a) Forwarding
b) blocking
c) root
d) none
38. which Technology is used for collision detect in Local Area Network
a) CSMA/CD
b) CDMA
c) GSM
d) 3G
39. In token networks, a special network frame called a __________is passed around the network
from device to device.
a) token
b) packet
c) none
d) ring
40. A 100-Mbps Ethernet segment is capable of transmitting __________ of data, but only 100 Mbps
can travel in one direction at a time.
a) 200 Mbps
b) 100 Mbps
c) 50 Mbps
d) 90 Mbps
41. A _________ consists of a single packet that is copied and sent to all nodes on the network
a) broadcast
b) unicast
c) multicast
d) none
42. A ____________ is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of computer connected to each
others by one direction ;transmission links to form a single closed loop
a) ring topology
b) bus topology
c) Star
d) vlan
43. A _________is a physical layer device used to connect the media segments of an extended
network
a) router
b) repeater
c) hub
d) Switch
44. Computer network that spans a limited physical area, usually ranging from a small office to a building
is known as
A. LAN
B. WAN
C. MAN
D. PAN
45. Computer network which spans a large physical area, connecting several sites of an organization
across cities, countries and continents is known as
A. LAN
B. MAN
C. WAN
D. PAN
46. __________ uses four twisted pairs.

A) 1000Base-LX
B) 1000Base-T
C) 1000Base-SX
D) none of the above
47. 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, and 1000Base-CX use _________ block coding and ________ line
coding.
A) 8B/10B; NRZ
B) 4B/5B; NRZ
C) 8B/10B; MLT-3
D) 4B/5B; MLT-3
48. _________ uses two fiber-optic cables.

A) 100Base-FX
B) 100Base-T4
C) 100Base-TX
49. __________ uses two optical fibers and a short-wave laser source.
A) 1000Base-LX
B) 1000Base-SX
C) 1000Base-T
50. What is the hexadecimal equivalent of the Ethernet address 01011010 00010001 01010101

00011000 10101010 00001111?
A) 5A:81:BA:81:AA:0F
B) 5A:11:55:18:AA:0F
C) 5A:88:AA:18:55:F0
D) 5A:18:5A:18:55:0F
51. In Ethernet addressing, if all the bits are 1s, the address is _________.
A) multicast
B) broadcast
C) unicast
52. If an Ethernet destination address is 07:01:02:03:04:05, then this is a ______ address.

A) broadcast
B) unicast
C) multicast
D) any of the above
53. Each station on an Ethernet network has a unique _______ address imprinted on its network
interface card (NIC).
A) 48-bit
B) 32-bit
C) 5-byte
54. Gigabit Ethernet has a data rate of ________Mbps.

A) 10,000
B) 1000
C) 100
D) 10
55. In the Ethernet frame, the _______ field contains error detection information.
A) address
B) preamble
C) CRC
56. What is autonegotiation?

a) a procedure by which two connected devices choose common transmission parameters
b) a security algorithm
c) a routing algorithm
57. Ethernet in metropolitan area network (MAN) can be used as

a) pure ethernet
b) ethernet over SDH
c) ethernet over MPLS
58. A point-to-point protocol over ethernet is a network protocol for

a) encapsulating PPP frames inside ethernet frames
b) encapsulating ehternet framse inside PPP frames
c) for security of ethernet frames
d) for security of PPP frames
59. High speed ethernet works on
a) coaxial cable
b) twisted pair cable
c) optical fiber
60. The maximum size of payload field in ethernet frame is

a) 1000 bytes
b) 1200 bytes
c) 1300 bytes
d) 1500 bytes
61. What is interframe gap?

