4/14/2021

Network reference models

• Breaks down network functionality/architecture
into layers
• Defines which functions should be performed at
NETWORK REFERENCE MODELS each layer
• Allows vendors and other organizations to
develop products or standards for the different
layers with no risk of lack of interoperability.
• There are two:
– OSI MODEL – 7 layers
– TCP/IP MODEL – 4 layers

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The OSI Model OSI Layers

• OSI - “ Open Systems Interconnection".
• Contain in 7 different layers that interact with each other.

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Presentation Layer
Application Layer
 This layer provides independence from differences in
• User interacts with the OSI model at this layer through data representation/syntax (e.g., encryption)
applications.  Examples:
• Application layer provides network services to  conversion from ASCII to EBCDIC
applications through different protocols.  Encryption and decryption of data
• The application layer contains a variety of protocols that  Compression and decompression of data
are commonly needed by users.
• Examples: HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, POP3.
• These protocols give end-user applications access to
network resources.
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Session Layer Transport Layer

• Allows applications/processes to establish maintain an
ongoing session.
• The transport layer defines how a given packet gets
• Communication sessions consist of requests and responses
that occur between applications - >Dialogue. delivered to the appropriate process.
• Session layer allows two systems to enter into dialog • Transport layer therefore provides end to end connection
(communication) between processes.
• Also provides dialog control i.e decides whose turn it is to • A process is any instance of a program running on a given
’talk’ (full duplex, half duplex, simpex) device at a given time.
• Example protocols: session control protocol, remote • Depending on the protocol used, it can also ensure reliable
procedure call, zone information protocol, H.323 (for VOIP), data delivery through error detection and correction.
session initiation protocol
• Session layer also provides synchronization – Does
checkpointing of long transmissions to allow them to pick up
from where they left off in the event of a crash and
subsequent recovery
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Transport Layer: Ports Transport layer: Ports

• To allow information to be delivered to the appropriate • Each host (e.g computer) has 65,536 ports.
process, we must have some way of identifying that • Different applications have different port numbers:
processes. • 20,21: FTP
• 23: Telnet
• There needs to be an addressing system used to • 80: HTTP
distinguish different processes on the same device and/or • Ports are used for multiplexing and demultiplexing at the
attached to the same network interface. transport layer
• Ports are used for this purpose.
Port 0
Port 1

Port
65535

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Figure: Transport layer

Transport layer: Socket

• Socket -> IP address + port number
• Much like one end of a telephone connection is the
combination of a phone number and a particular extension.
• Based on this address, internet sockets deliver incoming data
packets to the appropriate application process at the right
destination device.

The transport layer is responsible for

the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
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Transport
layer:Multiplexing/demultiplexing Transport layer protocols
Demultiplexing at rcv host: Multiplexing at send host:
gathering data from multiple
delivering received segments
sockets, enveloping data with
• There are two protocols
to correct socket
header (later used for – Transport Control Protocol(TCP)
demultiplexing)
= socket = process – User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

application P3 P1
P1
application P2 P4 application

transport transport transport

network network network

link link link

physical physical physical

host 2 host 3
host 1
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Transport layer: TCP TCP Connection Establishment

• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
• Connection-oriented and reliable.
• Connection oriented – Connection has to be established
before data can be sent.
• TCP is reliable because it provides flow control and error
control
• Used for transfers that require numerous packets to be
integrated properly and seamlessly (no errors).
Protocols that use TCP are:
– HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
– Telnet
– SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
– FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
This process is also known as TCP handshaking – three way handshake.

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Transport layer: UDP Network Layer

• UDP – User Datagram Protocol
• Connectionless and unreliable • Provides network-wide addressing and a mechanism to
• Connectionless – Connection establishment not necessary move packets between networks (routing)
before data can be sent. • Responsibilities:
• Used primarily for short, simple transmissions e.g DNS, SMNP – Network addressing – IP addressing
(simple network management protocol) – Routing-deciding which path a packet will take from
source to destination.
• Example protocol:
– IP from TCP/IP
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Network layer
Transport vs. network layer
• Network layer: logical
communication
(connection) between hosts
• Transport layer: logical
communication between
processes
– Relies on, enhances, network
layer services
The network layer is responsible for
the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Household analogy:
12 kids sending letters to 12
kids
• Processes = kids
• App messages = letters in
envelopes
• Hosts = houses
• Network-layer protocol =
postal service – delivers
message to host.
• Transport protocol = ann and
bill – delivers message to
correct recipient (kid)

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Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

• Media access control (decides which host will
send data via a shared medium)
• Places data and retrieves it from the physical
layer
• Provides error detection and correction
capabilities.

