Data Communications and

Networks (IT-213)

Lecture 1.0
Spring 2021
Agenda
• Protocol Layering
• TCI/IP Protocol Suite
• OSI Model

To destroy communication completely, there must be no rules in

common between transmitter and receiver—neither of alphabet
nor of syntax.
—On Human Communication, Colin Cherry
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Layered Tasks
• We use the concept of layers in our daily life to perform complex tasks.
• Similarly, when computers, terminals, and/or other data processing devices exchange
data, the procedures involved can be quite complex.
• When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol;
• when the communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between different
layers, in which case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering /
architecture

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Layered Tasks
An example from the everyday life

Hierarchy?
Services
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Why layered communication?
• To reduce complexity of communication task by splitting it into several layered small tasks
• One of the advantages of protocol layering is that it allows us to separate the services from
the implementation
• Functionality of the layers can be changed as long as the service provided to the layer
above stays unchanged
 makes easier maintenance & updating

• Each layer has its own task

• Each layer has its own protocol
• there are intermediate systems that need only some layers, but not all layers. If we did not
use protocol layering, we would have to make each intermediate system as complex as the
end systems, which makes the whole system more expensive

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File Transfer Example
• Consider, for example, the transfer of a file between two computers.
• There must be a data path between the two computers, either directly or via a
communication network. But more is needed. Typical tasks to be performed are as
follow :
1. The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or inform the
communication network of the identity of the desired destination system.
2. The source system must ascertain that the destination system is prepared to receive data.
3. The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain that the file management
program on the destination system is prepared to accept and store the file for this particular
user.
4. If the file formats used on the two systems are different, one or the other system must perform a
format translation function.

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File Transfer Example
• It is clear that there must be a high degree of cooperation between the two computer
systems.
• Instead of implementing the logic for this as a single module, the task is broken up into
subtasks, each of which is implemented separately.
• In a protocol architecture/model, the modules are arranged in a vertical stack.
• Each layer in the stack performs a related subset of the functions required to
communicate with another system. It relies on the next lower layer to perform more
primitive functions and to conceal the details of those functions. It provides services to
the next higher layer.

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Protocol Layering
• Communication is achieved by having the corresponding, or peer, layers in two
systems to communicate
• The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey a set of
rules or conventions known as a protocol

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Principles of Protocol Layering
1. The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to
make each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
 For example, the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other direction).
The second layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer needs to send and
receive mail.

2. The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two
objects under each layer at both sites should be identical.
 For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites should be a plaintext letter. The object under
layer 2 at both sites should be a ciphertext letter. The object under layer 1 at both sites should
be a piece of mail.

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Logical Connection
• After following the above two principles, we can think about logical connection
between each layer as shown

• This means that we have layer-to-layer communication

• We will see that the concept of logical connection will help us better understand the
task of layering we encounter in data communication and networking

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Categories of Protocols
• Proprietary system– designed and developed for supporting the communications of
machines manufactured by a specific vender
• System Network Architecture (SNA) was designed and developed for connecting IBM
main frame computers and peripherals (workstations, printers, tape drives, etc.)
• NetBEUI – Microsoft’s protocol for simple Windows networks
• IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange and Sequenced Packet exchange) – support
Novell NetWare products

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Categories of Protocols
• Open systems– publicly proposed and evaluated protocols for supporting the
internetworking of heterogeneous machine
• Open System Interconnect (OSI) was developed by ISO
• TCP/IP was designed by IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), another volunteer
organization for the engineering issues of the Internet.

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Communication Reference Models
• The purpose of layering the protocol is to separate specific functions and to make their
implementation transparent to other components.

• Advantage of layered approach: independent design and testing of each communication

software component

• Disadvantage: overly layering can affect performance negatively.