a) idle time between frames
b) idle time between frame bits
c) idle time between packets
62. An ethernet frame that is less than the IEEE 802.3 minimum length of 64 octets is called
a) short frame
b) run frame
c) mini frame
d) man frame
4. WIRELESS LANS
In computing, Wireless LAN or Wireless Local Area Network is a term to refer to a Local Area
Network that does not need cables to connect the different devices. Instead, radio waves and
IEEE 802.11 are used to communicate. The stations of the wireless network can communicate
directly with each other, we called Ad Hoc network type, or via relay terminals called APs (Access
Points, PA) then it is an infrastructure network. The second type is by far the most common in
business.
There are two types of wireless networks:
• Type networks Ad Hoc, where stations communicate directly;
• Infrastructure type networks where stations communicate through access points.
To communicate, each station must of course be equipped with an adapter WiFi and a
radio antenna (often integrated into the adapter). More and more computer equipment come
with a built-in WiFi adapter. Except not the case, you must buy one and connect it to the station.
The connection is very varied: there are WiFi USB adapters, PCMCIA, PCI, etc.
There are several variations of WiFi. In short, 802.11b and 802.11g are compatible them and both
operate with the radio waves of a frequency of 2.4 GHz. The 802.11b reached a speed of 11 Mb / s
and 802.11g rises to 54 Mb / s. The 802.11a is not compatible with 802.11b and 802.11g, because
it works with the waves a radio frequency of 5 GHz. It can reach 54 Mb / s. The 802.11n allows to
achieve a real flow rate greater than 100 Mb / s. It is capable of operating at 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz and
is compatible with the 802.11b / g and 802.11a. Unfortunately, most 802.11n equipment
available today use only tape 2.4 GHz (and are therefore not compatible with the 802.11a).
Today the WiFi version of the most used is far 802.11g. It should be rapidly overtaken by
802.11n.
The fact that WiFi is originally designed to perform WLAN does not prevent not also be
used in other contexts. For example, a myriad of products, such as electronic organizers (PDAs)
or Personal Data Assistant (PDAs), printers, computer monitors, VCRs or even Hi-Fi, are now
equipped with WiFi connections allowing them to be linked together without any wire. In this
case, the WLAN is used to achieve a WPAN. Conversely, many local authorities do not have access
to top speed (ADSL is not available everywhere) are turning to WiFi to cover a town or towns
with the same wireless network. This can be called Wireless MAN (WMAN).
Finally, companies are deploying wireless networks, called hotspots1 that allow anyone to
connect to the Internet wirelessly slightly across the US and around the world. So one sees now
what might be called WWAN (Wireless Wide Area Networks) based on WiFi technology (WiFi
technology itself, however, carries data over short distances).
802.11 Architecture
The 802.11architecture defines two types of services and three different types of stations
802.11 Services
The two types of services are
1. Basic services set (BSS)
2. Extended Service Set (ESS)
1. Basic Services Set (BSS)
• The basic services set contain stationary or mobile wireless stations and a central base
station called access point (AP).
• The use of access point is optional.
• If the access point is not present, it is known as stand-alone network. Such a
BSS cannot send data to other BSSs. This type of architecture is known as adhoc
architecture.
• The BSS in which an access point is present is known as an infrastructure network.
2. Extend Service Set (ESS)
• An extended service set is created by joining two or more basic service sets (BSS) having
access points (APs).
• These extended networks are created by joining the access points of basic services sets
through a wired LAN known as distribution system.
• The distribution system can be any IEET LAN.
• There are two types of stations in ESS:
(i) Mobile stations: These are normal stations inside a BSS.
(ii) Stationary stations: These are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN.
• Communication between two stations in two different BSS usually occurs via two APs.
• A mobile station can belong to more than one BSS at the same time.
802.11 Station Types
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations on the basis of their mobility in wireless LAN.
These are:
1. No-transition Mobility
2. BSS-transition Mobility
3. ESS-transition Mobility
1. No-transition .Mobility: These types of stations are either stationary i.e. immovable or
move only inside a BSS.
2. BSS-transition mobility: These types of stations can move from one BSS to another but
the movement is limited inside an ESS.
3. ESS-transition mobility: These types of stations can move from one ESS to another.
The communication mayor may not be continuous when a station moves from one ESS to
another ESS.
Physical layer functions
• As we know that physical layer is responsible for converting data stream into signals, the
bits of 802.11 networks can be converted to radio waves or infrared waves.
• These are six different specifications of IEEE 802.11. These implementations, except the
first one, operate in industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band. These three banks are
unlicensed and their ranges are
1.902-928 MHz
2.2.400-4.835 GHz
3.5.725-5.850 GHz
Benefits of Wireless LANs
 People can access the network from where they want; they are no longer limited by the
length of the cable
 Some places and vehicles have a Wireless LAN hotspot. This lets people access the internet
even outside their normal work environment, for example in a restaurant or train.
 Setting up a wireless LAN can be done with one box called wireless access point or
wireless router. This box can handle many connections at the same time. Wired networks
require cables to be laid. This can be difficult for certain places.
 Access points can serve a varying number of computers.
Disadvantages of Wireless LANs
 Wireless LANs use radio waves to communicate. Special care needs to be taken to encrypt
information.
 The signal is noisier than on wires, and more bandwidth needs to be spent on error
correction.
 A typical IEEE 802.11 access point has A range of meters from where devices can connect.
To extend the range more access points are needed.
 There are many reliability problems, especially those connected to interference from
other devices.
 Wireless LANs are much slower than wired ones; this may not matter for most users
though, because the bottleneck in a home network is usually the speed of the ADSL line or
other Internet connection.
Technologies used
Today, most technologies used for WLANs use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
This means that several frequencies are used at the same time. Signals that are close to each
other, but that belong to different channels do not disturb each other, as they use different coding
schemes. Depending on the material used, it is possible to cover between 30 metres and 100
metres indoors; outdoors, the range is about 100-300m, if there are no obstacles.
MCQs:
1. What is the access point (AP) in wireless LAN?
a) device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network
b) wireless devices itself
c) both device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network and wireless devices
itself
2.What is the access point (AP) in wireless LAN?