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
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Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer Physical Layer

a) MAC (Media Access Control) • Determines the specification for all physical components
– Gives data to the NIC – Transmission medium e.g wireless, fiber, coaxial, twisted pair
– Cable specifications, cable connectors, connectors pin layout
– Controls access to the shared media through:
– Data encoding (bits to waves) - modulation or demodulation
• CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
– Electrical properties
• Token passing
• Example protocols (layer 1 and 2 ):
b) LLC (Logical Link Layer) – Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
– The Logical Link Control layer controls frame – Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
synchronization, flow control and error checking. – Wireless (IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n)
• Flow control – matching data rate of sender and receiver e.g
slowing down transmitter if too fast for receiver
• Synchronization – order of frames according to seq. number.
• Error detection and correction - Can detect some transmission
errors. If the packet is ‘bad’ the LLC will request the sender to
resend that particular packet.
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Physical Layer Physical Layer (cont’d)

• What are the Physical Layer components on my computer?
a) NIC
• Network Interface Card
• Has a unique 12 character Hexadecimal number permanently
burned into it at the manufacturer.
• The number is the MAC Address/Physical address of a
computer
b) Cabling
The physical layer is responsible • Twister Pair
• Fiber Optic
for the movement of individual bits • Coax Cable
from one hop (node) to the next.
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How Does It All Work Together

Data Encapsulation In TCP/IP
• Each layer contains a Protocol
Data Unit (PDU) • At each layer in the TCP/IP protocol stack outgoing data is
– PDU’s are used for peer-to-peer packaged and identified for delivery to the layer
contact between corresponding
layers. underneath
– Data is handled by the top three • PDU – Packet Data Unit – the “envelop” information
layers, then Segmented by the attached to a packet at a particular TCP/IP protocol by
Transport layer. adding a header and/or trailer
– The Network layer places it into
packets and the Data Link frames the
packets for transmission.
– Physical layer converts it to bits and
sends it out over the media.
– The receiving computer reverses the
process using the information
contained in the PDU.
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Encapsulation example: E-mail Encapsulation

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Figure 2.3 An exchange using the OSI model Figure 2.14 Summary of layers

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TCP/IP Model
Remembering the 7 Layers
7 - Application All • Developed in the the late-60s
6 - Presentation People • The Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
5 - Session Seem
originally developed Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to interconnect
4 - Transport To
various defense department computer networks.
3 - Network Need
• DARPA an agency of the U.S. Department of Defense
2 - Data Link Data
• Has four layers.
1 - Physical Processing

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4 layers of the TCP/IP model The network access layer

• Concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet
• Layer 4: Application requires to actually make the physical link.
• Layer 3: Transport • All the details in the OSI physical and data link
• Layer 2: Internet layers:
• Layer 1: Network access – Electrical and mechanical specifications.
– Physical connectors
– Framing of data and physical (MAC) addressing.
It is important to note that some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the
same name as layers in the OSI model. – Synchronization, flow control, error control.
Do not confuse the layers of the two models.

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The internet layer Transport layer

• Send source packets from any network on the
• Allows end-to-end communication
internetwork and have them arrive at the
• Connection establishment, error control, flow control
destination independent of the path and networks
• Two main protocols at this level
they took to get there.
– Transmission control protocol (TCP),
– Packets, logical addressing. • Connection oriented
– Internet protocol (IP). – Connection established before sending data
– Reliable
– Routing: routing table, routing protocol. – user datagram protocol (UDP)
• Connectionless
– Sending data without establishing connection
– Fast but unreliable

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The application layer TCP/IP Reference Model

• Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation,
Layer Protocols
encoding, and dialog control.
Application HTTP TELNET FTP SMTP SNMP
• The TCP/IP combines all application-related issues into one
layer, and assures this data is properly packaged for the next Transport TCP UDP
layer.
– Example protocols: FTP, HTTP, SMNP, DNS Internet IP ICMP
– Format of data, data structure/syntax, encode
Network Access
– Dialog control, session management ETHERNET WiFi
(Host-to-network)

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Protocols at the application layer Protocols at the transport layer

• HTTP: • Transmission control protocol (TCP),
– browser and web server communication
• FTP : – Connection oriented
– file transfer protocol » Connection established before sending data
• TELNET:
– remote login protocol
» Reliable
• POP3: Retrieve email • user datagram protocol (UDP)
– POP3 is designed to delete mail on the server as soon as the user has
downloaded it – Connectionless
• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol ) » Sending data without establishing
– Retrieve emails, connection
– retaining e-mail on the server and for organizing it in folders on the
serve » Fast but unreliable

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Protocol at the network layer Protocols at the link layer

• IP • Ethernet
– Path selection – Uses CSMA/CD
– routing and addressing • Token Ring
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol )
– sends error messages relying on IP
• a requested service is not available
• a host or router could not be reached

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Comparing TCP/IP with OSI

Data Formats OSI Model TCP/IP Hierarchy Protocols

7th
Application Layer
6th
application Presentation Layer Application
layer Application data message Layer
5th
Session Layer
4th
Transport Layer
transport TCP TCP TCP
segment
Transport Layer
layer header data header data header data 3rd
Internet Layer
Network Layer
2nd
Internet IP TCP
packet
Link Layer
layer header header data 1st
Network Access
Layer
Physical Layer

Network Ethernet IP TCP Ethernet

frame
Access header header header data trailer Network Access : includes device driver and network interface card
Internet: : handles the movement of packets, i.e. Routing
Transport : provides a reliable flow of data between two hosts
Application : handles the details of the particular application

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