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Examples

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Protocol Data Units (PDU)
• At each layer, protocols are used to communicate
• Control information is added to user data at each layer
• Transport layer may fragment user data
• Each fragment has a transport header added
 Destination SAP
 Sequence number
 Error detection code

• This gives a transport protocol data unit

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Reference Models
• Two most popular protocol architecture models are:
1. OSI Reference Model
2. TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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OSI Reference model
• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational ISO is the
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. organization.
OSI is the
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
model.
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s
• Consists of 7 layers
ISO is not an
• Create a layer when different abstraction is needed acronym (in
which case it
• Each layer performs a well define function would be
IOS), but a
• Functions of the layers chosen taking internationally standardized protocols
word, derived
• Number of layers – large enough to avoid complexity from the
Greek isos,
meaning
equal.

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Seven layers of the OSI model
• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture.

• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate

communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software.

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Exchange using OSI Model

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Issues, to be resolved by the layers
• Larger bandwidth at lower cost
• Error correction
• Flow control
• Addressing
• Multiplexing
• Naming
• Congestion control
• Mobility
• Routing
• Fragmentation
• Security
• ....

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Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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Physical Layer
• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a
physical medium. It deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface
and transmission medium.
• Topics include transmission media, data encoding, modulation/demodulation,
multiplexing, switching(layer 1)-- circuit switching
• Functions of this layer:
 type of the transmission media (twisted-pair, coax, optical fiber, air)
 bit representation (voltage levels of logical values)
 data rate (speed)
 synchronization of bits (time synchronization)

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Data Link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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Data Link Layer
• Specifies how to organize data into frames and how to transmit frames over a network
• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It makes the physical layer
appear error free to the upper layer (network layer).
• Specific responsibilities of the data link layer include following:
 Framing
 Physical address
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control

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hop-to-hop delivery

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Data Link layer- example

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Network layer
• End-to-End packet delivery
 From the original source to a destination

• Needed when 2 devices are attached to different networks

 What is the network definition here?
 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer

• Main duties:
1. Logical addressing
2. Routing
3. Switching
4. Congestion control and QoS

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 Source to destination delivery

Data Link

Network layer

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Network layer- example

Network layer addresses

Data Link layer addresses

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Transport layer
• Process-to-Process delivery of the entire message
 From the original source to a destination

• The transport layer also determines the type of services, connection-oriented or

connectionless
• Needed when several processes (running programs) active at the same time
• Main tasks:
 Port addressing
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Congestion control
 Flow control
 Error control

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 The functions of the transport layer are:
1) Break messages into packets and reassemble
Transport Layer packets of size suitable to network layer
2) Multiplex sessions with same source/destination nodes
3) Resequence packets at destination
4) recover from residual errors and failures
5) Provide end-to-end flow control

Creating connection between two end ports three steps: connection

establishment, data transfer, and connection release
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Transport layer - example

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Session Layer

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Session Layer
• The session layer is the network dialog controller.
• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between communicating
systems.
• Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
 Dialog control (half-duplex or full-duplex),
 Synchronization

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Presentation Layer

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Presentation Layer
• Controls the encoding and decoding of data, data compression
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
• Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
 Translation
 Encryption
 Compression.

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Application layer
• Enables user to access the network
• Provides services to a user
 E-mail
 Remote file access and transfer (Telnet, FTP)
 Access to WWW (HTTP)

• Application, presentation, session layers are usually implemented together instead of

using laying architecture

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Summary of Layers and Protocols

Low-level protocols define the electrical and physical standards to be observed, bit- and byte-ordering and
the transmission and error detection and correction of the bit stream

High-level protocols deal with the data formatting, including the syntax of messages, the terminal to
computer dialogue, character sets, sequencing of messages 38
 Link Link
Intermediate
node
Application Application

7-6 interface 7-6 interface

Presentation Presentation
6-5 interface 6-5 interface
Session Session

5-4 interface 5-4 interface

Transport Transport

4-3 interface 4-3 interface

Network Network Network
3-2 interface 3-2 interface
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