a) device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network
b) wireless devices itself
c) both device that allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network and wireless devices
itself
3. Which multiple access technique is used by IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless LAN?
a) CDMA
b) CSMA/CA
c) ALOHA
4. In wireless distribution system

a) multiple access point are inter-connected with each other
b) there is no access point
c) only one access point exists
5. A wireless network interface controller can work in

a) infrastructure mode
b) ad-hoc mode
c) both infrastructure mode and ad-hoc mode
6. In wireless network an extended service set is a set of
a) connected basic service sets
b) all stations
c) all access points
7. Mostly ________ is used in wireless LAN.

a) time division multiplexing
b) orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
c) space division multiplexing
8. Which one of the following event is not possible in wireless LAN.

a) collision detection
b) acknowledgement of data frames
c) multi-mode data transmission
9. Which one of the following event is not possible in wireless LAN.

a) collision detection
b) acknowledgement of data frames
c) multi-mode data transmission
10. What is WPA?

a) wi-fi protected access
b) wired protected access
c) wired process access
d) wi-fi process access
11. What is the frequency range of the IEEE 802.11a standard?

A. 2.4Gbps
B. 5Gbps
C. 2.4GHz
D. 5GHz
12. What is the maximum distance running the lowest data rate for 802.11b?
A. About 100 feet
B. About 175 feet
C. About 300 feet
D. About 350 feet
13. What is the maximum distance with maximum data rate for 802.11a?
A. About 65-75 feet
B. About 90-100 feet
C. About 150 feet
D. Over 200 feet
14. What is the frequency range of the IEEE 802.11b standard?

A. 2.4Gbps
B. 5Gbps
C. 2.4GHz
D. 5GHz
15. You have a Cisco mesh network. What protocol allows multiple APs to connect with many
redundant connections between nodes?
A. LWAPP
B. AWPP
C. STP
D. IEEE
16. What is the maximum data rate for the 802.11g standard?
A. 6Mbps
B. 11Mbps
C. 22Mbps
D. 54Mbps
17. What is the maximum data rate for the 802.11a standard?
A. 6Mbps
B. 11Mbps
C. 22Mbps
D. 54Mbps
18. How many non-overlapping channels are available with 802.11b?

A. 3
B. 12
C. 23
D. 40
19. How many non-overlapping channels are available with 802.11a?

A. 3
B. 12
C. 23
D. 40
20. In Cisco's Unified Wireless Solution, what is the split-MAC architecture?
A. The split-MAC architecture uses MAC addresses to create a forward/filter table and break
up collision domains.
B. The split-MAC architecture allows the splitting of 802.11 protocol packets between
the AP and the controller to allow processing by both devices.
C. The split-MAC architecture uses MAC addresses on the wireless network and IP addresses
on the wired network.
D. The split-MAC architecture uses MAC addresses to create a forward/filter table and break
up broadcast domains.
21. What is the maximum distance with maximum data rate for 802.11b?
A. About 65-75 feet
C. About 150 feet
D. Over 200 feet
22. What is the maximum distance with maximum data rate for 802.11g?
A. About 65-75 feet
C. About 150 feet
D. Over 200 feet
23. What is the maximum distance running the lowest data rate for 802.11a?
A. About 100 feet
B. About 175 feet
C. About 300 feet
D. About 350 feet
24. How many non-overlapping channels are available with 802.11h?

