Arun F.

Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM Chapter 2 – OSI and TCP/IP Models

Why OSI Model?

In order to help the interconnection of different networks, ISO (International Standards
Organization) developed a reference model called OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) and
this allowed manufacturers to create protocols using this model.
ISO is the organization; OSI is the model

What is a Protocol-Stack?
• Protocols are the rules developed for communicating.
• A protocol is a standard set of rules and regulations that allow two electronic devices
to connect to and exchange information with one another.
• In computer networks, a protocol is a set of rules that govern communications between
the computers.
• A protocol stack is a complete set of network protocol layers that work together to
provide networking capabilities.
• It is called a stack because it is typically designed as a hierarchy of layers, each
supporting the one above it and using those below it.
• The number of layers can vary between models.
• For example, TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) has five layers
(application, transport, network, data link and physical) and the OSI (open systems
interconnect) model has seven layers (application, presentation, session, transport,
network, data link and physical).
• In order for two devices to communicate, they both must be using the same protocol
stack.
• Each protocol in a stack on one device must communicate with its equivalent stack, or
peer, on the other device.
• This allows computers running different operating systems to communicate with each
other easily.

OSI Model
The OSI model divides the problem of moving data between computers into seven smaller
tasks and they equate to the seven layers of the OSI reference model. The OSI model deals
with the following issues:
• How a device on a network sends its data, and how it knows when and where to send it.
• How a device on a network receives its data, and how to know where to look for it.
• How devices using different languages communicate with each other.
• How devices on a network are physically connected to each other.
• How protocols work with devices on a network to arrange data.

The OSI model provides a framework for creating and implementing networking standards
and devices and describes how network applications on different computers can communicate
through the network media.
• Physical – (Binary Transmission) defines how to move bits from one device to
another. It details how cables, connectors and network interface cards are supposed to
work and how to send and receive bits. Ex: UTP, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, hubs
and repeaters.
• Data Link – (Access to media) encapsulates a packet in a frame. A frame contains a
header and a trailer that enable devices to communicate. A header (most commonly)
contains a source and destination MAC address. A trailer contains the Frame Check

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 Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM Sequence field, which is used to detect transmission errors. The data link layer has
two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control – used for flow control and error detection.
2. Media Access Control – used for hardware addressing and for controlling
the access method.
Ex: NIC, Ethernet, and IEEE 802.3.
• Network – (Addresses and best path determination))defines device addressing,
routing, and path determination. Device (logical) addressing is used to identify a host
on a network. Ex: IP, IPX, RIP, IGRP and OSPF.
• Transport – (End-to-end connection) segments big chunks of data received from the
upper layer protocols. Establishes and terminates connections between two
computers. Used for flow control and data recovery.
Ex: TCP and UDP.
• Session – (Interhost communication) defines how to establish and terminate a session
between the two systems.
Ex: NSF, SQL and X Windows.
• Presentation – (Data representation) defines data formats. Compression and
encryption are defined at this layer.
Ex: ASCII, EBCDIC, Encryption, GIF, JPEG and mp3.
• Application – (Network processes to applications) this layer is the closest to the user.
It enables network applications to communicate with other network applications.
Ex: Email, FTP, and Web browsing.

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 Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM

TCP/IP Model
• The TCP/IP model is a networking model with a set of communication protocols for the
Internet and similar networks.
• It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP) were the first networking protocols defined in this model.
• The TCP/IP model, similar to the OSI model, has a set of layers. The OSI has seven
layers and the TCP/IP model has four or five layers depending on different preferences.
• Some people use the Application, Transport, Internet and Network Access layers. Others
split the Network Access layer into the Physical and Data Link components.

The TCP/IP model was created in the 1970s by the Defense Advance Research Project
Agency (DARPA) as an open, vendor-neutral, public networking model. Just like the OSI
model, it describes general guidelines for designing and implementing computer protocols. It
consists of four layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport, and Application:
• Network Access – Specifies details of how data is physically sent through the
network, including how bits are electrically signaled by hardware devices that
interface directly with a network medium such as, coaxial cable, optical fiber, or
twisted pair copper wire.
Defines the protocols and hardware required to deliver data across a physical network.
Protocols: Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay, RS-2.

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 Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM • Internet – Packages data into IP datagrams, which contain source and destination
address information that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and
networks. Performs routing of IP datagrams.
Defines the protocols for the logical transmission of packets over the network.
Protocol: IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP.
• Transport – Provides communication session management between the
nodes/computers. Defines the level of service and status of the connection used when
transporting data.
Defines protocols for setting up the level of transmission service for applications. This
layer is responsible for reliable transmission of data and the error-free delivery of
packets.
Protocols: TCP, UDP, RTP.
• Application – Defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs interface
with transport layer services to use the network.
Protocols: HTTP, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SNMP, DNS, SMTP, X Windows, other
application protocols.
• Defines protocols for node-to-node application communication and provide services
to the application software running on a computer.

The OSI model and the TCP/IP models were both created independently. The TCP/IP network
model represents reality in the world, whereas the OSI mode represents an ideal.

OSI comparison with TCP/IP Protocol Stack

The main differences between the two models are as follows:
• OSI is a reference model and TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model.
• TCP/IP protocols are considered to be standards around which the internet has developed.
The OSI model however is a generic, protocol-independent standard.
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
• TCP/IP appears to be a simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer
layers.
• TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact because
TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed therefore it
mainly gains creditability due to this reason. Where as in contrast networks are not usually
built around the OSI model as it is merely used as a guidance tool.
• The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers.

Understanding Ports
• Computer has a single physical connection to the network.
• All data destined for a particular computer arrives through that connection. However, the
data may be intended for different applications running on the computer.
• So, how does the computer know to which application to forward the data? Through the
use of ports.
• Data transmitted over the Internet is accompanied by addressing information that identifies
the computer and the port for which it is destined.
• The computer is identified by its 32-bit IP address, which IP uses to deliver data to the right
computer on the network.
• Ports are identified by a 16-bit number, which TCP and UDP use to deliver the data to the
right application.
• In connection-based communication such as TCP, a server application binds a socket to a
specific port number.

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 Arun F. Sequeira, Lecturer, SDM College, Mangalore – 03

ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDMCOLLEGE, MANGALORE – 03 ARUN F. SEQUEIRA, LECTURER, SDM • This has the effect of registering the server with the system to receive all data destined for
that port.
• A client can then rendezvous with the server at the server’s port.

• The TCP and UDP protocols use ports to map incoming data to a particular process running
on a computer.
• In datagram-based communication such as UDP, the datagram packet contains the port
number of its destination and UDP routes the packet to the appropriate application.

• Port numbers range from 0 to 65,535 because ports are represented by 16-bit numbers.
• The port numbers ranging from 0 - 1023 are restricted; they are reserved for use by well-
known services such as HTTP and FTP and other system services.
• These ports are called well – known ports. Your applications should not attempt to bind to
them.
Port Protocol
21 File Transfer Protocol
23 Telnet Protocol
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
80 Hypertext Transfer Protocol

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