CECS 474 Computer Network Interoperability

CHAPTER 1
Network Protocols

Tracy Bradley Maples, Ph.D.

Computer Engineering & Computer Science
Cal ifornia State University, Long Beach

Notes for Douglas E. Comer, Computer Networks and Internets (5th Edition)
Protocol Suites and Layering Models
Defn: Protocols are agreements about how communication should take place.

They specify:
• Format of messages
• Meaning of messages
• Rules for exchanging messages
• Procedures for handling problems

Network hardware functions at a very low level.

Hardware related problems can occur that need to be addressed by protocols:

• Bits can be corrupted or destroyed
• Entire packets can be lost
• Packets can be duplicated
• Packets can be delivered out of order

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Protocols can also be used to distinguish among:
• Multiple computers on a network
• Multiple applications on a computer
• Multiple copies of a single application on a computer

Sets of Protocols
• Sets of protocols are designed to work together.
• Each protocol solves a small part of the communications problem
• Sets of protocols are known as:
-- Protocol Suites
-- Protocol families
• They are designed in layers.

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Protocol Design
• Protocols are divided into layers
• Each layer is devoted to one sub-problem

Example: The ISO (International Standards

Organization) OSI (Open System Interconnection) 7-
layer Reference Model
The OSI 7-Layer Model
The 7-Layer Model:
• Was defined fairly early in the development of networks
• Is now somewhat dated
• Does not include the internet layer

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The OSI 7-Layers

Layer 1: Physical Layer 5: Session

• The underlying hardware • Login and passwords

Layer 2: Data Link (media access) Layer 6: Presentation

• Hardware frame definitions • Data representation

Layer 3: Network Layer 7: Application

• Packet forwarding • Individual application programs

Layer 4: Transport
• Reliability

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The Layering Model
Protocol software follows the
layering model, with:
• One software module per layer
• Modules that work together
• Incoming or outgoing data
passing from one module to
another

The entire set of protocol

layers (or modules) is known
as a stack.

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Layers and Packet Headers

Each layer:
• Prepends a header to the outgoing packet
• Removes a header from the incoming packet

This process is known as data encapsulation.

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Layering Principle
Software implementing layer N at the destination receives exactly the message sent
by software implementing layer N at the source. --Comer

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TCP/IP Layering

Notwithstanding the push by researchers to adopt the OSI model, it became clear
that TCP/IP was technically more flexible and superior. TCP/IP is the primary
protocol stack used today.

Note: This TCP/IP layering is an actual implementation of protocols, unlike the ISO model.

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TCP/IP Layers

Layer 1: Physical Layer 4: Transport

• Basic network hardware
• Similar to OSI Layer 1
Layer 2: Network Interface
• MAC frame format
• MAC addressing
Layer 5: Application
• Interface between computer
and the network (i.e., the
NIC)
• Similar to OSI Layer 2
• Specifies how to provide reliable
transfer from one application on
one computer to an application
on another
• Similar to OSI Layer 4
• Everything else (i.e., how one
application uses the Internet)
• Similar to OSI Layer 6 and 7

Layer 3: Internet
• Format of packets
• Mechanisms for forwarding
packets
• Not in the OSI Model

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