A. 3
B. 12
C. 23
D. 40
25. What is the maximum data rate for the 802.11b standard?
A. 6Mbps
B. 11Mbps
C. 22Mbps
D. 54Mbps
26. You are connecting your access point and it is set to root. What does Extended Service Set ID
mean?
A. That you have more than one access point and they are in the same SSID connected
by a distribution system.
B. That you have more than one access point and they are in separate SSIDs connected by a
distribution system.
C. That you have multiple access points, but they are placed physically in different buildings.
D. That you have multiple access points, but one is a repeater access point.
27. Cisco's Unified Wireless Solution provides a mesh solution. What devices do you absolutely
need to purchase to run a Cisco solution?
1. WCS
2. Controller
3. Access point
4. Bridge
A. 1 and 2
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 4 only
D. 4 only
28. What is the frequency range of the IEEE 802.11g standard?

A. 2.4Gbps
B. 5Gbps
C. 2.4GHz
D. 5GHz
29. How many non-overlapping channels are available with 802.11g?

A. 3
B. 12
C. 23
D. 40
30. What is the maximum distance running the lowest data rate for 802.11g?
A. About 100 feet
B. About 175 feet
C. About 300 feet
D. About 350 feet
31. Which label hierarchy exhibits the zero value of S-bit except the last bit with value equal to
unity?
a. Label Push
b. Label Pop
c. Label Stack
d. LSP hierarchy
32. Which scheme/ strategy is suitable to establish the communication between the access point
(AP) and the infrastructure of LANs?
a. Wired
b. Wireless
c. Both a & b
d. Cannot Predict
33. What conclusion can be drawn if the collision is detected in CSMA/CD algorithm while
controlling the access in wireless LANs?
a. Non-reception of frame & necessity of retransmission
b. No necessity of working in duplex mode for the host
c. No necessity to prevent the signal fading
d. All of the above
34. Which among the following represents the building blocks of wireless LANs?
a. BSS
b. ESS
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above
35. Which method of multiple secondary communication in TDMA is acquired/adopted by

bluetooth especially where data integrity becomes more crucial than avoiding latency?
a. Synchronous Connection-Oriented (SCO) Link
b. Asynchronous Connectionless Link (ACL)
c. Both a & b
d. None of the above
36. Which protocol performs the functional operation of breaking the frames into several cells in
an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)?
a. Physical Layer
b. ATM Layer
c. ATM Adaptation Layer
d. All of the above
37. Which among the below illustrations represents the variable bit rate type of ATM?
a. Telephony speech without silencer
b. Compressed voice/ video with silence suppression
c. Equivalent sharing of bandwidth between the links
d. All of the above
38. What is/are the functions of Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR) sublayer in an ATM
adaptation layer?
A. Provision of an interface to the application
B. Addition of headers and trailers to data units for cell payload formation
C. Smoothening of an incoming traffic
D. Detection of lost and misinserted cells
a. A ,B & C
b. B,C & D
c. Only B
d. Only C
39. Which among the AAL protocol/s allow/s the CS checksum of about 32 bits?
A. AAL-1
B. AAL-2
C. AAL-3/4
D. AAL-5
a. A & B
b. C & D
c. Only C
d. Only D
40. BSS stands for

A. Basic Signal Set
B. Basic Service Set
C. Beacon Service Set
D. Basic Strong Set
41. Frames that are used for initial communication between stations and access points are called
A. Control frames
B. Data frames
C. Beacon Frame
D. Management Frames
42. A piconet network can have up to

A. 9 Station
B. 8 Station
C. 7 Station
D. 6 Station
43. Maximum size of payload field in baseband layer is

A. 2244 Bits
B. 2664 Bits
C. 2774 Bits
D. 2884 Bits
44. Multiple piconets form a network called a

A. small area
B. scatter net
C. network allocation vector
D. gadgets
45. A small net can have only one primary

A. Frame
B. Data
C. Signal
D. Station
46. Bluetooth is a wireless

A. WAN technology
B. MAN technology
C. LAN technology
D. All of the above
47. Bluetooth technology was originally started as a project by the

A. Apple Company
B. Dell Company
C. Ericsson Company
D. Samsung Company
48. 4-bit type subfield of baseband layer frame defines type of data coming from the
A. Lower Layer
B. upper layer
C. data link layer
D. Media Access Control layer
49. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is similar to