2-1 interface 2-1 interface

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Physical communication Physical communication

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 Network Network

Router
Application Application

7-6 interface 7-6 interface

Presentation Presentation
6-5 interface 6-5 interface
Session Session

5-4 interface 5-4 interface

Transport Transport

4-3 interface 4-3 interface

Network Network Network
3-2 interface 3-2 interface
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

2-1 interface 2-1 interface

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Physical communication Physical communication

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 Network Network

Gateway
Application Application Application Application

7-6 interface 7-6 interface

Presentation Presentation Presentation Presentation
6-5 interface 6-5 interface
Session Session Session Session

5-4 interface 5-4 interface

Transport Transport Transport Transport

4-3 interface 4-3 interface

Network Network Network Network
3-2 interface 3-2 interface
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link

2-1 interface 2-1 interface

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Physical communication Physical communication

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Example of Protocols

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is actually a set
of standards that describe how data is to be transferred between computers.
• TCP/IP is the common tongue that all computers must speak to communicate via
Internet.
• There are implementations for UNIX, Windows, Macintosh, and just about any
computer operating systems you can think of.
• TCP/IP is implemented as part of an Operating System

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite
is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application

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TCP/IP vs. OSI Model

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TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
• Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its
packet switched network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet
• No official model but a working one.
 Application layer
 Transport layer: host-to-host (application to application)
 Internet layer: network routing and congestion control
 Network access layer: access transmission medium
 Physical layer

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Logical connections in the TCP/IP

As the figure shows, the duty of the application, transport, and network layers is
end-to-end. However, the duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop, in
which a hop is a host or router
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Logical connections in the TCP/IP

Another way of thinking of the logical connections is to think about the data unit
created from each layer. In the top three layers, the data unit (packets) should not be
changed by any router or link-layer switch. In the bottom two layers, the packet created by
the host is changed only by the routers, not by the link-layer switches.
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Identical Objects

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Encapsulation / Decapsulation

Figure shows the encapsulation in the source host, decapsulation in the destination host,
and encapsulation and decapsulation in the router
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Four Levels of Addresses
• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical, logical, port, and specific.

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
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Four Level of Addresses
• At the application layer, we normally use names to define the site that provides
services, such as someorg.com, or the e-mail address, such as somebody@coldmail.com.
• At the transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these define the
application-layer programs at the source and destination. Port numbers are local
addresses that distinguish between several programs running at the same time.
• At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole Internet as the scope. A
network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a device to the Internet.
• The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are locally defined
addresses, each of which defines a specific host or router in a network (LAN or WAN)

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Relationship of Layers & Addresses in
TCP/IP

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Physical addresses

a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with

physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus
topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical
address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical
address 87 is the receiver

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Physical Addresses
• Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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IP addresses
Figure shows a part of an internet with
two routers connecting three LANs.

Each device (computer or router) has a

pair of addresses (logical and physical)
for each connection.

In this case, each computer is connected

to only one link and therefore has only
one pair of addresses.

Each router, however, is connected to

three networks (only two are shown in
the figure). So each router has three
pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

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Port addresses
Figure shows two computers
communicating via the Internet. The
sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses
a, b, and c. The receiving computer is
running two processes at this time with
port addresses j and k. Process a in the
sending computer needs to communicate
with process j in the receiving computer.
Note that although physical addresses
change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the
source to destination.

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Port Address
• A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

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Lack of OSI Model’s Success
• The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• Most experts were at first excited and thought that the TCP/IP protocol would be fully
replaced by the OSI model.
• This did not happen for several reasons.
 First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and money had been
spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
 Second, some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined. For example, although the
services provided by the presentation and the session layers were listed in the document, actual
protocols for these two layers were not fully defined, nor were they fully described, and the
corresponding software was not fully developed.
 Third, when OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it did not show a
high enough level of performance to entice the Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP
protocol suite to the OSI model.

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