A. TDM
B. FSD
C. BPS
D. FDM
50. Range of Bluetooth devices are

A. Low power
B. High power
C. No power
D. static power
51. Modern Bluetooth is implementation of protocol, defined by

A. IEEE 802.11 standard
B. IEEE 802.12 standard
C. IEEE 802.14 standard
D. IEEE 802.15 standard
5. TOKEN RING
Token Ring local area network (LAN) technology is a communications protocol for local
area networks. It uses a special three-byte frame called a "token" that travels around a logical
"ring" of workstations or servers. This token passing is a channel access method providing
fair access for all stations, and eliminating the collisions of contention-based access methods.
Introduced by IBM in 1984, it was then standardized with protocol IEEE 802.5 and was fairly
successful, particularly in corporate environments, but gradually eclipsed by the later
versions of Ethernet.
 Token Ring access is more deterministic, compared to Ethernet's contention-
based CSMA/CD
 Token ring does not inherently support this feature and requires additional software and
hardware to operate on a direct cable connection setup. [11]
 Token Ring eliminates collision by the use of a single-use token and early token release to
alleviate the down time.
 Token Ring network interface cards contain all of the intelligence required for speed
autodetection, routing and can drive themselves on many Multistation Access Units
(MAUs) that operate without power (most MAUs operate in this fashion, only requiring a
power supply for LEDs).
 Multiple identical MAC addresses are supported on Token Ring (a feature used
by S/390 mainframes).
 Token Ring was more complex than Ethernet, requiring a specialized processor and
licensed MAC/LLC firmware for each interface. The cost of a Token Ring interface using
the Texas Instruments TMS380C16 MAC and PHY was approximately three times that of
an Ethernet interface using the Intel 82586 MAC and PHY.
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring:
Token ring is the IEEE 802.5 standard for a token-passing ring in Communication
networks. A ring consists of a collection of ring interfaces connected by point-to-point
lines i.e. ring interface of one station is connected to the ring interfaces of its left station as
well as right station. Internally, signals travel around the Communication network from
one station to the next in a ring.
These point-to-point links can be created with twisted pair, coaxial cable or fiber
optics. Each bit arriving at an interface is copied into a 1-bit buffer. In this buffer the bit is
checked and may be modified and is then copied out to the ring again. This copying of bit
in the buffer introduces a 1-bit delay at each interface.
Token Ring is a LAN protocol defined in the IEEE 802.5 where all stations are
connected in a ring and each station can directly hear transmissions only from its
immediate neighbor. Permission to transmit is granted by a message (token) that
circulates around the ring. A token is a special bit pattern (3 bytes long). There is only one
token in the network.
Token-passing networks move a small frame, called a token, around the network.
Possession of the token grants the right to transmit. If a node receiving the token in order
to transmit data, it seizes the token, alters 1 bit of the token (which turns the token into a
start-of-frame sequence), appends the information that it wants to transmit, and sends
this information to the next station on the ring. Since only one station can possess the
token and transmit data at any given time, there are no collisions.
There are two operating modes of ring interfaces. There are listen and transmit. In
listen mode, the input bits are simply copied to output with a delay of 1- bit time. In
transmit mode the connection between input and output is broken by the interface so that
is can insert its own data. The station comes in transmit mode when it captures the token.
The frames are acknowledged by the destination in a very simple manner. The
sender sends frames to receiver with ACK bit 0. The receiver on receiving frames, copies
data into its buffer, verifies the checksum and set the ACK bit to 1. The verified frames
come back to sender, where they are removed from the ring.
The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the intended destination
station, which copies the information for further processing. The information frame
continues to circle the ring and is finally removed when it reaches the sending station. The
sending station can check the returning frame to see whether the frame was seen and
subsequently copied by the destination.
A station can hold a token for a specific duration of time. During this time, it has to
complete its transmission and regenerates the token in ring. Whenever a station finishes
its transmissions, the other station grabs the token and starts its own transmission.
Priority System
Token Ring networks provide a user-configurable priority system that allows
stations that are designated as having a high-priority to use the network more frequently.
Token Ring frames have two fields that control priority - the priority field, and
the reservation field. Only stations with a priority equal to, or higher than, the value
contained in a token's priority field can acquire the token. Once the token is in use, only
stations with a priority value higher than that of the transmitting station can reserve the
token for the next pass around the network. When the next token is generated, it is set to
the priority of the reserving station. Any station that raises the token's priority level must
restore it to the previous level after use.
Fault Management
One station (it can be any station on the network) is selected to be the active
monitor. The active monitor acts as a central source of timing information for the other
stations on the network, and performs various maintenance functions, including making
sure that there is always a token available on the network. The active monitor also sets
the monitor bit on any data or command frame it encounters on the ring so that, in the
event that a sending device fails after transmitting a frame, the frame can be prevented
from circling the ring endlessly and thereby denying access to the network for other
stations. If the active monitor receives a frame with the monitor bit already set, it removes
the frame from the ring and generates a new token.
The use of a multi station access unit (or wiring center) in a star topology
contributes to network reliability, since these devices can be configured to check for
problems and remove faulty stations from the ring if necessary. A Token Ring algorithm
called beaconing can be used to detect certain types of network fault. When a station
detects a serious problem on the network (a cable break, for example), it transmits
a beacon frame which initiates an auto-reconfiguration process. Stations that receive a
beacon frame perform diagnostic procedures and attempt to reconfigure the network
around the failed areas. Much of this reconfiguration process can be handled internally by
the MSAU. The MSAU contains relays that switch a computer into the ring when it is
turned on, or out of the ring when the computer is powered off. A MSAU has a number of
ports to which network devices can be connected, a ring-out port allowing the unit to be
connected to another MSAU, and a ring-in port that can accept an incoming connection
from another MSAU. A number of MSAUs can thus be connected together in daisy-chain
fashion to create a larger network. The ring-out port of the last MSAU in the chain must be
connected back to the ring-in port of the first MSAU.
Token Frame Fields
The three token frame fields illustrated in Figure 9-3 are summarized in the descriptions
that follow:
 Start delimiter - Alerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame).
This field includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating
the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame.
 Access-control byte - Contains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the
Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a
token from a data/command frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to
determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly).
 End delimiter - Signals the end of the token or data/command frame. This field also
contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a logical
sequence.
Data/Command Frame Fields
Data/command frames have the same three fields as Token Frames, plus several others.
The Data/command frame fields illustrated in Figure 9-3 are described in the following
summaries:
 Start delimiter - Alerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame).
This field includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating
the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame.
 Access-control byte - Contains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the
Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a
token from a data/command frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to
determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly).
 Frame-control bytes - Indicates whether the frame contains data or control information.
In control frames, this byte specifies the type of control information.
 Destination and source addresses - Consists of two 6-byte address fields that identify
the destination and source station addresses.
 Data - Indicates that the length of field is limited by the ring token holding time, which
defines the maximum time a station can hold the token.
 Frame-check sequence (FCS) - Is filed by the source station with a calculated value
dependent on the frame contents. The destination station recalculates the value to
determine whether the frame was damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded.
 End Delimiter - Signals the end of the token or data/command frame. The end delimiter
also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a
logical sequence.
 Frame Status - Is a 1-byte field terminating a command/data frame. The Frame Status
field includes the address-recognized indicator and frame-copied indicator.
MCQs:
1. IEEE 802.5 is ____________
A Token bus
B Ethernet
C Token ring
D Voice data transmissions
2. A conventional LAN bridge specifies only the functions of

A Layers 1 and 2
B Layers 1 through 3
C All layers
D None of these
3. Which of the following device copies electrical signals from one Ethernet to another?
A Bridge
B Repeater
C Hub
D Passive hub
4. Token Ring uses a _______ to pass a stream of data in a network.

A. Full duplex
B. Broadcast
C. Baton
D. Token
5. Token Ring employs this mechanism for detecting and compensating for network faults and multiple
tokens in a Token Ring network.
A. Multicast
B. FDDI
C. Active monitor
D. Ethernet
6. Consider a token ring network with a length of 2 km having 10 stations including a monitoring
station. The propagation speed of the signal is 2 × 108 m/s and the token transmission time is
ignored. If each station is allowed to hold the token for 2 μsec, the minimum time for which the
monitoring station should wait (in μsec)before assuming that the token is lost is _______.
(A) 28 to 30
(B) 20 to 22
(C) 0 to 2
(D) 31 to 33
7. In the diagram shown below L1 is an Ethernet LAN and L2 is a Token-Ring LAN. An IP packet
originates from sender S and traverses to R, as shown. The link within each ISP, and across two
ISPs, are all point to point optical links. The initial value of TTL is 32. The maximum possible
value of TTL field when R receives the datagram is
(A) 25
(B) 24
(C) 26
(D) 28
8. Consider a token ring topology with N stations (numbered 1 to N) running token ring protocol
where the stations are equally spaced. When a station gets the token it is allowed to send one
frame of fixed size. Ring latency is t p, while the transmission time of a frame is t t. All other
latencies can be neglected.
The maximum utilization of the token ring when tt =3 ms, tp = 5 ms, N = 10 is
(A) 0.545
(B) 0.6
(C) 0.857
(D) 0.961
9. Consider a token ring topology with N stations (numbered 1 to N) running token ring protocol
where the stations are equally spaced. When a station gets the token it is allowed to send one
frame of fixed size. Ring latency is t p, while the transmission time of a frame is t t. All other
latencies can be neglected.
The maximum utilization of the token ring when tt = 5 ms, tp = 3 ms, N = 15 is :
(A) 0.545
(B) 0.655
(C) 0.9375
(D) 0.961
10. Consider a 10 Mbps token ring LAN with a ring latency of 400 µs. A host that needs to
transmit seizes the token. Then it sends a frame of 1000 bytes, removes the frame after it has
circulated all around the ring, and finally releases the token. This process is repeated for every
frame. Assuming that only a single host wishes to transmit, the effective data rate is
(A) 1Mbps
(B) 2Mbps
(C) 5Mbps
(D) 6Mbps
11. Which type of network topology uses tokens?

a)Bus
b)Star
c) Ring
d) All of the above

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COMPUTER NETWORKS

1. ISO-OSI 7-LAYER NETWORK ARCHITECTURE / OSI REFERENCE MODEL

Feature of OSI Model

The OSI Reference Model

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

2. The OSI model has _______ layers.

5. Which address is used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols?

6. TCP/IP model was developed _____ the OSI model.

7. Which layer is responsible for process to process delivery?

8. Which address identifies a process on a host?

9. Which layer provides the services to user?

10. Transmission data rate is decided by

11. The physical layer concerns with

15. physical layer provides

16. In asynchronous serial communication the physical layer provides

17. In asynchronous serial communication the physical layer provides

19. A single channel is shared by multiple signals by

20. Wireless transmission can be done via

25. Automatic repeat request error management mechanism is provided by

27. CRC stands for

28. Which one of the following is a data link protocol?

31. The network layer concerns with

32. Which one of the following is not a function of network layer?

33. The 4 byte IP address consists of

34. In virtual circuit network each packet contains

36. Multidestination routing

39. The network layer protocol of internet is

40. ICMP is primarily used for

43. User datagram protocol is called connectionless because

44. Transmission control protocol is

45. An endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer network is called

46. Socket-style API for windows is called

48. A _____ is a TCP name for a transport service access point.

49. Transport layer protocols deals with

50. Which one of the following is a transport layer protocol?

Merits of TCP/IP model

3. Which of the following is private IP address?

4. TCP is a ………. protocol.

5. TCP groups a number of bytes together into a packet called a ….

7. TCP is a(n) ……….. transport protocol.

11. UDP packets are called …….

13. UDP packets have fixed-size header of ………. bytes.

17. UDP and TCP are both ……… layer protocols.

19. Which of the following functions does UDP perform?

20. A port address in TCP/IP is ………bits long.

21. When the IP layer of a receiving host receives a datagram, …..

23. Which protocol ensures reliable delivery

24. TCP/IP suite was created by

25. Which layer of TCP/IP stack is equivalent to transport layer of OSI

27. Which protocol uses both TCP and UDP

30. ICMP works on which layer

31. Which of the following is true with respect to TCP

32. In TCP, sending and receiving data is done as

34. TCP groups a number of bytes together into a packet called

35. Communication offered by TCP is

40. The value of acknowledgement field in a segment defines

43. Connection establishment in TCP is done by which mechanism?

48. The last address of IP address represents

50. Beyond IP, TCP provides additional services such as

3. LAN TECHNOLOGYS | ETHERNET

3. Connections to the thick Ethernet cable are generally made using

4. The 10Base-T scheme can support segments of up to